RAJALAKSHMI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
CEC331 – 4G/5G COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
(REGULATION-2021)

SEM-06
EVOLUTION OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

UNIT – I

Prepared by Verified by Approved by

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 EC331 4G/5G COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
UNIT – I EVOLUTION OF WIRELESS NETWORKS

Networks evolution: 2G, 3G, 4G, evolution of radio access networks, need for 5G, 4G versus 5G,
Next Generation core (NG-core), visualized Evolved Packet core (vEPC)

1. Explain various Networks evolution: 2G, 3G, and 4G.

1.1.1 The First Generation 1G

 These phones were the first to be used, introduced in 1982 and completed in early 1990.
 It was used for voice services based on Advanced Mobile Phone System technology AMPS.
 The AMPS system used frequency and were frequency modulated. With a channel capacity of 30
kHz and a frequency band of 824-894MHz, frequency division multiple access FDMA is used. Its
primary characteristics are as follows:

1. 2.4 kbps speed enables voice calls in one nation.

2. Use an analogue signal.

3. Poor voice quality, insufficient battery life.

4. Large phone size limited capacity poor handoff dependability inadequate security

5. Spectrum efficiency was relatively low.

 It introduces mobile technologies such as MTS Mobile Telephone System, AMTS Advanced Mobile
Telephone System, IMTS Improved Mobile Telephone Service, and Push to Talk Push to Talk PTT.
 It has low capacity, unpredictable handoff, poor voice connectivity, and no security because voice
communications are replayed in radio towers, making them vulnerable to unwanted eavesdropping
by other parties.

1.1.2 The Second Generation 2G

 The term 2G refers to the second Generation of GSM phones, which first appeared in the late 1980s.
 For voice transmission, it uses digital signals. This technology's primary focus was on digital signals,
and it provides services for delivering text and picture messages at modest speeds in kbps.
 It has a frequency range of 30 KHz to 200 kHz. In addition to 2G, 2.5G systems use packet- switched
and circuit-switched domains and can give data rates of up to 144 kbps, for example, GPRS, CDMA,
and EDGE, the following are the primary characteristics of 2G and 2.5G:
1. 2G stands for the Second Generation.
2. Data transmission rates of up to 64kbps were achieved through digital signals.
3. Enables services such as text messaging, picture messages, and MMS Multimedia message.

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4. Incapable of dealing with complicated data such as videos.
5. Strong digital signals were required to enable mobile phones to function, digital signals will be weak
if no network coverage in a particular area.
6. GSM technology was constantly developed to give better services, which resulted in advanced
technology between 2G and 3G.
7. Calls are made available.
8. Send and receive emails Web browsing Speed: 64-144 kbps Camera phones.
9. Take 6-9 minutes to download 3-minute MP3 music.

1.1.3 The Third Generation 3G

 3G was introduced in 2000 and is based on GSM. The goal of this technique was to provide fast data.
 Using packet switching, the original design was upgraded to offer data rates of up to 14 Mbps and
higher. It employs a Wide Band Wireless Network, which improves clarity.
 It also provides broadband services, access to television and video, and innovative services like
Global Roaming.
 It operates at 2100MHz and has a bandwidth of 15-20MHz, utilized for high-speed internet access
and video chatting, the primary characteristics of 3G are as follows:
1. Speed 2 Mbps typically referred to as smartphones.
2. Broadband and data transfer rates have been increased to handle web-based applications and
music and video files.
3. It allows for speedier communication.
4. Sending/receiving huge email messages.
5. High-speed web access, improved security, video conferencing, 3D gaming.
6. Broadband capabilities and large capacities.
7. Streaming TV, mobile TV, phone calls.
8. It takes only 11 seconds to 1.5 minutes to download 3-minute MP3 music.
9. Expensive license fees for 3G services.
10. The infrastructure for 3G's high bandwidth requirement proved challenging to develop.
11. Expensive 3G handsets.
12. Large cell phones.

 3G cellular services were launched in the year 2003. 3G was much more advanced, when compared
to 2G/2.5G and offered up to 2 Mbps speed, supporting location-based services and multimedia
services.
 It was ideal for web browsing. Apple, which was known to be a computer maker, got into the
mobile equipment business by launching iPhone, with the advent of 3G. Android, the open source
mobile operating system became popular with 3G.
 With 3G, the 3GPP group standardized UMTS. Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
(UMTS) is a third- generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard.
 Developed and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project). UMTS uses wideband
code division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio access technology to offer greater spectral
efficiency and bandwidth to mobile network operators.

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 FIGURE 1.3 - 3G ARCHITECTURE

 UMTS specifies a complete network system, which includes the radio access network (UMTS
Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or UTRAN), the core network (Mobile Application Part, or
MAP) and the authentication of users via SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) cards.

3G network architecture has three distinct entities:

1. User Equipment (UE): In 2G, the handsets were called as mobile phones or cell
phones, as they were predominantly used for making voice calls. However, in 3G, the handsets
can support both voice and data services. Hence, the term User Equipment or UE is used to represent
the end user device, which could be a mobile phone or a data terminal.

2. Radio Access Network (RAN): The RAN, also known as the UMTS Radio Access
Network, UTRAN, is the equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem (BSS) in GSM.
RAN includes the NodeB function and the Radio Network Controller (RNC) function. The NodeB
function provides the air interface. The RNC manages the air interface for the overall network.

3. Core Network: The core network is the equivalent of Network Switching Subsystem or
NSS in GSM and provides all the central processing and management for the system. Core
network has both circuit switched and packet switched network elements.

3G core network architecture consists of the following functions:

Home Location register (HLR)
 HLR is a database that contains all information about the subscriber including their last known
location.
 The HLR maintains a mapping between Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory
Number (MSISDN) and International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI). MSISDN is the mobile
phone number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS. IMSI is used for uniquely
identifying a SIM card and the number is stored in the SIM card.
 Each network can have one or more physical or logical HLRs.
 User equipment periodically updates its location details to the HLR, so that calls can be routed
appropriately to the user.
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 Depending upon the implementation, the HLR may also have an in-built Equipment identity register
(EIR) and Authentication Centre (AuC).
Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 The EIR is the function that decides whether a user equipment is allowed onto the network or not.
EIR is typically integrated with the HLR.
 EIR is used for blocking or monitoring calls from a stolen user equipment. Each user equipment
is uniquely identified through a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity
(IMEI).
 IMEI is exchanged by the user equipment at the time of registration with the network. Thus,
EIR identifies a stolen equipment through its IMEI.
Authentication Centre (AuC)
 AuC is used for storing a shared secret key, which gets generated and burned in the SIM
card at the time of manufacturing.
 AuC function is typically co-located with the HLR function. AuC does not exchange the
shared secret key, but would run an algorithm on the International Mobile Subscriber Identity
(IMSI), to generate data for authentication of a subscriber / user equipment. Each IMSI is unique
and gets mapped to a SIM card.
Mobile switching center (MSC)
 MSC is responsible for functions such as routing calls and SMS messages. It interfaces with the HLR
for keeping track of subscriber location and does call handovers, when the mobile subscriber
moves from one location to another.
 Gateway MSC (GMSC) is a function that is present either within or outside of the MSC. A
GMSC interfaces with the external networks such as the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN), which is our legacy land line network.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
 SGSN is responsible for mobility management and authentication of subscribers / mobile
devices in a GPRS network.
 It performs a role which is similar to the role played by the MSC for voice calls. The SGSN and
MSC are often co-located in the network.
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
 GGSN acts as a gateway to the Internet. It connects the GPRS network with the packet switched data
network. GGSN receives data addressed to a given subscriber, checks if the subscriber is active and
then forwards the data to the SGSN serving the particular subscriber.
 If the subscriber is inactive, the data is discarded. The GGSN keeps a record of active subscribers
and the SGSN they are attached to. GGSN assigns a unique IP address to each subscriber.
 It also generates the call detail records (CDRs), which are processed by the Charging Gateway
Function (CGF) or billing servers.
Charging Gateway Function (CGF)
 CGF handles Call Detail Records (CDRs) generated by the GGSN in a GPRS network. There
are different types of CDRs processed by the CGF, based on the network node that generates
the CDR.
 For example, when a SGSN generates CDRs, it is called S-CDR. When a GGSN generates
CDRs, it is called G-CDR.

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 One of the key differences between S-CDR and G-CDR is, G-CDR would have insights into
the subscriber data transfers (for example, volume of data uploaded/downloaded by the subscriber).
 3G technology evolved over a period of time to offer higher speeds by supporting a new
standard called High Speed Packet Access (HSPA).
 Service providers who offered 3G services with HSPA support called their services as 3.5G
or 3G+.
 The 3.5G networks that supported HSPA standards were able to offer speeds up to 7 Mbps.
With the further evolution of HSPA standard (also called as Evolved HSPA), 3G networks
were able to offer speeds up to 42 Mbps.

3.1.4 The Fourth Generation 4G

 4G provides a download speed of 100Mbps, 4G offers the same features as 3G and new services such
as Multi-Media Newspapers, the ability to watch TV programs with more outstanding quality, and
transport data significantly quicker than previous generations.
 LTE Long Term Evolution technology is classified as 4G technology. 4G is being developed to meet
the QoS and rate requirements of future applications such as wireless broadband access, Multimedia
Messaging Service MMS, video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content, Digital Video Broadcasting DVB,
minimal services such as voice and data, and other bandwidth-intensive services.
The significant characteristics of 4G are as follows:

1. Ability to give speeds ranging from 10Mbps to 1Gbps, high quality streaming
video, a combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max and increased security.
2. Provide any type of service at any time and from any location as needed by the user.
3. Expansion of multimedia services.
4. Low cost per bit, increased battery usage.
5. Implementation is complex, intricate technology is required, and expensive equipment is necessary
to build a next-generation network.
 In 2012, 4G services were launched, with speeds of up to 12 Mbps. 4G is an all-IP (Internet
Protocol) network and it resulted in massive changes to the radio network and the core network
architecture.

In 4G network,
1. The radio function is based on the Long Term Evolution (LTE) 3GPP standards and
2. The core network is based on the Evolved Packet Core
(EPC) 3GPP standards

FIGURE 1.4 - 4G ARCHITECTURE

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 One of the significant changes introduced by the Long Term Evolution (LTE) standards in
4G networks, is the changes to the Base station functionality.
 In 3G, the radio resources were centrally controlled by a node called Radio Network Controller
(RNC). LTE introduces a new function called the Evolved NodeB (eNodeB), which manages
the radio resource and mobility in the cell.
 In order to meet the 4G LTE requirements, functions of the eNodeB not only included the
base station (NodeB) functions to terminate the radio interface but also the functions of the
Radio Network Controller (RNC) to manage radio resources. This architecture is called Evolved
UMTS Terrestrial RAN (E-UTRAN) architecture.
 In 3G, the RAN function included the base station (Node B) and the antennas. In 4G LTE
architecture, the base station function is split into two key functions - Baseband Unit (BBU) and
Remote Radio Head (RRH).
 RRH is connected to BBU through optical fiber. The BBU function is moved out from the cell site
and hosted in a centralised location and called as Centralized RAN.
 The RRH function (i.e., the antenna function) is deployed closer to the users in a distributed
fashion.
 The RAN architecture and the distribution of RRHs and BBUs is influenced by several factors such
as quality of service, latency, throughput, user density and load demand.

The following are the key functional nodes/network elements in the LTE architecture:
Evolved Node B (eNB)
 eNodeB is the entity that supports air interface and performs radio resource management.
 It provides radio resource management functions such as IP header compression, user data
encryption, and routing the user data to the Serving Gateway (SGW).
 The radio interface provided by eNodeB can be shared by several operators by having separate
MME, SGW & PDN Gateway.
Home Subscriber Server (HSS)
 Home Subscriber Server (HSS) is a database for storing the Subscriber profile and authentication
information.
 MME downloads subscriber profile information from the HSS, when a user equipment/mobile
device attaches to the network. HSS also provides the subscriber profile information to the
IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) Core function, at the time of the IMS registration.
Serving Gateway (SGW)
 SGW serves as the mobility anchor for the user plane. It takes care of inter-eNodeB handovers &
User Equipment (UE) mobility between 3GPP networks.
 It is responsible for routing/forwarding data packets between the eNodeB & Packet Data Network
Gateway (PDN GW).
Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW)
 PDN GW provides the UE with connectivity to the external packet data networks such as
Internet.
 It serves as the anchor point for intra-3GPP network mobility, as well as mobility between
3GPP and non-3GPP networks.

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 It takes care of Policy and Charging Enforcement Function (PCEF), which includes Quality of
Service (QoS), online/offline flow- based charging data generation, deep-packet inspection, and
lawful intercept.
Mobility Management Entity (MME)
 MME manages mobility, UE identities and security parameters.
 It operates in the Control plane and provides functions such as managing session states,
authentication, mobility with 3GPP 2G/3G nodes, and roaming.
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)
 Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) maintains the policy and charging related controls
for all the subscribers. For example, a subscriber’s quality of service policy is stored in the PCRF
server.
 The QoS policy can differ from service to service for each subscriber. The QoS for an IMS
bearer may be different from the QoS for an Internet bearer for the same subscriber. Such
differentiations in the QoS can be enforced by setting rules in the PCRF server.
 In addition, PCRF also helps the service providers in providing location- based services.
 PCRF allows a service provider in setting flow-based charging rules. For example, a service can be
stopped, when the credit limit for the service is reached.
 With higher data speeds, 4G technology allowed users to watch high-definition video and play
games online.
 Over a period of time, multiple enhancements were made to 4G technology - LTE-M (LTE
Category M1 for Machines) allowed low powered IOT devices to connect to 4G networks and
LTE-Advanced standards offer a network speed of up to 300 Mbps.
 Today, 4G offers adequate network speed for over the top services such as online video,
gaming and social media.
 However, it does not support the bandwidth and latency needs of services such as Augmented Reality,
Virtual Reality and Autonomous Cars. This paved the path for 5G technology research.

FIGURE 1.5 - 4G DATA CONNECTION ESTABLISHMENT

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 4G Data Connection Establishment
 There is a lot of similarities between how a data connection is established in a 3G and a 4G
network. This section describes the procedures involved in establishing a data connection
between the mobile equipment and the 4G network.
 When a mobile phone is powered on, it looks for signals from the cellphone towers in the
vicinity.
 Based on the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) from the SIM card, the mobile
phone picks the right service provider.
 The phone then requests for a radio resource from the eNodeB. The eNodeB allocates a radio resource
for the mobile subscriber.
 The moment the mobile equipment gets the radio resource, it starts displaying the wireless ‘signal
bar’ on the console.
 Then, the mobile device (also called the User Equipment or UE), sends an “Attach” request
to the network.
 The “Attach Request” reaches the MME (Mobility Management Entity) in the Evolved Packet
Core (EPC).
 The first step taken by the EPC is to authenticate the subscriber based on the SIM credentials.
 The MME retrieves the subscriber profile information from the HSS/HLR. The MME issues a
challenge (which includes a set of encrypted keys) to the UE.
 The UE runs the challenge against the credentials stored in SIM card.
 The UE responds back to the challenge with an a u t h e n t i c a t i o n r e s p o n s e . T h e
M M E v a l i d a t e s t h e authentication response based on the profile information retrieved from
the HSS/HLR. The subscriber is now authenticated.
 Once the mobile subscriber is authenticated, the EPC proceeds with the session initiation
process.
 The MME sends a “Create Session Request” to the Serving Gateway. The Serving Gateway sets up
a tunnel with the PDN Gateway (PGW). As part of establishing the tunnel, the PGW downloads
policy information from PCRF and applies them on the subscriber context.
 Once the tunnel, is created, the MME responds back to the UE with an “Attach Accept”
response. The bearer / tunnel is setup based on the Internet Access Point Name (APN).
 APN will typically look like “internet.telco.com” and is configured in the UE by the service
provider, as part of the initial configuration download to the mobile device.
 The moment, a tunnel is created (which means the data session is established), the mobile
equipment starts displaying the ‘4G' symbol on the console.
Voice calls in 4G Network
 There are different mechanisms available to handle voice calls in a 4G network.
 The two popular mechanisms to handle a voice call are Circuit Switched Fall-Back (CSFB)
and Voice over LTE (VoLTE).
Circuit Switched Fall-Back (CSFB)
 When LTE is just used for data transfer, voice calls are handled through the legacy circuit
switched mechanisms - by falling back to a 3G or 2G network.
 Circuit Switched Fall- Back (CSFB) works only when the area covered by an LTE network
is also covered by the 3G network. CSFB will be helpful for service providers when they
are migrating from 2G/3G to a 4G network.
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 In CSFB, the 4G MME talks to the 3G MSC through the new SGs interface, to setup the
voice call.
 User Equipment (UE), initiates a “Combined Attach” procedure to both PS (Packet
Switched) and Circuit Switched (CS) networks.
 MME receives the "Combined Attach” request and sets up the PS connection over the 4G
Core, for data transfers.
 The newly introduced SGs interface between the MME and MSC is used for the CS connection
setup over the 3G core, for voice calls.
 Once the UE is a t t a c h e d t o b o t h t h e 4 G a n d t h e 3 G n e t w o r k s , the eNodeB
directs the UE to the 3G NodeB radio.
 The UE sets-up a voice call over the 3G NodeB. This circuit switched fallback to the 3G network,
is equivalent of a handover from the 4G to 3G network, for voice calls.

FIGURE 1.6 - CIRCUIT SWITCHED FALL-BACK

Voice over LTE (VoLTE)

 Voice over LTE is relatively a new concept, to support voice calls over the 4G network.
 While CSFB helped the service providers during the migration from 2G/3G to 4G networks,
VoLTE runs completely on the 4G network.
 In case of VoLTE, the user equipment / mobile should be capable of initiating a VoLTE call
and the network should support VoLTE.
 VoLTE calls are handled by the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) core, in the 4G network.
 Unlike the OTT (Over the Top) calling services like Skype o r W h a t s a p p , V o L T E s
e r v i c e u s e s t h e same dialer application used by the CSFB service. It also provides
reliability, when compared to the OTT calling services.
 For example, when the service provider is not able to establish the call via the VoLTE, the phone
would automatically switch to the 2G/3G based circuit switched calls.
 This helps when a customer is making an emergency call.

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 FIGURE 1.7 - VOICE OVER LTE

Setting up a VoLTE is a two-step process:

1. At first, the UE sets up a dedicated bearer/tunnel for IMS APN (Access Point Name). For
example, the APN name will look like ims.telco.com. This is configured by the service provider on
the UE. These settings automatically get downloaded to the mobile phone, as part of the service
activation by the service provider. This bearer for IMS APN will be setup, in addition to the bearer
setup for Internet APN (i.e., for data transfers).
The procedure for bearer setup is similar to the procedure outlined in the “4G data connection
establishment” section.
2. Once the bearer is established, the UE sets up a Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) connection with
the IMS Core. SIP is a popular protocol used for Voice over IP (VOIP) communications, over
the Internet.
 Unlike the OTT VOIP dialer applications, the service provider guarantees reliability and
security for the voice calls made over an LTE connection. Voice over Wi-Fi (VoWi-Fi) is
also similar to VoLTE.
 However, the wireless service provider would not be able to guarantee the reliability of
the voice calls made over the Wi-Fi connection.
 When the Internet speeds over Wi-Fi are high and reliable, VoWiFi calls help the service
provider to offload the mobile wireless network for other applications/services. Hence, many
service providers support VoWiFi capabilities.

1.1.5 The Fifth Generation 5G

 The term 5G refers to the Fifth Generation, which began from small developments in the late
2010s. 5G technology may provide significantly improved levels of connectivity and coverage.
 The primary focus of 5G will be on the global-wireless World Wide Web WWW. It is an
entirely wireless communication system with no wires.
 5G Technology is an abbreviation for 5th Generation Mobile Technology. 5G technology
features exceptional data capabilities and the capacity to connect unlimited call volumes and complete
data broadcast within the most current mobile operating system.
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  5G technology has a promising future because it can handle cutting-edge technologies and
provide clients with priceless handsets.
 Perhaps 5G technology will take over the global market in the following days. 5G
technologies offer a remarkable capacity to assist software and consulting. Router and switch
technology is employed in the 5G network to provide a high connection.
 The 5G technology offers internet connectivity to building nodes and can be deployed with
wired and wireless network connections.
 Shortly, 5G technology will deliver a cell phone that functions similarly to a PDA, and the
entire office will be at our fingertips/on our phones.
 In a few years, we may be able to download a full-length HD movie in six seconds, but 4G
takes seven minutes, and 3G takes more than an hour.
 In addition, video chats will be so immersive that we will feel as if we can reach out and touch
the other person through the screen, 5G is a packet- switched wireless technology with high
throughput and extended area coverage.
 5G wireless employs OFDM and millimeter wireless, allowing for data rates of up to 20 Mbps
and frequency bands ranging from 2 to 8 GHz. The 5G communication technology is envisioned as a
virtual wireless network capable of wireless World Wide Web access WWW.
 The uncertainty around 5G stems from the fact that it is still primarily a concept, and the
wireless industry has yet to agree on any standards for the new network, however, it is attempting
to attain some success .
 Primary aims for 5G, significantly faster data speeds, and currently 4G networks may achieve
peak download speeds of one gigabit per second however, this is never achieved in practice.
 This would increase to 10Gbps with 5G. Ultra-low latency, "Latency" refers to the time it
takes for one device to transfer a data packet to another device. The latency rate in 4G is roughly 50
milliseconds; however, in 5G, it will be around one millisecond.
 This will be critical for industrial applications as well as driverless cars. A more "connected
world", the Internet of Things intelligent home appliances, connected autos, etc., is predicted to
increase enormously over the next decade, necessitating the development of a network capable of
supporting billions of connected devices.
 5G will provide users with the capacity and bandwidth they require. Technology is still a long
way from being a reality, but it has the potential to drastically revolutionize how we interact with
wireless gadgets, from our smartphones to the cars we drive.
The present 5G technology trend has the following feature.
1. 5G technology can provide connectivity speeds of up to 25 Mbps.
2. 5G technology provides cell phone users with high quality and bi-directional extensive bandwidth
sharing.
3. 5G technology enables large-scale data transmission at gigabit speeds, with about 65,000
connections supported.
4. The uploading and downloading speeds of 5G technology have reached a new high.
5. Virtual private networks are also supported by 5G technology.
6. The 5G terminals will include software-defined radios and modulation Methods and new error-
control systems that can be downloaded via the Internet.
7. The focus of 5G mobile networks is expected to shift toward user terminals.
8. 5G technology's improved billing interfaces make it more appealing and effective.
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9. The 5G technology network provides expanded and widespread connectivity Worldwide.
10. The terminals will have simultaneous access to many wireless technologies and the terminal should
be able to mix distinct flows from various technologies.
11. Vertical handovers should be avoided since they are impractical when there are numerous
technologies, operators, and service providers.
12. In 5G, each network will handle user mobility, while the terminal will make the final decision among
several wireless, mobile access network providers for a specific service.
13. Such a decision will be based on open, intelligent middleware in mobile phones.
14. The remote diagnosis is a fantastic function provided by 5G, allowing users to get better and faster
solutions.

Table 1-1 shows a brief comparison of evolution of wireless communication technology.

TABLE 1.1 EVOLUTION WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

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7. Explain Evolution of Radio access networks/ What is RAN? And its functions (Nov/Dec
23)
 The Radio Access Network (RAN) architecture has evolved across the different
generations of the wireless network, to support the bandwidth and scalability requirements.
 RAN has two distinct units Ð the Remote Radio Head (RRH) and the Baseband Unit (BBU).
One end of the RRH is connected to the antenna and the other end to the BBU.
 RRH acts as a transceiver converting the analog signals to digital signals and vice versa.

TABLE 1.2 - EVOLUTION OF RAN

 In addition, RRH also does filtering of noise and amplification of signals. The Baseband Unit
(BBU) provides switching, traffic management, timing, baseband processing, and radio
interfacing functions. BBU is typically connected to the RRH using a Fiber link.
 In the traditional 2.5G/3G networks, both the RRH and BBU functions remained in the
cell site, as part of the Base Transceiver Station (BTS).
 In the 4G network, BBU function was moved out of the cell site to a centralized location. BBU
function in a 4G network is hosted in the Central Office and is called as Centralized
RAN.
 4G architecture optionally supports the virtualization of BBUs and when the BBU function
is virtualized, it is also called as Cloud RAN or Virtualized RAN. In a 5G network,
virtualization of BBUs almost becomes mandatory as it helps the service providers to scale the
network to support the various use cases.

FIGURE 1.8 - TRADITIONAL RAN

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 FIGURE 1.9 - CENTRALIZED RAN

FIGURE 1.10 - VIRTUALIZED RAN

8. Discuss the Need for 5G.

 Most of the previous generation wireless technologies (such as 3G and 4G) were focused on
increasing the speed of the wireless technology.
 4G technology initially supported speeds of up to 12 Mbps - which was adequate for
online video streaming and gaming services.
 However, 4G does not address the technology needs of some of the emerging use cases,
in the areas of Internet of Things (IOT) and Virtual Reality. Here is the list of factors
that drive the need for 5G technology:
 Internet of Things (IOT) will require an infrastructure that can handle several billions
of network devices connecting to the wireless network and at the same time energy
efficient.
 3D video and Ultra High Definition Video streaming applications are hungry for
additional bandwidth.

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 Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality enabled gaming, video streaming and industrial
applications require sub- millisecond latencies.
 Network operators have immense pressure to upgrade their networks continuously, to
handle the growth in the mobile data traffic - and at the same time, reduce operational
expenses.
 Enable new revenue streams for wireless service providers, by supporting new
applications and use-cases

9. Discuss 4G versus 5G.

 4G network infrastructure is based on Long Term Evolution (LTE) architecture. 5G network
infrastructure is based on 5G Next Generation Core (5G NG-Core) architecture.
 There is a significant difference between both the technologies in terms of speed, latency,
frequency ranges of the spectrum, use cases that are supported, support for network
slicing, RAN architecture, and Core network architecture.

Criteria 4G 5G
Speed 300 - 400 Mbps (lab) 1000 Mbps (lab)
40 - 100 Mbps (real world) 300 - 400 Mbps (real world)

Latency 50 ms 1 - 2 ms
Frequency 2 - 8 GHz Sub 6 GHz (5G macro optimized),
3-30 GHz (5G E small cells)
Use Cases Voice over LTE 30-100 GHz
Enhanced (5G Ultra
Mobile Dense)
Broadband
Mobile Broadband Augmented Reality / Virtual Reality
Online Video Online Internet of Things (IOT) Holographic
Gaming Calls
Fixed Wireless Autonomous
Cars Robotic Surgeries

Network Slicing No Yes

Cell Towers Large Towers in Small Cells installed in almost every

concentrated street corner, in addition to mobile towers
communities

Service Connection Oriented Service Oriented

Architecture

Architecture Long Term Evolution (LTE) Next Generation Core (NG-Core)

New Radio (NR)

TABLE 1.3 4G VERSUS 5G

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10. Explain Next Generation Core (NG-Core) (Nov/Dec 23)
 NG-Core for 5G is the equivalent of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) in a 4G network.
 5G NG-Core architecture supports virtualization and allows the user plane functions
to be deployed separately, from the control plane functions.
 In addition, the user plane and control plane functions can be s c a l e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y.
 5 G N G - C o r e s u p p o r t s b o t h International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) based
and non-IMSI based identities for authentication of services.
 NG- Core has support for capabilities such as network slicing, which allows the
partition of network resources across different customers, services or use-cases.

FIGURE 1.4: 5G DETAILED SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

Network Functions in NG-Core

5G NG-Core architecture comprises of the following network functions:
1. Authentication Server Function (AUSF)
2. Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF)
3. Data Network (DN)
4. Network Exposure Function (NEF)
5. Network Repository Function (NRF)
6. Network Slice Selection Function (NSSF)
7. Policy Control Function (PCF)
8. Session Management Function (SMF)
9. Unified Data Management (UDM)
10. User Plane Function (UPF)
11. Application Function (AF)

Authentication Server Function (AUSF) - AUSF acts as an authentication server,

performing UE authentication using Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP).
 EAP is a popular protocol used in Wi-Fi networks for authenticating Wi-Fi clients. In
the 4G network, AUSF function was part of the Home Subscriber Server (HSS) function.
Access a n d M o b i l i t y M a n a g e m e n t F u n c t i o n ( AMF) - Responsible for
connection management, registration management and mobility management
(handling of reachability and idle/active mode mobility state).
 It also takes care of access authentication and authorization. AMF also supports Lawful intercept
function for AMF events. In the 4G network, this function was part of the Mobility Management Entity
(MME).
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 Data Network (DN) - DN offers operator services, internet access and third party services.
Network Exposure Function (NEF) - NEF is a proxy or API aggregation point for the core
network and provides security when services or external application functions access the 5G Core
nodes. This is a new function introduced in 5G architecture.
Network Repository Function (NRF) - NRF supports service discovery, and
maintains/provides profiles network function instances. This is a new function introduced in 5G
architecture.
Network Slice Selection Function (NSSF) - NSSF supports the selection of network
slice instances to serve the User Equipment (UE), based on the Network Slice Selection
Assignment Information (NSSAIs) configured or allowed for a given UE. This i s a
n e w f u n c t i o n i n t r o d u c e d i n 5 G architecture.
Policy Control Function (PCF) - PCF provides a unified policy framework and shares
policy rules to control plane functions, to enforce them.
 It also accesses subscription information relevant for policy decisions from the Unified
Data Repository (UDR). PCF was part of the PCRF function in the 4G network.
Session Management Fun cti on (SMF) - SMF pro vides sessio n management, UE
IP address allocat ion & management and DHCP functions.
 It also provides traffic steering configuration for User Plane Function (UPF) for proper
traffic routing. SMF function was split between the MME and Packet Gateway (PGW) function
in 4G network.
Unified Data Management (UDM) - UDM provides Authentication and Key
Agreement (AKA) credentials, user identification handling, access authorization and subscription
management functions. UDM was part of the HSS functionality in the 4G
architecture.
User Plane Function (UPF) - UPF provides packet routing and forwarding functions. In
addition, it also handles QoS services. UPF function was split between Serving Gateway (SGW) and PGW
in the 4G architecture.
 Separating the user plane from the control plane in both SGW/PGW, enables the service
providers to deploy the UPF closer to the network edge.
 In 5G, UPF function can be deployed at the network edge, in addition to the network core, to improve the
network performance and to reduce latency.
Application Function (AF) - AF function is similar to the AF function in the 4G network.
 It interacts with the 5G core to provide services such as application influence on traffic
routing, accessing Network Exposure Function (NEF) and interacting with policy
framework for policy control.

11. Explain visualized Evolved Packet Core (vEPC)

 Control and User Plane Separation in 5G Core CUPS stands for Control and User Plane
Separation.
 It was introduced by 3GPP, for Evolved Packet Core (EPC) as part of their Release 14
specifications.
Need for CUPS
 Service providers across the globe are seeing a jump in the mobile data growth, year-
after-year, due to the growth in the consumption of video, online gaming and social media
services.

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 5G is not only facing the challenge of supporting higher data speeds, but also has to
reduce the network latency for customers.
 Network latency has a direct impact on the customer experience and almost a non-
negotiable thing for the new 5G use-cases.
 The architects of 5G were looking at multiple ways of bringing down the network
latency for customers, to meet the requirements of emerging 5G use cases such as Smart
Cars, AR/VR and Holograms.
 5G architecture tries to reduce the network latency through multiple mechanisms such as
Network Slicing, Massive MIMO, Small Cells and Multi- access Edge Computing (MEC).
 MEC infrastructure, being closer to the user, plays a critical role in bringing down the
network latency by providing a compute infrastructure for Over-The-Top (OTT) and
Internet of Things (IOT) services. CUPS is another technique in 5G, that helps to bring
down the network latency.
 The multiple deployment options supported by CUPS, provide great flexibility to the
service providers, to deploy user-plane functions in one or more locations to meet the
bandwidth and latency requirements of customer services.
 For example, a service provider may have to deploy more instances of the user plane
function near a college dorm, where several 100s of students are watching video and
playing online games.
 However, in a stadium, there will be several 1000s of mobile users who would be
checking their emails, browsing Internet and uploading pictures. In such locations, the
control plane has to scale to support several 1000s of customer sessions.
 So, the service provider may have to deploy more control plane functions in such
geographies to support the 1000s of mobile users.

CUPS in 4G architecture
 CUPS was originally introduced in the 4G Evolved Packet Core (EPC) architecture. EPC
with CUPS support separates the control plane function from the user plane function in the
network.
 Network functions within 4G EPC such as Packet Gateway (PGW), Serving Gateway
(SGW) and Traffic Detection Function (TDF), were split into control plane and user
plane functions.
 EPC with CUPS support had PGW-U/ PGW-C, SGW-U/SGW-C and TDF-U/TDF-C.
When EPC supports CUPS, service providers would have the option of
1. Deploying the control plane functions co-located with the user plane functions (i.e., in the
same data center)
2. Deploying the control plane functions and user-plane functions in a distributed fashion,
across multiple locations
3. Deploying the control plane function in a centralized location and deploy the user-plane
functions in multiple locations
 5G adopts CUPS based architecture for the 5G Core. 5G Core has a distinct User Plane
Function (UPF) that handles all of the user-plane functions performed by SGW-U and
PGW-U in 4G EPC.
 5G's control plane functions are distributed across different network functions such
as Authentication Server Function (AUSF), User Data Management (UDM), Policy
and Charging Function (PCF) and Session Management Function (SMF).
 This gives a lot of flexibility for the service providers to decide the network functions which
have to be deployed at the edge of the network versus the core of the network.
 Since 5G supports cloud-native network services, it becomes easy for the vendors
and service providers to implement CUPS in the 5G network architecture (when compared
to the 4G network).
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 PART A- Two marks

1. What are the characteristics of first generation 1G?

1. 2.4 kbps speed enables voice calls in one nation.
2. Use an analogue signal.
3. Poor voice quality, insufficient battery life.
4. Large phone size limited capacity poor handoff dependability inadequate security
5. Spectrum efficiency was relatively low.
2. What are the characteristics of second generation 2G?
1. 2G stands for the Second Generation.
2. Data transmission rates of up to 64kbps were achieved through digital signals.
3. Enables services such as text messaging, picture messages, and MMS Multimedia
message.
4. Incapable of dealing with complicated data such as videos.
5. Strong digital signals were required to enable mobile phones to function, digital signals
will be weak if no network coverage in a particular area.
3. What are the characteristics of third generation 3G?
1. Speed 2 Mbps typically referred to as smartphones.
2. Broadband and data transfer rates have been increased to handle web-based
applications and music and video files.
3. It allows for speedier communication.
4. Sending/receiving huge email messages.
5. High-speed web access, improved security, video conferencing, 3D gaming.
4. What are the characteristics of fourth generation 4G?
1. Ability to give speeds ranging from 10Mbps to 1Gbps, high quality streaming video, a
combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max and increased security.
2. Provide any type of service at any time and from any location as needed by the user.
3. Expansion of multimedia services.
4. Low cost per bit, increased battery usage.
5. Implementation is complex, intricate technology is required, and expensive equipment is
necessary to build a next-generation network.
5. List the features 5G.
The present 5G technology trend has the following feature.
1. 5G technology can provide connectivity speeds of up to 25 Mbps.
2. 5G technology provides cell phone users with high quality and bi-directional extensive
bandwidth sharing.
3. 5G technology enables large-scale data transmission at gigabit speeds, with about 65,000
connections supported.
4. The uploading and downloading speeds of 5G technology have reached a new high.
5. Virtual private networks are also supported by 5G technology.
6. Define User Equipment (UE)
 In 2G, the handsets were called as mobile phones or cell phones, as they were
predominantly used for making voice calls.
 However, in 3G, the handsets can support both voice and data services. Hence, the term
User Equipment or UE is used to represent the end user device, which could be a mobile
phone or a data terminal.

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7. Define Radio Access Network (RAN)
 The RAN, also known as the UMTS Radio Access Network, UTRAN, is the
equivalent of the previous Base Station Subsystem (BSS) in GSM.
 RAN includes the NodeB function and the Radio Network Controller (RNC) function. The
NodeB function provides the air interface. The RNC manages the air interface for the
overall network.
8. Define Core Network.
The core network is the equivalent of Network Switching Subsystem or NSS in GSM
and provides all the central processing and management for the system. Core network has
both circuit switched and packet switched network elements.
9. Define Home Location register (HLR)
 HLR is a database that contains all information about the subscriber including their
last known location.
 The HLR maintains a mapping between Mobile Station International Subscriber
Directory Number (MSISDN) and International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
MSISDN is the mobile phone number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS.
10. Define Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 The EIR is the function that decides whether a user equipment is allowed onto the network
or not. EIR is typically integrated with the HLR.
 EIR is used for blocking or monitoring calls from a stolen user equipment. Each
user equipment is uniquely identified through a number known as the International Mobile
Equipment Identity (IMEI).
11. Define Authentication Centre (AuC)
 AuC is used for storing a shared secret key, which gets generated and burned in
the SIM card at the time of manufacturing.
 AuC function is typically co-located with the HLR function. AuC does not exchange
the shared secret key, but would run an algorithm on the International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI), to generate data for authentication of a subscriber / user
equipment. Each IMSI is unique and gets mapped to a SIM card.
12. Define Mobile switching center (MSC)
 MSC is responsible for functions such as routing calls and SMS messages. It interfaces
with the HLR for keeping track of subscriber location and does call handovers, when
the mobile subscriber moves from one location to another.
 Gateway MSC (GMSC) is a function that is present either within or outside of the
MSC. A GMSC interfaces with the external networks such as the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN), which is our legacy land line network.
13. Define Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
 SGSN is responsible for mobility management and authentication of subscribers /
mobile devices in a GPRS network.
 It performs a role which is similar to the role played by the MSC for voice calls. The
SGSN and MSC are often co-located in the network.
14. Define Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
GGSN acts as a gateway to the Internet. It connects the GPRS network with the packet switched
data network. GGSN receives data addressed to a given subscriber, checks if the subscriber is
active and then forwards the data to the SGSN serving the particular subscriber.

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15. Define Charging Gateway Function (CGF)
 CGF handles Call Detail Records (CDRs) generated by the GGSN in a GPRS
network.
 There are different types of CDRs processed by the CGF, based on the network
node that generates the CDR. For example, when a SGSN generates CDRs, it is
called S-CDR.
16. Evolved Node B (eNB)
 eNodeB is the entity that supports air interface and performs radio resource management.
 It provides radio resource management functions such as IP header compression, user
data encryption, and routing the user data to the Serving Gateway (SGW).
17. Define Serving Gateway (SGW)
 SGW serves as the mobility anchor for the user plane. It takes care of inter-eNodeB
handovers & User Equipment (UE) mobility between 3GPP networks.
 It is responsible for routing/forwarding data packets between the eNodeB & Packet Data
Network Gateway (PDN GW).
18. Define Packet Data Network Gateway (PGW)
 PDN GW provides the UE with connectivity to the external packet data networks
such as Internet.
 It serves as the anchor point for intra-3GPP network mobility, as well as mobility
between 3GPP and non-3GPP networks.
 It takes care of Policy and Charging Enforcement Function (PCEF), which includes
Quality of Service (QoS), online/offline flow- based charging data generation, deep-
packet inspection, and lawful intercept.
19. Define Mobility Management Entity (MME)
MME manages mobility, UE identities and security parameters. It operates in the
Control plane and provides functions such as managing session states, authentication,
mobility with 3GPP 2G/3G nodes, and roaming.
20. Define Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF)
Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) maintains the policy and charging related
controls for all the subscribers. For example, a subscriber’s quality of service policy is stored
in the PCRF server.
21. What is Circuit Switched Fall-Back (CSFB)?
 When LTE is just used for data transfer, voice calls are handled through the legacy
circuit switched mechanisms - by falling back to a 3G or 2G network.
 Circuit Switched Fall- Back (CSFB) works only when the area covered by an LTE
network is also covered by the 3G network.
22. Define Voice over LTE (VoLTE)
 Voice over LTE is relatively a new concept, to support voice calls over the 4G
network.
 While CSFB helped the service providers during the migration from 2G/3G to 4G
networks, VoLTE runs completely on the 4G network.
 In case of VoLTE, the user equipment / mobile should be capable of initiating a
VoLTE call and the network should support VoLTE.
23. How do setting up a VOLTE?
Setting up a VoLTE is a two-step process:
1. At first, the UE sets up a dedicated bearer/tunnel for IMS APN (Access Point Name).
2. Once the bearer is established, the UE sets up a Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) connection
with the IMS Core. SIP is a popular protocol used for Voice over IP (VOIP)
communications, over the Internet.

22
24. What is Radio Access Network (RAN)?
The Radio Access Network (RAN) architecture has evolved across the different
generations of the wireless network, to support the bandwidth and scalability requirements.
RAN has two distinct units Ð the Remote Radio Head (RRH) and the Baseband Unit (BBU).
25. Draw the table for evolution of RAN.

26. State the need for 5G. (Nov/Dec 23)

 Internet of Things (IOT) will require an infrastructure that can handle several billions
of network devices connecting to the wireless network, and at the same time energy
efficient.
 3D video and Ultra High Definition Video streaming applications are hungry for
additional bandwidth.
 Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality enabled gaming, video streaming and industrial
applications require sub- millisecond latencies.
27. Define Next Generation Core (NG-core)
 NG-Core for 5G is the equivalent of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) in a 4G network.
 5G NG-Core architecture supports virtualization and allows the user plane functions
to be deployed separately, from the control plane functions.
 In addition, the user plane and control plane functions can be scaled independently.
28. State the functions of 5G NG –Core.
1. Authentication Server Function (AUSF)
2. Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF)
3. Data Network (DN)
4. Network Exposure Function (NEF)
5. Network Repository Function (NRF)
29. Define Authentication Server Function (AUSF)
AUSF acts as an authentication server, performing UE authentication using Extensible
Authentication Protocol (EAP). EAP is a popular protocol used in Wi-Fi networks for
authenticating Wi-Fi clients. In the 4G network, AUSF function was part of the Home
Subscriber Server (HSS) function.
30. Define Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF)
 Responsible for connection management, registration management and mobility
management (handling of reachability and idle/active mode mobility state).
 It also takes care of access authentication and authorization. AMF also supports Lawful
intercept function for AMF events. In the 4G network, this function was part of the
Mobility Management Entity (MME).
31. Define Data Network (DN)
DN offers operator services, internet access and third party services.

23
32. Define Network Exposure Function (NEF)
NEF is a proxy or API aggregation point for the core network and provides security when
services or external application functions access the 5G Core nodes. This is a new function
introduced in 5G architecture.
33. Define Network Repository Function (NRF)
NRF supports service discovery, and maintains/provides profiles network function instances.
This is a new function introduced in 5G architecture.
34. Define Network Slice Selection Function (NSSF)
NSSF supports the selection of network slice instances to serve the User Equipment (UE), based
on the Network Slice Selection Assignment Information (NSSAIs) configured or allowed
for a given UE. This is a new function introduced in 5G architecture.
35. What is Policy Control Function (PCF)?
PCF provides a unified policy framework and shares policy rules to control plane
functions, to enforce them. It also accesses subscription information relevant for policy
decisions from the Unified Data Repository (UDR). PCF was part of the PCRF function in
the 4G network.
36. What is Session Management Function (SMF)?
SMF provides session management, UE IP address allocation & management and DHCP
functions. It also provides traffic steering configuration for User Plane Function (UPF)
for proper traffic routing. SMF function was split between the MME and Packet Gateway
(PGW) function in 4G network.
37. What is Unified Data Management (UDM)?
UDM provides Authentication and Key Agreement (AKA) credentials, user identification
handling, access authorization and subscription management functions. UDM was part of
the HSS functionality in the 4G architecture.
38. What is User Plane Function (UPF)?
 UPF provides packet routing and forwarding functions. In addition, it also handles QoS
services. UPF function was split between Serving Gateway (SGW) and PGW in the 4G
architecture.
 Separating the user plane from the control plane in both SGW/PGW, enables the service
providers to deploy the UPF closer to the network edge.
39. What is Application Function (AF)?
AF function is similar to the AF function in the 4G network. It interacts with the 5G core
to provide services such as application influence on traffic routing, accessing Network
Exposure Function (NEF) and interacting with policy framework for policy control.
40. What is CUPS in 4G architecture?
 CUPS was originally introduced in the 4G Evolved Packet Core (EPC) architecture.
EPC with CUPS support separates the control plane function from the user plane function
in the network.
 Network functions within 4G EPC such as Packet Gateway (PGW), Serving
Gateway (SGW) and Traffic Detection Function (TDF), were split into control
plane and user plane functions.

24