Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 1

Analytical Proof of Newton's Force Laws

1 Introduction
Many students intuitively assume that Newton's inertial
and gravitational force laws, F = ma and
Mm
F= G , are true since they are clear and
( distance M − m) 2
simple. However, there is an analysis that ties the two equations
together and demonstrates that they must be true. The analysis
provides answers to questions such as, "Is the inertial mass
exactly the same as the gravitational mass? Why is the
exponent of distance, 2, and not 1.99 or 2.01 or 1? Why is a
constant required in one law and not in the other?"

The ideal way to prove new theoretical laws is to forecast

the outcome of an experiment using the laws, perform the
experiment, and find that the result is as forecast. But nature had
already performed the experiment with planets in the solar
system, and Kepler had determined the results. So, Newton, in
his 1669 paper, "Mathematical Principles of Philosophy", (now
part of the Great Books Series in local libraries), applied his force
laws to the solar system and obtained the same results that
Kepler had stated. This confirmed Newton's ideas, put physics
on a firm mathematical basis and answered the above questions.

2 Summary of Analytical Proof of Newton's Force Laws

In the 8 step procedure that follows, Newton's force laws
are applied to the planet−sun system, and the planet (earth) path
around the sun is shown to be an ellipse. This procedure below
uses the mathematics found in first year college texts and
explains the mathematics within the derivations as they are
being evolved.

1. Observations show that the planets follow a smooth curve

around the sun. Sketch the planet at position P, using
polar coordinates, r and θ , within an orthogonal
coordinate system.
 Page 2 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

2. Differentiate planet position functions to obtain planet

velocities, v x and v y .
3. Differentiate planet velocities to obtain planet
accelerations, ax and ay .
4. Equate Newton's inertial and gravitational force laws as
applied to the planet. In this step we assume that inertial
mass is identical to gravitational mass and that the force
of gravity decreases as the square of distance. The
acceleration required in the inertial law is also assumed to
be the planet radial acceleration. G must also be
assumed to make the equations consistent. The end
result of this analytical procedure must show that all these
assumptions are correct, or Newton’s equations would not
be true.

5. Convert accelerations, ax and ay , to assumed planet

radial, aR , and transverse, aT , accelerations.

dθ
6. Replace the time dependent term, , in the expression
dt
of aR , with a function of r.

d 2r
7. Replace the time dependent term, 2
, in the expression
dt
of aR , with a function of r and θ.

8. Solve the differential equation containing r as a function of

θ. The solution is the polar equation of an ellipse. This
result is the same as Kepler's determination from
astronomical data and analytically proves Newton's force
equations.

2.1 Planet Position in Polar Coordinates, r and θ

This analytical proof of Newton's force laws begins with a
planet P, moving along a smooth curve in a polar coordinate
system as shown in Figure 1. The planet is moving relative to the
stationary sun.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 3

y • P Earth
position of P r

θ
x
Sun 0
x position of P

Figure 1

Radius vector, r, is attached to planet, P, and varies in

length as P moves. Also, angle θ and its rate of change vary as
P moves. Therefore, the velocity and acceleration of P vary
continuously as the planet moves along its path. Recall that
acceleration, velocity and force have magnitude and direction.

Newton had previously proved that, as far as the force of

gravity was concerned, the entire mass of the planet and sun
can be considered to be at the center of their spheres. The
radius vector starts at the center of the sun and ends at the
center of the planet.
Determine the x and y positions of P, as a function of r
and θ, by using the trigonometric functions that are indicated by
Figure 1.
The x distance of P from the origin; Px = r cos θ.
The y distance of P from the origin; Py = r sin θ.

As time passes, P moves along its curve, making r and θ

dependent upon time, t. The positions of P as functions of time
are indicated as;
Px ( t ) = r ( t ) cos θ ( t ) ,
Py ( t ) = r ( t ) sin θ ( t) .
This completes step 1.
 Page 4 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

2.2 Planet Velocity in x and y Directions

Figure 2 indicates that the change in x and y distances is a

function of both r and θ as P moves in time along its path.

y velocity of P

x velocity of P
P
y •
position of P r

θ
x
0
x position of P

Figure 2

The velocity of the planet, P, is the change of distance

along the curve per the change in time. Or,

change in distance ∆ s
= .
change in time ∆t

The calculus expression for velocity in the x direction, as

d
the change in time is made very small is; Px ( t ) .
dt

d
Velocity in the y direction is; Py ( t ) .
dt
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 5

Therefore, the velocity of P in the x direction is;

d
vx =
dt
( r ( t ) cosθ ( t ) ) .

And the velocity of P in the y direction is;

d
vy =
dt
( r ( t ) sinθ ( t) ) .

The calculus rule for obtaining the derivative of the product

of two variables is to multiply the first term times the derivative of
the second term plus the second times the derivative of the first.
Also, the derivative of the sine of an angle is the cosine of
the angle times its derivative, and the derivative of the cosine of
an angle is minus the sine of the angle times its derivative.
Using these differentiation rules;

The expression for the velocity of P in the x direction is,

vx =
d
( r cosθ ) = cos θ dr − r sinθ dθ .
dt dt dt

The expression for the velocity of P in the y direction,

following the same rules, is:

vy =
d
( r sinθ ) = sin θ dr + r cosθ dθ .
dt dt dt

This completes step 2.

 Page 6 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

2.3 Planet Acceleration in x and y Directions

The next step is to obtain expressions for the planet
accelerations in the x and y directions indicated in Figure 3.

Acceleration in y direction
y

P
•
r Acceleration in x direction

x
0
Figure 3

Recall that acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

Let the acceleration of the planet in the x direction be ax.

Let the acceleration of the planet in the y direction be ay.

d
Then; a x = vx ,
dt

d
and a y = vy .
dt

Finding acceleration causes us to take the derivative, with

respect to time, of velocity. Velocity, in turn, is the derivative of
distance with respect to time. Therefore, acceleration is the
second derivative of distance with respect to time. The derivative
of a derivative is called the second derivative. The symbol for the
d 2 ( variable θ or r )
second derivative, in this case is; .
dt 2
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 7

Replace vx and vy with their derived expressions listed in

Section 2.2. Follow the same differentiation rules as given above
and obtain:

 d 2r  dθ 
2
 d 2θ dr dθ 
ax = cos θ  2 − r    − sin θ  r 2 + 2 .
 dt  dt    dt dt dt 

 d 2r  dθ 
2
 d 2θ dr dθ 
ay = sin θ  2 − r    + sin θ  r 2 + 2 .
 dt  dt    dt dt dt 

This completes step 3.

Accelerations ax and ay must be used to obtain expressions

for the radial and transverse accelerations of the planet in Step
5.

2.4 Equate Gravitational Force to Planet Inertial Force

Newton's force of gravity law as applied to earth mass, m,
and sun mass, M, is;

Mm
FGravitational = G .
r2
Where r is the radius vector, the varying distance from
earth to sun, and G is the gravitational constant.

FGravitational is the amount of force that acts in a straight line

between the planet and sun. This force would place the planet in
free fall toward the sun if it were not for the counteracting planet
inertial force.

What is the inertial force on the planet?

Newton’s inertial force law states that the inertial force is

equal to the acceleration of the planet times the mass of the
planet.
FInertial = maRadial .
Page 8 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

The inertial and gravitational forces must be equal to each

other in magnitude but opposite in direction, or else the planet
would leave its orbit. With unequal forces, the planet would fall
into the sun, or attain a different orbit in a new equilibrium path,
or go spinning off into space. Since the planet does maintain its
orbit, the sum of the two forces must be zero.
FGravitational + FInertial = 0.

Mm
G + maRadial = 0.
r2
M
Divide through by m and obtain; G + aRadial = 0.
r2
M
Then; G 2
= − aRadial .
r
This is an important place in the proof where the inertial
mass is assumed to be identical to gravity mass and the radial
acceleration is shown opposite to the attraction of gravity. We
must continue to be skeptical of these assumptions, including
distance to the second power, until we derive the elliptical path of
the planet around the sun. This equation of the radial
acceleration shows that aRadial is proportional to the inverse of
distance squared. By applying some mathematics we will modify
the equation to obtain aRadial as a function of r and θ. This radial
acceleration equation is the basic equation that will evolve into
the equation showing that the earth orbit is an ellipse.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 9

Notice also that Newton's inertial force law can be

considered simply as the definition of the unit of force. Once the
standards of kilogram, meter and second are agreed upon, the
unit of inertial force is established. We need a constant, (G), to
make the gravitational units of force have the same dimensions
and the same magnitude as inertial force units. But we have no
reason (as yet), to believe that the inertial force, based on
random but agreed upon standards, is directly proportional to the
gravitational force. We just assumed the equivalence when we
canceled "m" in the above derivation. If the path of the earth
around the sun is analytically determined to be an ellipse, then
the assumption is correct.

This completes step 4.

The next part of this proof to find expressions for radial and
transverse planet accelerations in step 5 of the procedure.
 Page 10 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

2.5 Planet Radial and Transverse Accelerations

Figure 4 shows the geometric construction to determine
the radial and transverse planet accelerations.

aycosθ

axcosθ θ
axsinθ
ay
“a” aR
aT
θ
P
aysinθ
r
θ
x
0
ax

Figure 4

A vector representing an assumed total planet

acceleration, ”a”, is drawn at some angle to the radius vector, r.
In Figure 4, it is convenient to draw “a” upward and away from
the direction of the radial acceleration, aR, (which is opposite to
the line of attraction between earth and sun).
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 11

One component of assumed planet acceleration, ”a”, must

be in line with (but in the opposite direction to) the force of
gravity between the sun and planet. This acceleration
component, aR, is the radial acceleration . The other component
of assumed planet acceleration, ”a”, placed perpendicular to the
radial acceleration, is the transverse acceleration, aT. (This
transverse acceleration, is not to be confused with the tangential,
i.e. tangent to the path, acceleration. Tangential acceleration, not
relevant in this proof, is discussed in Sections 7.1 and 7.2)

Of course, we know that if the planet actually has a

transverse acceleration, a transverse force must be applied. But
if a transverse force is applied, the planet will be pushed out of
its orbit. So the transverse force must be zero and the transverse
acceleration must also be zero. This concept of an assumed
transverse acceleration, will provide one equation needed for this
proof.

If the assumed acceleration, “a”, had been placed in line

with the radius vector, it would have been identical to aR and no
new information could be gained from the geometry. Placed as it
is though, acceleration “a” is composed of two vectors, aR and aT.
The radial acceleration, aR is drawn in line with the radius vector,
r. The transverse acceleration, aT, is drawn perpendicular to the
radial acceleration.

It is seen in Figure 4 that acceleration “a” is equal to two

different sets of component vectors that provide the information
needed to continue the proof. One set of these components is ax
and ay.

The second set of “a” components is aR and aT. The

geometric construction in Figure 4 shows how aX, ay and θ are
used to determine aR and aT.
Page 12 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

The construction shows that;

aR = ax cos θ + ay sin θ .

aT = ay cos θ − ax sin θ .

The algebraic expressions for aX and aY were derived in

Section 2.3.

Therefore, replace aX in aR and aT with

 d 2r  dθ  
2
 d 2θ dr dθ 
cos θ  2 − r    − sin θ  r + 2 .
 dt  dt    dt 2 dt dt 

Also, replace aY in aR and aT with

 d 2r  dθ 
2
 d 2r dr dθ 
sin θ  2 − r    + cos r 2 + 2 .
 dt  dt    dt dt dt 

Make the substitutions and obtain;

2
d 2r  dθ 
aR = − r   .
dt 2  dt 

d 2r dr dθ
aT = r + 2 .
dt 2 dt dt

This completes step 5.

 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 13

dθ
2.6 Replace Time Dependent Term , , in aR
dt
M
From Section 2.4, G 2 = − aRadial .
r
Replacing aRadial with its equivalent from above;

GM  d 2r  dθ 
2
= −  2 − r  .
r2  dt  dt  

A term that is not a function of time must be developed to

dθ dθ
replace , because is a factor in aR.
dt dt
Recall that we have already determined that aT is zero.

d 2r dr dθ
From above; aT = r + 2 .
dt 2 dt dt

dθ
Let’s take the derivative of r 2 and see what results.
dt
2
d  2 dθ  2 d θ dr dθ
 r  = r + 2r .
dt  dt  dt 2 dt dt

1
Now multiply both sides by and obtain;
r

1d  2 dθ  d 2θ dr dθ
 r  = r + 2 , which is aT.
r dt  dt  dt 2 dθ dt
Page 14 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

1d  2 dθ 
But aT is zero. So, r  is also zero.
r dt  dt 

1 dθ
Since cannot be zero, the derivative of r 2 must be
r dt
dθ
zero. The rate of change of a constant is zero. Therefore, r 2
dt
must be a constant. That constant is designated K.

dθ K dθ
Let K = r 2 , and 2 = .
dt r dt

K dθ
Substitute for in the equation of radial acceleration,
r2 dt
2
M d 2r  dθ 
− G = − r   .
r2 dt 2  dt 

d 2r K2
2
M d 2r  K M
Then, − G = − r 2  . 0r, − G = − .
r2 dt 2 r  r2 dt 2 r3
This completes step 6.

d 2r
Now must be changed to a term containing r and θ,
dt 2
and be time independent.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 15

d 2r
2.7 Replace Time Dependent Term, , in aR
dt 2
d 2r
The factor to replace is found through the following
dt 2
procedure.

1 1
Let r = . Differentiate with respect to time by
n n
following the calculus rule for differentiating a variable to a
power. The rule is: Place the exponent in front of the
variable, subtract one from the exponent and differentiate
the variable.

d  1 1 dn
The result is,   = − 2 .
dt  n  n dt

dr 1 dn 1 dn dθ
Then, = − 2 . Multiply − 2 by 1 in the form of .
dt n dt n dt dθ

dr 1 dn dθ
= − .
dt n 2 dθ dt

dθ K
In Section 2.6, we found that is equal to 2 .
dt r
dr 1 dn K dn
Substitute and obtain; = − 2 = −K .
dt n dθ r 2 dθ

We want to replace the second derivative of r with respect

dr
to t, therefore we must differentiate the first derivative, , once
dt
more to obtain the second derivative.

d 2r d 2 n dθ
This second derivative is, = − K .
2 dt
dt 2 dθ
Page 16 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

K dθ
We again substitute 2 for , and obtain;
r dt

d 2r 2 2 d 2n
= −K n .
dt 2 dθ 2

M d 2r K2
The result from Step 6 above is − G = − .
r2 dt 2 r3

d 2r
Substituting for we obtain;
dt 2

GM 2 2 d 2n K2
− = −K n − .
r2 dθ 2
r3
1
Since n = ,
r

GM K 2 d 2n K2
= + .
r2 r 2 dθ 2
r3
This is the point in the analytical proof where distance
squared must be in the denominator of the gravitational force. In
order for the analysis to conclude with a closed curve we must
have distance, r, the radius vector, exactly to the first power.
When we multiply through with r2,, we will have r to the first
power within the equation. It will then be possible for the radius
vector to trace a smooth curve as we assumed in Figures 1 to
4.The second derivative term will determine the shape of the
curve.

2 d 2n K2
GM = K 2
+ .
dθ r

This completes Step 7.

 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 17

2.8 Obtain r as a Function of θ and Confirm Kepler's First Law

1
Simplify the above equation by replacing with n.
r
2
d n GM
+ n − = 0.
dθ 2 K2
This is the differential equation to be solved in order to get r as
a function of θ. We know, from Section 2.2 Step 2, that the derivative
of a cosine function is a negative sine function and the derivative of
the sine function is a cosine function. It appears that the cosine
function of θ will fit into the differential equation and solve it. The
procedure to solve the equation is to let,
GM
n = A cos θ + 2 , where A is another constant.
K
What is the first derivative of n with respect to θ ?
dn d  GM
=  Acosθ + 2  = − A sin θ .
dθ dθ  K 

What is the second derivative of n with respect to θ ?

d 2n
= − A cos θ .
dθ 2
To test this solution, put n and the second derivative of n
with respect to θ back into the original equation and check the
result.
d 2n GM
2
+ n − 2 = 0.
dθ K
GM GM
− A cos θ + A cos θ + 2 − 2 = 0.
K K
The left side of the test equation is also zero.
The result shown in Step 7 is:
2
2 d n K2
GM = K + .
dθ 2 r
Substitute − Acosθ for the second derivative of n with
respect to θ.
K2
GM = K 2 ( − A cos θ ) + .
r
Page 18 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

Solve for r and obtain;

K2
r= GM .
K2
1+ A cos θ
GM

The radius vector determining the earth’s path around the

sun is a function of the mass of the sun, the cosine of the
generated angle and constants G, K, and A. This is Newton's
derived equation for the planet's path around the sun and it has
the form of the polar equation of a conic. (See Section 3.) This
analytically derived path turns out to be an ellipse and agrees
with Kepler's first law. Notice again that the mass of the earth
plays no part in its equation of motion. An object of a far different
size and mass would occupy the same path if it had the same
radial acceleration.
This same phenomenon occurs in Cavendish’s horizontal
pendulum experiment to “Weigh the earth”. The mass of the
small bob and the large attracting sphere both appear to be used
in finding G. But on closer inspection we find that the mass of
the bob is used in calculating its moment of inertia and again in
the multiplication of the mass of the bob and the large attracting
sphere for gravity force. So that the mass of the small bob
cancels out. However, physics texts often show the mass of the
small bob to be necessary for the calculation of G in the
Cavindish experiment.

The above equation of motion of the earth’s radius vector

was derived using only Newton's force laws and it was an
extremely important result. It helped make Newton's laws the
basis of mechanical physics.

This completes Step 8 and the analytical proof of Newton's

force laws. The proofs of Kepler’s second and third laws are in
Sections 4 and 5.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 19

3 Polar Equation of Conics

dε
Recall that one polar equation of a conic is; r = .
1 + ε cosθ

Where r is the radius vector, and d is the distance from

focus to directrix. The radius vector generates the angle θ and
traces out the conic. The planet orbit starts in Figure 1 and
completes the ellipse in Figure 5.
Directrix

b r=a
r
θ
Focus Sun Focus
aε
a(1-ε )

a a
ε
Figure 5

If the eccentricity, ε, is less than one and greater than

zero, the plotted equation is an ellipse with the sun at a focus.
(When ε equals one the equation is a parabola. When ε is
greater than one the equation is an hyperbola.)

If the path of the planet is an ellipse, the planet will return

to some starting point once every orbit. The earth returns to a
randomly selected starting point, as do all the planets. So, using
only his equations, Newton proved that the path of the earth is
an ellipse as Kepler had observed. Therefore Newton's
equations are proved to be correct. Since all the planets and
their moons follow elliptical paths, they all demonstrate Newton’s
laws.
Page 20 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

To follow the proofs of Kepler’s laws, we need more

information on the mathematical characteristics of an ellipse.

In Figure 5:

r = radius vector.

θ = angle generated by radius vector, 0o - 360o. When θ

o
goes beyond 360 the curve repeats just as the planet repeats
its orbit.

a = semi-major axis. This is also the "mean" planet-sun

distance.

b = semi-minor axis.

ε = eccentricity.

ε of earth orbit =.017. ε of moon orbit = .06.

Area of ellipse = πab.

Polar equations of ellipse;

a 1 − ε 2 
dε  
r = and r = .
1 + ε cos θ 1+ ε cos θ

The second equation shows that when the eccentricity, ε,

is zero, the conic is a circle of radius a. Since the planet's
observed distance to the sun varies, the planet path cannot be a
circle and ε cannot be zero.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 21

4 Proof of Kepler's Second Law

Kepler's second law states that the radius vector, from
planet to sun, sweeps equal areas in equal times as the planet
orbits the sun. This law can be shown as follows:

The first step is to determine the area of a small triangular

segment, dA, of the elliptical shaped area shown in Figure 6.

h
dθ
0 r
Figure 6

1
dA ≈ r h.
2

For the small angle, dθ, the sine of the angle in radians is
h 1
equal to the angle; sin θ = = dθ . Then; dA = r 2dθ .
r 2
Indicate the derivative with respect to time on both sides of
dA 1 2 d θ dθ K
the equation. = r . Recall in Section 2.6, = 2.
dt 2 dt dt r

dA K K
Therefore; = , and dA = dt . Then,
dt 2 2
K
A=
2
( times a specified time period) .
The equation shows that area swept is a constant times an
elapsed time. This is Kepler's second law. The sweep of area by
the radius vector in any elapsed time period is independent of
where the planet is in its orbit. This means that the planet's
velocity is faster when it is closer to the sun.
 Page 22 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

5 Proof of Kepler's Third Law

Kepler's third law states that, the square of the planet's
time for one orbit, divided by the cube of the mean distance of
planet to sun, is equal to the same constant for all planets.

From the proof of Kepler's second law (Section 4) we note

K
that; dA = dt .
2
The planet sweeps through the whole area of the ellipse,
π a b, in the time "T" that it takes to orbit the sun.

The total area swept by vector r in time T is,

K 2π ab
π ab = T. Then, T = .
2 K

Kepler's law requires T2. So, squaring each side,

2 4π 2 a2b2
T = .
K2
From Section 3 discussion of ellipse characteristics and
Figure 5:

a 2 = b 2 + a 2ε 2 .

b 2 = a 2 − a 2ε 2
= a2  1 − ε 2  .
 

4π 2 a4  1 − ε 
2
Then T 2 =  
.
K2
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 23

Next equate the numerators of the analytic equations of

dε
the ellipse; 1− ε 2 = .
a

T2 4π 2 dε
Then, = .
a3 K2
The equation of an ellipse in polar coordinates is,

dε
r= .
1+ ε cos θ

And Newton's planetary orbit equation is,

K2
r= GM .
K2
1+ Acosθ
GM
2
So for planetary orbiting motion, dε = K .
GM

T2 4π 2
Then, = .
a3 GM

T2
Therefore, for every planet is equal to the same
a3
constant. (Note that each planet has a different constant in
Kepler's second law.)

Newton equations again proved an astronomically

observed Kepler law, gave the mathematical principles involved
and determined exactly the value of the constant .
 Page 24 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

6 Newton's Analytical Estimate of G

The following procedure is one of Newton’s estimate of G
based on his own force laws.

1. Inertial force, FI = m a.

2. At the Earth’s surface; inertial force FI= mass of any

object times the acceleration due to earth's gravity. The
acceleration due to earth's gravity, g, was found by
Galileo to be 9.8 meters /sec2.Inertial force, FI, at earth's
surface = mass of any object X g.

MEarth x m Object
3. Gravitational force, FG = G 2
.
RadiusEarth

4. The unit of inertial force is kg-meter per second2. To make

the unit of gravitational force consistent, G has the
dimension of kg-meter per second2 times meter2 over
kg2.The unit of force, kg-meter per second2, is now named
the “newton”.

MEarth x m Object
5. FI = FG = mObject X 9.8 m/sec2 = G 2
.
RadiusEarth
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 25

The mass of the object is on both sides of the equal sign

and cancels.

GM
Then, 9.8 = 2
.
RadiusEarth

Newton estimated that the average density of the earth

was between 5 and 6 times the density of water. Using 5.5 times
the density of water, and an estimated radius and volume of
earth, the value of G is determined to be; 7 X 10-11 m3 / kg sec2.

The present day value is 6.67 X 10-11 m3 / kg sec2.

This value of G enabled astronomers to estimate the mass

of many bodies in the solar system and correlate the estimates
with the measured distances of moons, planets and sun, and
velocities of moons and planets. This also indicated that G is a
universal constant.

7 Two Methods of Calculating Moon Radial Acceleration

There are two methods of calculating the radial
acceleration of the moon using Newton’s laws:

1. The first method requires calculating g times the ratio of

the earth radius2 to moon's distance2. When we know the
radial acceleration of the moon at its mean distance from
earth we can calculate G MEarth, and modify the estimates
of earth mass or G by using Newton's force laws.

2. The second method requires that astronomers provide

the tangential velocity of the moon at its mean distance
from the earth. The tangential velocity squared divided by
the mean distance moon-earth also results in radial
acceleration.
 Page 26 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

7.1 First Method of Calculating Moon Radial Acceleration.

Recall that the weight of an object on the earth surface is
the mass of the object times the acceleration due to earth's
gravity, g. By using g and Newton’s equations we can calculate
the radial acceleration of the moon.

Astronomical data:

Mean distance (semi-major axis of ellipse; moon center to

earth center) is 3.84 X 108 meters.

Moon's tangential velocity is 1.02 meters per second at its

mean distance from earth.

Earth radius is 6.38X106 meters.

Acceleration due to earth's gravity, g, is 9.8 m/sec2.

First method procedure:

GMEarth x m Object
Gravitational force = = m Object xg.
RadiusEarth 2

g is the acceleration experienced by the object on the earth's

surface pointing to the earth center.
GMEarth
g= .
2
RadiusEarth
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 27

The moon is staying in its orbit around the earth for the same reason
that the earth stays in its orbit around the sun. The radial acceleration
of the moon is exactly equal and opposite the acceleration caused by
earth-moon gravity attraction on the moon. Equate moon inertial force
to gravitationalforce.
m moonMEarth
mmoon aRadial moon = − G . Cancel the moon
2
DistanceEarth - moon
mass from both sides of the equation. Here again we cancel out the
small (moon) mass just as the earth mass was cancelled in
developing Newton’s equation of earth motion.The cancelling of the
small bob mass in the Cavendish gravity experment follows the same
GMEarth
a
reasoning. Radial moon = − .
2
DistanceEarth-moon

GMEarth
From above; 9.8 = −
2
.
RadiusEarth

Since the ratio of these two equations is

GMEarth
2
aRadial moon DistanceEarth-moon
another equality, = ,
9.8 GMEarth
−
2
Radius Earth

The radial acceleration of the moon can now be determined.

2
RadiusEarth
aRadial moon = − 9.8 = − .0027 m / sec 2 .
2
DistanceEarth-moon

It is only at this point in space, when the moon is at its mean

distance from earth, that the moon has exactly this radial
acceleration. When the moon is closer to earth in its elliptical orbit,
the magnitude of the radial acceleration is greater. When the moon is
further from earth, the magnitude of radial acceleration is less.
 Page 28 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

7.2 Second Method of Calculating Moon Radial Acceleration

The second method used for calculating the radial
acceleration of the moon, requires dividing the square of the
moon tangential velocity, at its mean distance from earth, by that
distance. (The semi-major axis of an ellipse is its mean distance,
designated by the letter, ”a”.)
2
VTangential
As an equation; = .0027m / sec 2 .
Mean DistanceEarth-moon

This result confirmed Newton's ratio method of calculating

the radial acceleration of the moon.

How do we prove analytically that,

2
VTangential
= aRradial moon ?
Mean DistanceEarth-moon

An approximation of radial acceleration can be made by

assuming that the orbit of the moon around the earth is a circle.
But Newton has shown that the path is an ellipse. The
assumption is then wrong for four reasons:

1. The moon's orbit is an ellipse.

2. The tangential velocity is not constant.

3. The radial acceleration is not constant.

4. The radial acceleration of the moon is in line with the

focus of an ellipse (the center of the earth), and not at the
center of a circular path. Using moon's velocity squared
divided by an assumed radius gives an assumed
centripetal acceleration.

Therefore we must find the radial acceleration of the moon,

as a function of tangential velocity and the ellipse radius vector,
to show that both methods of calculating the moon's radial
acceleration are correct.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 29

7.2.1 Conservation of Orbital Energy

In order to obtain an equation of radial acceleration as a
function of tangential velocity, we have to consider the
conservation of orbital, i.e. mechanical, energy of the moon as it
orbits the earth. We will combine the orbital energy equation with
Newton's planet ellipse equations in order to obtain an equation
for the moon's tangential velocity. Then we can equate this
tangential velocity to Newton's equation and obtain the moon's
radial acceleration.

The conservation of energy concept, as applied to the

moon, means that the total mechanical energy of the moon must
be constant for the moon to maintain its elliptical orbit.

The total orbital energy of the moon is the algebraic sum of

its kinetic energy, K E, and its potential energy, P E. There is an
exchange of small percentages of P E and K E as the moon
orbits the earth.
 Page 30 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

7.2.1a Development of First Orbital Energy Equation

The P E of the moon is considered to be zero at an infinite
distance from the earth. When the infinite distance from the earth
is selected as the reference level, the P E of the mass of the
moon, m at a distance r, from the earth, M, is:
GMm
P E= − .
r

This equation shows that the increase in the moon's P E,

when its mass was brought to the orbital position, is equal to the
negative of the work done by the earth's gravity field.

1
The K E of the moon is equal to mv 2 , where v is the
2
tangential or orbital velocity that varies during the elliptical orbit.

E (total mechanical or orbital energy) = K E + P E.

1 GM m
E Orbital = mv 2 − .
2 r

The equation shows that when the moon approaches its

perigee and gets closer to earth, the P E changes to a larger
negative value but the K E grows larger as the moon's velocity is
increasing, and the orbital energy remains constant.

The above orbital energy equation is the first equation, of

the two that are needed, for this calculation method. It shows
orbital energy as a function of the ellipse radius vector and
tangential velocity. G, M, and m are constant. The second
equation will give the orbital energy at a certain point in the orbit,
(at perigee). But since orbital energy is constant, the designated
orbital energies can be equated.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 31

7.2.1b Development of Second Orbital Energy Equation

We will now obtain the second equation of EOrbital. These
two equations will enable us to finally show the connection
between tangential velocity and radial acceleration.

As derived below, the differential calculus equation for the

variable tangential velocity of an object moving some distance
along any smooth curve (such as an ellipse) is:
2 2
2  dr  2 dθ 
VTangential =   + r   .
 dt   dt 

This equation is developed by considering a small increase

in angle θ and distance r, with a small increase in time, indicated
in Figure 7.

∆r
r h
∆s

dθ
r s distance
θ
0 r

Figure 7

For small angles, where sin θ equals θ, h = r dθ.

( ∆ s) 2 = ( ∆ r ) 2 + ( r∆ θ ) 2 .
Designate a change of, s, r and θ due to a ∆ increase in
time:
2 2 2
 ∆ s  ∆ r  ∆θ 
  =   + r  .
 ∆ t  ∆t  ∆t
Page 32 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

As the change in time is made smaller and approaches

zero , we obtain the calculus expression for the tangential
velocity along the curve.
2 2
2  dr  2 dθ 
VTangential =   + r   .
 dt   dt 

The change in swept angle with respect to time, is the

same function of r found in section 2.6 ;

 dθ  k
  = 2.
 dt  r

This equation applies to the planet-moon systems (with the

different constant because the elliptical path is different) as well
as to the sun-planet system.
2
2  dr   k2 
Substituting; VTangential =   +  2.
 dt  r 

As seen in Figure 6, there are several things to note

concerning the moon’s elliptical path at perigee.

a
r=a θ
Focus perigee
•
Earth
center
Tangential
velocity, V •
Moon
rmin
a-aε
aε

Figure 6
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 33

The moon's radius vector goes through a minimum length

at perigee. The radius vector length at perigee is, a(1-ε).

At the perigee the rate of change of the radius vector

length is zero.

For the ellipse, with θ being generated by the radius vector

starting at the perigee, the derivative of r with respect to time is
0, when θ =00.

dr
Therefore, is zero and can be removed from the
dt
standard equation for the object tangential velocity on an ellipse
at perigee.

The tangential velocity equation reduces to;

2 k2
VTangential = 2
.
rPerigee

The polar equation for the moon's elliptical orbit is the same
form as the one that Newton determined for earth.

k2
GMEarth
r= .
k2
1+ Bcosθ
GMEarth

From Section 3, a general equation for an ellipse is:

a 1- ε 2 
r = . "a" is the semi-major axis of the ellipse and
1+ ε cosθ
is called the mean distance of an ellipse.
Page 34 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

Equating the numerators of the equivalent ellipse

equations:

k2
= a 1- ε 2  .
GMEarth  

From Figure 6, r at perigee = a(1-ε).

The next step is to calculate the moon's energy at perigee.

Energy at perigee = K E - P E.

2 k2
Since VTangential = 2
,
rPerigee

1 k2 GMm
EPerigee = m 2 − .
2 rPerigee rPerigee

From above;

k 2 = GM a 1- ε 2  .
 

Substituting for k2 in the energy at perigee equation and

simplifying;

GMm
EPerigee = − = EOrbital .
2a
The orbital energy of the moon at perigee is the same as
the orbital energy at any other place in its orbit.

This is the second equation of EOrbital that is needed to show

the relationship between VTangential and radial acceleration.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 35

7.3 Relation of Moon Tangential Velocity and Radial Acceleration

We will first obtain the moon's tangential velocity as a
function of its radius vector by equating the two energy
equations.

1 2 GMm
First equation; EOrbital = mVTangential − .
2 r
GMm
Second equation; EOrbital = − .
2a
Equate the orbital energy equations and solve for
2
VTangential .

2  2 1
VTangential = GM −  .
 r a

We will now find another expression for radial

acceleration.

In Section 2.4, we found that the general expression for the

radial acceleration of earth orbiting the sun (or moon orbiting the
earth) is;

GM
aRadial = 2
. Wherein, M is the mass of the sun.
r
In the earth-moon system, M is the mass of the earth.

GMEarth
aRadial = .
r2
When r = mean distance, a,

GMEarth
aRadial = .
a2
Page 36 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws

2 GMEarth
We just found that, VTangential = .
a
Dividing both sides by mean distance “a” results in;
2
VTangential GMearth
= .
a a2
This is the radial acceleration of the moon at the mean
distance, “a”, from the earth as proven in Section 7.1.

V2
We have just shown why can be used for the
a
radial acceleration of the moon and the equation looks
like the equation for the centripetal acceleration of an
object revolving in a circle. But we must always use
VTangential at the mean (semi-major axis) distance of moon
to earth (or earth to sun) and, of course, use the semi-
major axis for the distance. And this radial acceleration is
true at only two places (or times) on each orbit.

As shown above , we have evolved two more equations of

planetary (or moon ) motion:

One: The radial acceleration of a planet (or moon) is

2
VTangential
at the mean distance, a, from the sun (or planet).
a

2  2 1
Two: VTangential = GM −  is applicable to observations
 r a
of all the planets (or moons) and enables accurate cross-
checking of observed distances and tangential velocities.
 Analytical Proof of Newton’s Force Laws Page 37

8 Conclusions Shown by this Analysis of Newton’s Laws

The conclusion to be drawn here is that each one of
Newton's laws is proven by his analysis of planetary motion. He
confirmed exactly the empirical data of Kepler, and in addition,
he has shown mathematically why the data is true. If any part of
Newton's work was incorrect, he could not have arrived at the
equation of planet elliptical motion about the sun.

When equating force of gravity and inertial force, we found

that the mass of the earth canceled out. This means that inertial
mass and gravity mass are exactly the same. Also, any size
object in the earth's orbit will orbit the sun exactly as earth if it
has the same radial acceleration as earth.

Newton proved conclusively that the orbital path of a planet

(or moon) is an ellipse with the sun (or planet) at a focus. This is
a remarkable fact in itself. But more remarkable is that Newton
proved his own laws at the same time, and introduced calculus
into his work. He proved that all the planets, and the moons or
satellites orbiting the planets (and comets) follow his laws.

Newton proved F = ma,

m1m 2
the force of gravity = G ,
2 and action
( Distance m 1 to m 2)
equals reaction, in that the planet attracts the sun with the same
force that the sun attracts the planet. Newton proved that the
force of gravity decreases exactly as 1/r2.

Newton estimated G by using his own laws, and showed

that G is a universal constant.

Newton's laws are always in use in problem solving. They

form the basis of mechanical physics and engineering,
momentum, work, satellite positioning, moon landings and
calculations involving binary stars.