MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, NAGPUR

B.A.LL.B.(Hons.) Five-Year Integrated Degree Course

Year-I, Semester-I: Academic Year: 2022-2023
End-Semester Examination, November 2022

Course Code and Name: BAL1.4 POLITICAL SCIENCE-I (POLITICAL THOUGHT)

Answer to Question No. 4

Introduction:

The environmentalist movement was launched in reaction to widespread environmental

degradation. It also encompasses theories on the causes and origins of environmental
problems as well as efforts to define and realise an ecologically sound society.
Environmentalists may be categorised into two groups based on their moral stances: those
who hold that nature should be cherished for its own sake and those who take an eco-centric
viewpoint and accord everything in nature the same worth. Central issues in environmentalist
political theory include what makes for an environmentally healthy society and how
achieving it connects to other political aspirations.

Modern words like "greening," "environmental management," "resource efficiency and waste
minimization," "environmental responsibility," and "environmental ethics and justice" are
often used with the word "environmentalism." Environmentalism also includes new problems
like global warming and the development of clean energy.

Political Ideology on Environmentalism:

Environmental Politics is open to a wide range of methods and theories for studying
environmental politics. It also accepts submissions about the politics of action and meaning at
the global, national, and local levels, as well as international environmental issues in all parts
of the world. All submissions should explain what their results mean for environmental
politics as a whole. Environmental influence, formerly confined to the Green Party, has
entered the political mainstream. Each political faction is keen to proclaim its commitment to
environmental protection.

Conservative Environmentalism:

Both political and philosophical conservatives have raised environmental concerns over the
course of modern conservatism's history. For example, Edmund Burke, the philosophical
founder of modern conservatism, was quoted as saying that "the earth, the kind and equal
mother of all ought not to be monopolised to foster the pride and luxury of any men" in his
Reflections on the Revolution in France.

Socialist Environmentalism:

Nowadays, socialists are often found among environmentalists. Extinction Rebellion

members, for instance, often call for the destruction of capitalism and its replacement with
"eco-socialism." Although some academics claim that eco-socialism can be traced all the way
back to Karl Marx's views, the concept didn't really take off until the 1980s when it emerged
with the environmental movement. That the best (or, for some, only) approach to combat
climate change is to develop a socialist society, and that environmental preservation is
incompatible with capitalism.

Feminist Environmentalism:

The term "ecofeminism" refers to a subset of both feminism and political ecology. People
who subscribe to the ecofeminist school of thought use a gendered lens to examine how
people impact the natural environment. Françoise d'Eaubonne, a French writer, first used the
phrase in her novel titled "Le Féminisme ou la Mort" (1974). Ecofeminists argue for a non-
hegemonic society based on cooperation and mutual respect rather than competition, and they
do it from a feminist viewpoint of green politics.

When applied to the concept that male power and ideologies of dominance in the human and
natural environment are responsible for the oppression of women, this word describes the
common opinion that these two forms of oppression are interconnected. As primary
caretakers and nurturers, women play a unique role in green politics.

Environmentalism and Ecologism:

One of the newest ideological developments is environmentalism and ecologism. Ecologism

and environmentalism are often used interchangeably, but it is helpful to think of ecologism
as a philosophy that believes in a radical upheaval of society at every level, and
environmentalism as a view that environmental threats can be mitigated without upsetting the
status quo of politics, economics, and culture.

Environmental philosophy and ideas, which serve as the foundations for the different
offshoots of the environmental movement, may be generally categorised into philosophies -
Anthropocentric philosophy and Bio-centric philosophy

Anthropocentric (Human Centric) Philosophy:

Often referred to as "Shallow Ecology" or "Techno-centrism," this philosophy focuses

primarily on the detrimental consequences that environmental degradation has on people,
their health, leisure activities, and overall quality of life. It's a reductionist view of the natural
world in which species and individuals are seen only in terms of their use to humans. Genesis
1:27-8, which is central to the anthropocentric worldview, reads as follows: "God created
man in his own image, in the image of God created He him, male and female created He
them, Be God blessed them, and God said to them, be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the
earth, and God said to them, have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the
air, and over every living thing that moved upon the earth."

Biocentric Philosophy:

According to proponents of biocentrism, our responsibilities for the environment stem

immediately from our recognition of nature's "intrinsic moral value," which is independent of
its philosophy to us. Therefore, it is inherently just and just for humans to take measures to
preserve natural habitats and endangered species. By this definition, biocentrism is the belief
that all parts of nature, living and non-living alike, share a common moral and ecological
community with humans.

Some later environmental movements like ‘social ecology’ and ‘deep ecology’ were based on
the same ideology:

Social Ecology:

Social ecology is a radical and countercultural idea that attributes environmental deterioration
to the development of unfair, hierarchical relationships in human society as a result of the
massive social structure of the contemporary capitalist state.

Deep Ecology:

The extreme concept of Deep Ecology is rooted in the early environmental movement's
preservationist ideas. In common with social ecologists, its primary progenitors, the
Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess, the American philosopher George Sessions, and the
American sociologist Bill Devall, favour decentralised forms of social structure. Some
proponents of deep ecology argue that re-establishing a "spiritual" connection with the
natural world is essential for the survival of humanity.

Environmental Movement in India:

An environmental movement is understood to be any social or political movement that seeks

to protect or enhance the natural world. The same concept might also be referred to as the
"green movement" or the "conservation movement."

1) Chipko Movement:
Mr Bahuguna educated the locals about the value of trees by explaining how they
prevent soil erosion, bring about rain, and clean the air we breathe. The ladies of
Advani village in Tehri-Garhwal embraced trees after tying the holy thread around
their trunks. This practice became known as the Chipko Movement.
During these demonstrations, individuals wanted the right to fodder and other forest
advantages for themselves and their animals. In 1978, when the women faced
retaliation from the police in the form of firings and other forms of abuse, the Chipko
movement gained traction.
 2) Appiko Movement:
The Appiko movement might be seen as the southern equivalent of the Chipko
movement. "Appiko Chaluvali" was the common name for the Appiko Movement in
the area. When contractors from the Forest Service came to take down trees, the
villagers welcomed the change. The Appiko movement used several means to spread
its message, including marches into the deep forest on foot, slide exhibitions, folk
dances, street dramas, and so on.
In addition to reforesting previously deforested areas, the movement also advocated
for the planting of trees in urban areas. Later, the movement shifted its attention to
making more sustainable energy choices to lessen human impact on the planet's
forests. The uprising won widespread support and ultimately victory. The project has
been put on hold at this time.

Conclusion:

When compared to other ideologies, environmentalism and ecologism are relatively new
developments. The term "environmentalism" has evolved to denote concern with
environmental dangers" that can be effectively dealt with within the current quo. There are
several occasions when laws have been enacted by governments to prevent environmental
hazards from endangering human health. On an international level, there are various
examples of initiatives to protect the environment i.e. The First Earth Summit Meet (1972),
The Second Earth Summit Meet (1982), The Third Earth Summit Meet (1992), The
Kyoto Protocol (1995), The Conference of the Parties, etc. In the Constitution of India,
Article 51(a), and Article 48(a) are included to protect the environment. On an individual
level youngsters like Greta Thornberg, and Licypriya Kangujam are doing extraordinary
work to protect the environment.
Answer to Question No. 7

Introduction:

Socialism is a populist economic and political system in which the means of production are
owned collectively, in common, or by the people. Tools, machines, and assembly lines are all
examples of the means of production that go into making products with the explicit goal of
satisfying human wants and requirements. In contrast to capitalism, which sees the means of
production is owned and controlled by the corporate elite and used to generate profit for the
benefit of shareholders, socialism envisions the working-class assuming ownership and
exercising control over the means of production.

The concept of socialism may be traced back to Plato's "Republic," in which the Greek
philosopher outlined the ideals of a community-based society. Thomas More's "Utopia,"
written centuries after Platonic ideals, also features a utopian society in which individuals
share housing, resources, and labour. However, socialism developed as a direct result of the
Industrial Revolution, which ushered in profound economic and social transformation in
Britain and beyond. Socialism originated as an alternative to capitalism that might better the
lives of the working class as businessmen got rich off the backs of people who were
increasingly living in poverty.

Utopian Socialism:

Utopia is the name of a fictitious country that Thomas More imagined; it may be rendered as
"nowheresville." In a utopia, there is no longer any social conflict or suffering. The idea of
utopia has been interpreted in a variety of ways throughout history, with socialist countries
featuring most often. Although Utopian Socialism (which had many supporters in the early
nineteenth century) was not the socialism that Marx and Engels described, they had a great
deal of respect for the great Utopian socialists like Charles Fourier and Robert Owen.

Under utopian socialism, it is assumed that people would be able to set aside their own
interests in favour of the greater good. Some characteristics of utopian socialism include:
 a) the absence of state ownership of the means of production;
b) the promotion of cooperation between owners and employees, as opposed to the
antagonistic relationship between workers and capitalists/trade unions;
c) Decentralization of the decision-making process at the local level;
d) exploitation of market forces with a focus on the common good rather than individual
interests.

Scientific Socialism:

Philosophy, economics, and politics are all part of Scientific Socialism. Marx transformed
Hegel's dialectics theory into a dialectical materialism theory, which was then applied to
human society as historical materialism. Marx developed a theory of surplus value and capital
accumulation rules, investigating the structure and growth of the capitalist system for the first
time. Marx and Engels understood the class struggle concepts expressed by working-class
components and developed them into a thesis leading to a new type of society, Socialism or
Communism, through a Proletariat Dictatorship.

"I don't deserve credit for discovering classes or class strife in modern society," Marx said.
Long before I arrived, bourgeois historians and economists described the historical
progression of this class conflict. What I did differently was to demonstrate: (1) that the
existence of classes is only linked to specific, historical phases in the development of
production; (2) that the class struggle invariably leads to the Proletariat dictatorship; and (3)
that the dictatorship itself only transitions to the abolition of all classes and a classless society.

Marxists consider materialism to be the foundation of all science. On fundamental

philosophical issues, he finds agreement between materialism and science. Because of this,
Marxists claim to be scientific.

The Scientific Socialist viewed nature dialectically, not because he was stubborn, but because
this method accurately depicted nature's contradictory processes, in which everything is
continuously posed, opposed, and formed.

The only constant in life is change. The materialist must also acknowledge that the universe is
material. Here is the "absolute truth" as stated by the Scientific Socialists. While Marxist
materialists are constantly on the lookout for changes, attempting to determine where a
proposition is correct and where it becomes incorrect, they are opposed by spiritualists and
befuddled idealists of all kinds who insist that the concept of change and relativity includes
the materiality of the universe itself and that we must accept the possibility that the universe is
made of "accidental vapour." This materialist worldview underpins science.

When applied to history, the dialectical approach becomes historical materialism, attempting
to counteract the idealism and contempt for mass action of early historical ideas. Scientists
were able to analyse the socioeconomic situations and changes of the masses thanks to
historical materialism.

Marx: Revolutionist or Evolutionist:

The sociological theory that Marx and Engels developed is distinctly evolutionary in nature,
despite the fact that it is often seen as revolutionary. According to Karl Marx's interpretation
of the evolutionary process, human society has progressed through a number of stages. These
stages range from a communal society based on hunting and gathering what nature provided
to a society based on slavery (in ancient times), land (in feudal times), and capital (in modern
times) (bourgeois).

What, other than the fact that it develops in a slow and methodical manner, makes Marx's
theory evolutionary? The most important aspect of it is that it is based on the accumulated
historical changes that human civilizations have undergone in reaction to changes in their
environment. Marx proposed that the first human civilizations were communal in their
organisation. These classless civilizations were largely egalitarian in character and thrived
with just a minimum division of work. They did not have any classes. The domestication of
plants and animals gives rise to an increase in the specialisation of trades and functions. This,
in turn, ushers in a new era of unequal access to resources as well as disparate concerns over
their material well-being. This divide ultimately results in the establishment of distinct status
groups that engage in hostile cooperation in order to achieve their respective biological and
psychological requirements.

Hence, we can conclude that Karl Marx’s theory is evolutionary.

Answer to Question No. 2

Introduction:

One of the most powerful arguments ever established in support of free speech and individual
freedom against censorship and paternalism is presented in the book ‘On Liberty, which was
written by the British philosopher John Stuart Mill and published in 1859. On Liberty is
important because it presents a number of compelling arguments in defence of the free flow of
ideas in a marketplace of ideas, as well as the conviction that people are best able to make
decisions about their way of life when the government does not interfere with such decisions.

J. S. Mill in ‘ON LIBERTY’:

Starting off his book, John S Mill talks about the "battle between authority and liberty"
throughout time. He outlines the government's tyranny, which, in his perspective, must be
reined in by individual freedom. Mil argues that there are two ways to rein in and limit the
power of the state: One way in which citizens might defend their political rights and freedoms
by pressuring the government is via the acquisition of limited immunity. In the event that the
ruler violates these rights and liberties, the people have the right to resist. As long as it
safeguards citizens' liberties and guarantees them fair treatment, governments generally get a
pass. The second strategy involves placing new limits on government power based on the
Constitution. In this context, the Constitution is a system that sets the parameters within
which the government may operate.

The freedom of thought and conversation is reviewed and analysed by Mill in the second
chapter of his book. John Stuart Mill makes an effort to support his claim that it is
unacceptable to silence opposing views and ideas. In the second chapter, Mill makes the
observation that contemporary society may believe that the necessity to safeguard "the liberty
of the press" has passed. Everyone could believe that because society has advanced to such a
level of civility, the fight for freedom of expression is no longer required. Recent events in the
contemporary age have, however, shown that this is not always the case and that there are still
many nations where freedom of expression is curtailed.
When Mill began to question Bentham's fundamental premise about human nature—that
individuals would always seek pleasure and avoid any sort of suffering in order to attain
happiness—his concept of liberty began to take shape. Mill reasoned that the freedom of
choice offered by individualism may trump the Utilitarian ideal of pleasure and suffering.

Mill discusses why allowing for freedom of expression is so important. He believed that the
only way to determine the truth was via conversation and argument. False arguments and
viewpoints are refuted during the discussion using facts and proof. Arguments and facts must
be given to the mind in order to have an influence on it. This is the way knowledge is
acquired. Finding truth and deciding what is good and wrong requires balancing one's own
beliefs with those of others.

Freedom of Speech and Expression in India Constitution:

Article 19 (1) (a) of the Indian constitution guarantees all Indian citizens the right to freedom
of speech and expression. On the other hand, Article 19 (2) places reasonable restrictions on
this freedom. It says here:

“[(2) Nothing in sub-clause (a) of clause (1) shall affect the operation of any existing law, or
prevent the State from making any law, in so far as such law imposes reasonable restrictions
on the exercise of the right conferred by the said sub-clause in the interests of 4 [the
sovereignty and integrity of India], the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign
States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or
incitement to an offence.]”

This suggests that while there is considerable freedom of speech and expression in India,
there are also reasonable limitations on these rights. The state is empowered to enact any
legislation that would restrict this freedom if it is necessary to protect India's sovereignty and
integrity, security, cordial relations with other nations, morality, and mortality, or if it relates
to judicial contempt, defamation, or incitement to commit an offence.
Conclusion:

The harm principle, which asserts that individuals' actions should only be confined to
preventing harm to other people, is described by J. S. Mill in On Liberty. He contends that
only the need to save others from danger justifies employing force against any member of a
civilised community. It might be claimed that his notion of freedom of speech and expression
would be in violation of his damage principle if it were to be applied on a larger scale in
accordance with this principle. It is debatable to what degree his concept of freedom of speech
and expression applies to a given community, but not to the entire population.

The dynamics of a state today are affected by several factors. A violation of the harm
principle would occur if someone was allowed to express anything they wanted, regardless of
whether doing so hurt the feelings of a particular group within a society, interfered with
public order, incited violence, damaged friendly relations with another state, or otherwise
caused chaos within the community and undoubtedly caused harm to other people. So,
suitable limitations are required. They can be arbitrarily chosen in accordance with the
requirements of a certain demographic and geographical area, and the Indian Constitution
explicitly mentions this in Article 19(1)(a) and Article 19(2), as was already established.
Answer to Question No. 6

Citizenship:

Citizenship is the manifestation of an identity that is shared with the public. It occurs when an
official position is recognised by a government and a person is granted the capacity to enjoy
the rights and benefits that result from holding that official position because of that
recognition. Citizenship also refers to an individual's subjective sense of belonging to the
collective identity of a nation. One of the most essential and defining choices for a state is the
set of laws and standards that determine who is allowed to call themselves a citizen. When a
person is granted citizenship in a country, it provides insight into how that nation regards
itself and the significance it places on particular aspects of its population. The decisions made
about who is accepted as a new citizen and who is not accepted among those who have filed
for citizenship provide insight into the identity of a nation.

Citizenship in India:

The status of a person recognised under the law as being a lawful member of a sovereign state
or as belonging to a country is known as citizenship. Citizenship may also be thought of as
nationality. Citizenship is addressed in Articles 5–11 of the Constitution of India, which may
be found in India. The concept of citizenship refers to a person's ability to participate fully in
the life of any state in which they are also granted civil and political rights.

 Constitutional Provisions:
o Articles 5–11 of Part II of the Constitution of India outline the requirements for
acquiring and maintaining citizenship.
o The law that pertains to citizenship is referred to as the Citizenship Act of
1955. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 1986, the Citizenship
(Amendment) Act of 1992, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 2003, and the
Citizenship (Amendment) Act of 2005 have all made changes to this provision.
o Citizenship in India is primarily determined through ‘jus sanguinis’, sometimes
known as "citizenship by right of blood," rather than ‘jus soli’ i.e., citizenship
by right of birth within the territory.
  Citizenship Act, 1955:
The following are the several ways that one may take to get Indian citizenship:
i. Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution
ii. Citizenship by birth
iii. Citizenship by descent
iv. Citizenship by registration
v. Citizenship by naturalization
vi. By incorporation of territory (by the Government of India)

Citizenship by Investment:

Citizenship by investment refers to the procedure of acquiring second citizenship as well as a

passport of the host country in exchange for financial investment in the economy of that
nation. Citizenship by investment schemes lawfully grants citizenship status more quickly
than regular immigration procedures, and they do so without asking investors to put their lives
on wait. Moreover, these programmes do not need investors to give up their jobs.

Various nations have taken actions to attract foreign people to invest in their respective
economies as a result of the widespread recognition of the numerous and considerable
advantages that foreign investment brings to a country's economy. This includes changes for
the investor's family to also live, work, and study in the nation as well as advantageous tax
benefits and lenient reporting requirements. Countries now offer citizenship through
investment programmes that let interested investors contribute a certain amount of money to
the economy of the country in exchange for permanent residence and ultimately citizenship in
that country. This is done in an effort to draw the most foreign investment possible.

Citizenship by Investment schemes may have drawbacks, which might influence foreign
nationals to choose one programme over another or perhaps forego taking part in any
programme at all. For instance, if a foreign investor does not fulfil specific standards, certain
investment programmes only initially give temporary residency, which is subject to
revocation. For instance, some programmes mandate that their investors retain and generate
new full-time jobs for the people of the nation. The foreign national cannot become a citizen
and will forfeit the investment money if the investment falls short of the job creation criterion.
Conclusion:

People who seek to hide their money abroad can be enticed to prey on individuals who
become citizens via investments. A person's capacity to effectively run the due diligence
requirements of such a plan may be compromised if they utilise Identity Cards and other
advantages received via these citizenship programmes to falsely portray their financial
situation, for instance. If someone lies about their financial status to get such advantages, it
may result in this.

There is a higher risk since the employment of such tactics endangers democracy. This is due
to the fact that it is easy to tamper with a nation's demographic composition and contaminate
its demographic structure, both of which increase competition for those who were born there.
In this approach, it might also result in security issues since there is always a chance that an
outside force would try to impact the government's decisions by unethical means, no matter
how much protection is put in place. No matter how much security is offered, this is true.