Operating System (OS)

Unit-1
Introduction to
Operating System
Ms. Snehal Kathale
MS. Roshni Patel
Assistant Professor
Asha M. Tarsadia Institute of Computer Science and Technology
 Outline
Looping
• Computer system overview
• Computer system architecture
• What is Operating System (OS)
• Roles of Operating System (OS)
• Objectives / Goals of Operating System (OS)
• Generations of Operating Systems (OS)
• Operating Systems (OS) services
• Types of Operating Systems (OS)
• System calls
• Operating Systems (OS) structure
• Multiprogramming v/s Multiprocessing v/s Multitasking
• Time Sharing Operating System
• Parallel Processing Operating System
• Distributed Operating System
Section - 1
Basic elements of computer

I/O
Processor
Modules

System
Memory
Bus

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Processor
Referred to as the
Central Processing
Unit (CPU)

Arithmetic & Logic Unit Control Unit

Performs the data Controls the

processing operation of the
functions computer
Memory
Memory is device
that is used to
store
data/information

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

• Volatile • Non-Volatile
• RAM & ROM • HDD, CD & DVD

Exercise Give the difference between primary memory and secondary memory.

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I/O Module (Input/Output Module)
 Input/output module is a device that acts as the connective bridge between a computer
system at one end and an I/O or peripheral device at the other, such as a printer, webcam or
scanner.
 An I/O module is a mediator
between the processor/memory
and an I/O devices.
 It controls the data exchange
between the external devices
and main memory or external
devices and CPU registers.

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System Bus
 Provides communication among processors, main memory, and I/O
devices.
 The system bus is a pathway composed of cables and connectors used to
carry data between a computer microprocessor and the main memory.
 Types of buses
 Address bus - carries memory addresses from the processor to other components
such as primary storage and input/output devices.
 Data bus - carries the data between the processor and other components.
 Control bus - carries control signals from the processor to other components.

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Section - 2
Computer system architecture

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Input unit
 It provides data and instructions to the
computer system.
 Commonly used input devices are
keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape etc.
 Input unit performs following tasks:
 Accept the data and instructions from the
outside environment.
 Convert it into machine language.
 Supply the converted data to computer
system.

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Output unit
 It connects the internal system of a
computer to the external environment.
 It provides the results of any computation,
or instructions to the outside world.
 Some output devices are printers, monitor
etc.

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Storage unit
 This unit holds the data and instructions.
 It also stores the intermediate results
before these are sent to the output
devices.
 It also stores the data for later use.
 The storage unit of a computer system
can be divided into two categories:
 Primary Storage
 Secondary Storage

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Primary storage (memory) vs Secondary storage (memory)
Primary storage Secondary storage
Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, PROM, Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, Magnetic
EPROM, Registers, etc. Tapes, etc.
It is temporary and volatile. It is permanent and Non-volatile.
Primary memory is directly accessible by Secondary memory is not directly accessible by
Processor/CPU. the CPU.
Primary memory devices are expensive. Secondary memory devices are cheaper.
The memory devices used for primary memory The secondary memory devices are magnetic
are semiconductor memories. and optical memories.
Primary memory is also known as Main Secondary memory is also known as External
memory or Internal memory. memory or Auxiliary memory.

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CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 The Arithmetic Logical Unit and Control
Unit are together known as CPU.
 CPU is the brain of computer system.
 It performs following tasks:
 performs all operations.
 takes all decisions.
 controls all the units of computer.

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ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit)
 All the calculations are performed in ALU
of the computer system.
 The ALU can perform basic operations
such as addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication etc.
 Whenever calculations are required, the
control unit transfers the data from
storage unit to ALU.
 When the operations are done, the result
is transferred back to the storage unit.

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CU (Control Unit)
 It controls all other units of the computer.
 It controls the flow of data and
instructions to and from the storage unit
to ALU.
 Thus it is also known as central nervous
system of the computer.

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Section - 3
What is Operating System (OS)?
 A Computer System consists of various hardware's such as

Processor RAM Keyboard & Mouse

Hard Disk Monitor Printer

Who manages (controls) these hardwares??? Operating System

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 Definition of Operating System (OS)
 An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that
 manages hardware resources
 provides various service to the users

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Examples of Operating System (OS)

Examples
of
Operating
System

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Where OS lies? (Interaction of OS & Hardware)
 OS lies between hardware and user program.
 It acts as an intermediary between the user
and the hardware. Web E-mail Music
browser reader player
 Modes of operation of computer
1. Kernel Mode
 has complete access to all the hardware User
Mode
 can execute any instruction that a machine is Software User Program
capable of executing
 has high privileged (rights) Kernel
Operating System
Mode
2. User Mode
 has limited access to limited hardware Hardware
 can execute only subset (few) of the machine
instructions
 has less privileged (rights)

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Why and How switch occur?

Web E-mail Music

browser reader player  User is writing program in C.
 Once finish writing will execute it.

User user-mode program

Mode performs trap instruction
Software User Program

Kernel  To execute this program

Operating System
Mode 1. Load program into RAM
2. Program is executed by processor
Hardware

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Section - 4
OS as Extended Machine
 The architecture of a computer is difficult to program
 Architecture (instruction set, memory organization, I/O, bus
structure) of most of computer at the machine level language is
primitive and awkward to program.
 Example: If user want to read from floppy or hard disk:

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OS as Extended Machine
 Example: If user want to read from floppy or hard disk:

User has to write command and

address to the disk controller and
then initiate the I/O.
Disk Controller

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OS as Extended Machine

The disk controller will find the requested User has to check the status of disk
data in the disk and fetch it from disk to controller operation where it has
disk controller buffer. finished or not.

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OS as Extended Machine

If success, the data from disk controller

buffer should be moved to main memory (to
the application buffer).

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 OS as Extended Machine
 If all the users will have to do these messy details:
 The program will be very difficult to write and quite long.
 The program will be hardware dependent.
 User don’t want to be involved in programming of storage devices.
 Therefore, an OS provides a set of basic commands or instructions to perform various
operations such as read, write, modify, save or close.
 Dealing with these command is easier than directly dealing with hardware.
 Operating system hides the complexity of hardware and present a beautiful interface to the
users.

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OS as Resource Manager
 There are lots of resources in computer system
 CPU (Processor)
 Memory
 I/O devices such as hard disk, mouse, keyboard, printer, scanner etc.
 If a computer system is used by multiple applications (or
users), then they will complete for these resources.

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 OS as Resource Manager
 It is the job of OS to allocate these resources to the various applications so that:
 The resources are allocated fairly (equally)

P1 Wants to print 50 lines

After printing 10 lines of P1

P2 Wants to print 20 lines

After printing 20 lines of P1

P3 Wants to print 15 lines

P4 Wants to print 15 lines

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 OS as Resource Manager
 It is the job of OS to allocate these resources to the various applications so that:
 The resources are protected from cross-access.

P1 Wants to print 50 lines

After printing 10 lines of P1

P2 Wants to print 20 lines

After printing 20 lines of P1

P3 Wants to print 15 lines

P4 Wants to print 15 lines

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 OS as Resource Manager
 It is the job of OS to allocate these resources to the various applications so that:
 Access to the resources is synchronized so that operations are correct and consistent
 Example: If we write a program to calculate below in C language

7+9–6*4/2=4
P1 P2 P3 P4

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3 4 1 2

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 OS as Resource Manager
 It is the job of OS to proper allocate these resources to the various applications so that:
 Deadlock are detected, resolved and avoided.

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OS as Resource Manager
 Resource manager – sharing resources in two different ways:
1. In time sharing/multiplexing (i.e CPU)

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OS as Resource Manager
 Resource manager – sharing resources in two different ways
2. In space sharing/multiplexing. (i.e Memory)

Process Process Process Empty

1 2 3 Space

Main Memory

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Section - 5
 Objectives / Goals of Operating System (OS)
 Make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
 Hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
 Provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
 Act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to
access and use other resources.
 Manage the resources of a computer system.
 Keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating
conflicting requests from different programs and users.
 Provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.

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Section - 6
 Generations / History of OS (First generation)
 First generation (1945-1955)
 Vacuum tubes and plug-boards are used in these systems.

Vacuum tubes
Plug board

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Generations / History of OS (Second generation)
 Second generation (1955-1965)
 Transistors are used in these systems
 The machine that are produced are called mainframes.
 Batch systems was used for processing.

Programmers bring
1401 cards
reads to
batch
1401
Operator
of jobscarries
onto tape
input
7094tape
Operator
does
to computing
7094
carries output1401
tape prints
to 1401output

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Generations / History of OS (Third generation)
 Third generation (1965-1980)
 Integrated circuits (IC's) are used in place of transistors in these computers.
 It provides multiprogramming (the ability to have several programs in memory at once, each in its own
memory partition).

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 Generations / History of OS (Forth generation)
 Fourth generation (1980-present)
 Personal Computers (PC)
 LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuits, chips containing thousands of transistors are used in these systems.

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Section - 7
 Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)

Definition of Operating System

 An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that
 manages hardware resources
 provides various service to the users

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
1. Program development
 It provides editors and debuggers to assist (help) the programmer in creating programs.

Exercise Give the name of any five code editor for windows?
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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
2. Program execution
 Following tasks need to be perform to execute a program:
 Instructions and data must be loaded into main memory.
 I/O devices and files must be initialized.
 The OS handles all these duties for the user.

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
3. Access to I/O devices (Resource allocation)
 A running program may require I/O, which may involve file
or an I/O device.
 For efficiency and protection, users cannot control I/O
devices directly.
 Therefore, the OS controls these I/O devices and provides
to program as per requirement.

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
4. Memory management
 OS manages memory hierarchy.
 OS keeps the track of which part of memory area in use and free memory.
 It allocates memory to program when they need it.
 It de-allocate the memory when the program finish execution.

P1

P2

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
5. Controlled access to file
 In case of file access, OS provides a directory hierarchy for easy
access and management of file.
 OS provides various file handling commands using which user can
easily read, write and modify file.

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
6. Communication
 In multitasking environment, the processes need to communicate with each other and to exchange their
information.
 Operating system performs the communication among various types of processes in the form of shared
memory.

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
7. Error detection and response
 An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory hardware.
 Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error handling −
 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.
 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
8. Accounting
 Keeping a track of which users are using how much and what kinds of computer resources can be used for
accounting or simply for accumulating usage statistics.
 Usage statistics is used to reconfigure the system to improve computing services.

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Services / Functions / Tasks of Operating System (OS)
9. Protection & Security
 Protection involves ensuring that all accesses to system resources is controlled.
 To make a system secure, the user needs to authenticate himself or herself to the system.

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Section - 8
Types of Operating Systems (OS)
1. Mainframe operating systems
 OS found in room sized computers which are still found in major corporate data centers.
 They offer three kinds of services:
1. Batch OS
2. Transaction processing
3. Timesharing
 Examples: OS/390, OS/360.

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Mainframe Operating Systems services
Batch OS – processes routine jobs without any interactive user presents
i.e. claim processing in insurance
Transaction processing – handles large numbers of small processes
i.e. cheque processing at banks

Timesharing – allows multiple remote users to run their jobs at once

i.e. querying a database, airline booking system
Types of Operating Systems (OS)
2. Server operating systems
 This OS runs on servers which are very large PC, workstations or even mainframes.
 They serve multiple users at once over a network and allow the users to share hardware & software
resources.
 It provides print services, file service or web service.
 It handles the incoming requests from clients.
 Examples: Solaris, FreeBSD, and Linux and Windows Server 200x.

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Types of Operating Systems (OS)
3. Multiprocessor operating systems
 A computer system consist two or more CPUs is called multiprocessor.
 It is also called parallel computers, multicomputer or multiprocessor.
 They need special OS or some variations on server OS with special features for communication, connectivity
and consistency.
 Examples: Windows and Linux.

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Types of Operating Systems (OS)
4. Personal computer operating systems
 The operating systems installed on our personal computer and laptops are personal OS.
 Job of this OS is to provide good support to single user.
 This OS is widely used for word processing, spreadsheet and internet access.
 Examples: Linux, Windows vista and Macintosh.

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Types of Operating Systems (OS)
5. Handhelds computer operating systems
 A handheld computer or PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) is small computer that fit in a Pocket and perform
small number of functions such as electronic address book, memo pad.
 The OS runs on these devices are handheld OS.
 These OS also provides ability to handle telephony, digital photography and other functions.
 Examples: Symbian OS, Palm OS.

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Types of Operating Systems (OS)
6. Embedded operating systems
 This OS is installed in ATMs, printers, calculators and washing machine.
 It runs on the computer that control devices.
 It neither allow to download new software nor accept user installed software. So there is no need for
protection.
 Examples: QNX, VxWorks.

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Types of Operating Systems (OS)
7. Sensor node operating systems
 Network of tiny sensor nodes are being developed for numerous purpose.
 Each nodes are tiny computers with a CPU, RAM, ROM and one or more environmental sensors.
 The OS installed in these nodes are sensor node OS.
 They communicate with each other and with base station using wireless communication.
 These sensor network are used to protect area of building, detect fires in forest, measure temperature.
 Examples: TinyOS.

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Types of Operating Systems (OS)
8. Real time operating systems
 These systems having time as a key parameter.
 Real time OS has well defined fixed time constraints.
 Processing must be done within defined time constraints otherwise system fails.
 Two types of real time OS:
 Hard real time – missing an occasional deadline can cause any permanent damage. Many of these are found in
industrial process control, car engine control system.
 Soft real time – missing an occasional deadline does not cause any permanent damage. Used in digital audio,
multimedia system.
 Examples: e-Cos.

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Types of Operating Systems (OS)
9. Smart card operating systems
 Smallest OS run on smart cards which are credit card sized devices containing CPU chip.
 These OS are installed on electronic payments cards such as debit card, credit card etc.
 They have limited processing power.
 Some smart cards are Java oriented. ROM on smart card holds an interpreter for the JVM – small program.

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Section - 9
What is System calls?
 A system call is a way for programs to interact with the operating system.
 A system call is a mechanism that provides the interface between a process and the operating
system.
 A computer program makes a system call when it makes a request to the operating system's
kernel.
 It is a programmatic method in which a computer program requests a service from the kernel
of the OS.
 System call provides the services of the operating system to the user programs via
Application Program Interface(API).
 System calls are the only entry points for the kernel system.

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 Types of system calls
 Process Control: This system calls perform the task of process creation, process termination,
etc.
 Functions:
 End and abort
 Load and execute
 Create process and terminate process
 Wait and signed event
 Allocate and free memory
 File Management: File management system calls handle file manipulation jobs like creating a
file, reading, and writing, etc.
 Functions:
 Create a file
 Delete file
 Open and close file
 Read, write and reposition
 Get and set file attributes

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Types of system calls
 Device Management: Device management does the job of device manipulation like reading
from device buffers, writing into device buffers, etc.
 Functions
 Request and release device
 Logically attach/ detach devices
 Get and Set device attributes
 Information Maintenance: It handles information and its transfer between the OS and user
program.
 Functions:
 Get or set time and date
 Get process and device attributes

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Types of system calls
 Communication: These types of system calls are specially used for interprocess
communications (IPC).
 Functions:
 Create, delete communications connections
 Send, receive message
 Help OS to transfer status information
 Attach or detach remote devices

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Example of system calls (Read system call)
 Example: In Unix Read system call is
 count = read(fd, buffer, nbytes)
Return to caller
 fd is a file descriptor. Library
• When a file is opened, permissions are
Trap to the kernel procedure
checked. 5 Put code for read in register read
• If access is allowed, a number (fd) is
returned. 6 10
Call to library proc
• Then file can be read/written. User 4
 nbytes is number of bytes to read Increment SP
space 11
 buffer is where read deposits (stores) the
data
Call read User
3 Push fd program
Push parameter calling read
2 Push &buffer
onto stack 9
1 Push nbytes

Kernel 7 8 Sys call

Dispatch
space handler
 Steps involved in making a system call (Read system call)
 Steps involved in making a system call
 In steps 1-3, the calling program pushes the parameters onto the stack. The first and third parameters are
called by value, but the second one is called by its address as denoted by the & symbol.
 In step 4, the actual call to the library procedure is made. This instruction is the normal procedure call
instruction used to call all procedures.
 In step 5, the library procedure places the system call number in a place where the operating system expects
it, such as a register.
 In step 6, the library procedure executes a TRAP instruction to switch from user mode to kernel mode and
start execution at a fixed address within the kernel.
 In step 7, the kernel examines the system call number and then dispatches it to the correct system call
handler. This correct number is given in the table of system call handlers by pointers referenced at the
system call number.
 In step 8, the system call handler runs.
 In step 9, the operation is completed, and the user is given back control once the TRAP instruction is set.
 In step 10, this procedure returns to the user program, like how all normal library procedures do.
 In step 11, the operating system has to clear the stack, so it increments it enough so that it is empty.

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System calls

73
System calls

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Section - 10
.
 Kernel is the core part of an OS(Operating system); hence it has full control over everything in the
system. Each operation of hardware and software is managed and administrated by the kernel.

 The entire OS runs as a single program in kernel mode

 It acts as a bridge between applications and data processing done at the hardware level. It is the
central component of an OS.
 Kernel…….
 It is the computer program that first loaded on start-up the system (After the bootloader). Once
it is loaded, it manages the remaining start-ups. It also manages memory, peripheral, and I/O
requests from software. Moreover, it translates all I/O requests into data processing
instructions for the CPU. It manages other tasks also such as memory management, task
management, and disk management.

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Operating Systems (OS) structure
1. Monolithic systems
2. Layered systems
3. Microkernel
4. Client-server model
5. Virtual machines
I. VM/370
II. Virtual machines rediscovered
III. The java virtual machine
6. Exokernels

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Monolithic systems
 The entire OS runs as a single program in kernel mode.
 OS is written as a collection of procedures, linked together into a single large executable
binary program.
 Each procedure has well defined interface in terms of parameter and results, and each one is
free to call any other one.

Main
 A main program that invoke the requested service procedure. Procedure

 A set of service procedures that carry out the system calls. Service
Procedures
 A set of utility procedures that help the service procedure. Utility
Procedure

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Layered systems
 In this system, the OS is organized as a hierarchy of layers.
 The first system constructed in this way was THE system.
Layer Function Description
5 Operator Operator was located.
4 User programs User programs were found.
3 Input / Output Takes care of managing the I/O devices.
management Buffering the information.
2 Operator-process Handles communication between each process and the operator console
communication (i.e. user).
1 Memory and drum Did the memory management.
management Allocated space for process in main memory and on a 512K word drum used
for holding parts of processes for which there was no room in memory.
0 Processor allocation and Provided the basic multiprogramming of the CPU.
multi-programming Dealt with allocation of the processor, switching between processes when
interrupts occurred or timers expired.
 Microkernel
 In layered approach, the designer have choice where to draw the kernel and user mode
boundary.
 It is better to put as little as possible in kernel mode because bugs in the kernel can bring
down the system instantly.
 The microkernel design provides high reliability by splitting OS up into small well defined
modules, only one module run in kernel and rest of all run in user mode.
 As each device driver runs as a user process, a bug in audio driver will cause the sound to be
stop, but not crash the computer.
 Examples: K42, QNX, Symbian and MINIX 3.
 Kernel contains only
 Sys (Kernel call handler)
 Clock (because scheduler interact with it)
 Client-Server model
 Processes are divided into two categories
 Servers: provide services
 Clients: uses services
 Client and server run on different computers, connected by LAN or WAN and communicate via
message passing.
 To obtain a service, a client construct a message saying what it wants and send it to server.
 The server then does the work and send back the answer.

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 Virtual machines
 A virtual machine (VM) is a virtual environment that functions as a virtual computer system
with its own CPU, memory, network interface, and storage, created on a physical hardware
system.
 The initial releases of OS/360 were strictly batch systems.
 But many users wanted to be able to work interactively at a terminal, so OS designers decided
to write timesharing systems for it.
 Types of Virtual machines are:
 VM/370
 Virtual Machines Rediscovered
 The Java Virtual Machine

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VM/370

 Virtual machine monitor run on the bare hardware and does the multiprogramming.
 Each virtual machine is identical to the true hardware; each one can run any OS (may be
different) that will run directly on the bare hardware.
 On VM/370, some run OS/360 while the others run single user interactive system called CMS
(Conversational Monitor System) for interactive time sharing users.

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VM/370

 When CMS program executed a system call, a call was trapped to the operating system in its
own virtual machine, not on VM/370.
 CMS then issued the normal hardware I/O instruction for reading its virtual disk or whatever
was needed to carry out the call.
 These I/O instructions were trapped by VM/370 which then performs them.

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Virtual Machines Rediscovered

 Companies can run their mail servers, web servers, FTP servers and other servers on the
same machine without having a crash of one server bring down the rest.
 Web hosting company offers virtual machines for rent, where a single physical machine can
run many virtual machines; each one appears to be a complete machine.
 Customers who rent a virtual machine can run any OS or software.

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 Virtual Machines Rediscovered

 Another use of virtualization is for end users who want to be able to run two or more operating
systems at the same time, say Windows and Linux.
 Type 1 hypervisors runs on the bare hardware.
 Type 2 hypervisors run as application programs on top of Windows, Linux, or some other
operating system, known as the host operating system.

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Java Virtual Machine
 When Sun Microsystems invented the Java programming
language, it also invented a virtual machine called the
JVM (Java Virtual Machine).
 The Java compiler produces code for JVM, which then
typically is executed by a software JVM interpreter.
 The advantage is that the JVM code can be shipped over
the internet to any computer that has a JVM interpreter
and run there.

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 Exokernels
 Rather than cloning (copying) the actual machine, another strategy is partitioning it (giving
each user a subset of the resource).
 For example one virtual machine might get disk blocks 0 to 1023, the next one might get block
1024 to 2047, and so on.
 Program running at the bottom layer (kernel mode) is called the exokernel.
 Its job is to allocate resources to virtual machines and then continuously check to make sure
no machine is trying to use somebody else’s resources.
 The advantage of the exokernel scheme is that it saves a layer of mapping.

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Section - 11
Multiprogramming v/s Multiprocessing v/s Multitasking
Multiprogramming Multiprocessing Multitasking
Multiprogramming v/s Multiprocessing v/s Multitasking
Multiprogramming Multiprocessing Multitasking
The concurrent residency of The availability of more than The execution of more than
more than one program in one processor per system, one task simultaneously is
the main memory is called which can execute several set called as multitasking.
as multiprogramming. of instructions in parallel is
called as multiprocessing
Number of processor: one Number of processor: more Number of processor: one
than one
One process is executed at More than one process can be One by one job is being
a time. executed at a time. executed at a time.
Multitasking is a logical extension of multi programming. The major way in which
multitasking differs from multi programming is that multi programming works solely
on the concept of context switching whereas multitasking is based on time sharing
alongside the concept of context switching.
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Section - 12
Time Sharing Operating System
 A time sharing operating system allows many users to share the
computer resources simultaneously.
 In other words, time sharing refers to the allocation of computer
resources in time slots to several programs simultaneously.
 For example a mainframe computer that has many users logged
on to it.
 Each user uses the resources of the mainframe i.e. memory,
CPU etc.

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Section - 13
Parallel Processing Operating System
 Parallel Processing Operating Systems are designed to speed up Multiprocessing
the execution of programs by dividing the program into multiple
fragments and processing these fragments simultaneously.
 Such systems are multiprocessor systems.
 Parallel systems deal with the simultaneous use of multiple
computer resources that can include a single computer with
multiple processors.

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Section - 14
Distributed Operating System
 Distributed Operating System is a model where distributed
applications are running on multiple computers linked by
communications.
 A distributed operating system is an extension of the network
operating system that supports higher levels of communication
and integration of the machines on the network.

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Questions
1. What is Kernel? Differentiate between Monolithic Kernel and Micro Kernel.
2. Explain different service/functions provided by operating system.
3. Discuss role of OS as a resource manager.
4. Explain the features of Time sharing system.
5. What is operating system? Give the view of OS as a resource manager.
6. What is system call? Explain steps for system call execution.
7. Write different types of system call.
8. List out types of operating system and explain batch OS and time sharing OS in brief.

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