KIET GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, DELHI NCR, GHAZIABAD

B. Tech. (II Sem.), 2020-21

ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS-II (KAS-203T)

MODULE - 5 Complex Variable (Integration)

SYLLABUS: Complex integrals, Contour integrals, Cauchy-Goursat theorem, Cauchy integral formula, Taylor’s

series, Laurent’s series, Liouvilles’s theorem, Singularities, Classification of Singularities, zeros of analytic functions,

Residues, Methods of finding residues, Cauchy Residue theorem, Evaluation of real integrals of the type.
2𝜋 ∞
∫0 𝑓(cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃, ∫−∞ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Course Outcome: Extend the concepts of complex functions for calculating Taylor’s series, Laurent’s series and
definite integrals
Application in Engineering: Complex analysis is a branch of mathematics that studies analytical properties of
functions of complex variables. Techniques based on complex variables are very powerful, with a large number of
applications to the solution of physical problems. The discipline covers a wide range of different techniques including
solution methods to free-boundary problems such as Hele-Shaw and Stokes flow, conformal mappings, Fourier and
other transform methods and Riemann-Hilbert problems. In practice many problems that may be difficult to solve in the
real domain can be more easily solved when transformed into complex variables due to a number of special properties
of the complex domain. Importantly, there has been a surge of activity in the advancement of complex analysis methods
in recent years, driven by applications in engineering, biology, and medicine. The application of these methods to real
world problems include propagation of acoustic waves relevant for the design of jet engines, development of boundary-
integral techniques useful for solution of many problems arising in solid and fluid mechanics as well as conformal
geometry in imaging, shape analysis and computer vision.

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 CONTENTS

Topic Page No.

1. Terminology used in complex integration. 3

2. Complex integrals 3
3. Cauchy’s integral theorem 5
4. Extension of Cauchy’s integral theorem 7
5. Cauchy’s integral formula 8
6. Cauchy’s integral formula for derivative of an analytic function 10
7. Liouville’s Theorem 12
8. Taylor Series 15
9. Laurent’s Series 15
10. Zero of an analytic function and singularity 17
11. Type of singularities 17
12. The calculus of residues 19
13. Cauchy’s residue theorem 23
14. Contour Integration 26
15. Exercise 33
16. E-resources 33

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Terminology used in complex integration:
Continuous Arc: The set of points (𝑥, 𝑦) defined by 𝑥 = ∅(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝜓(𝑡), with parameter 𝑡 in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) ,
define a continuous arc provided ∅(𝑡) & 𝜓(𝑡) are continuous functions.

Smooth Arc: If ∅(𝑡) & 𝜓(𝑡) are differentiable, arc is said to be smooth.
Simple Curve: A curve having no self-intersections is known as simple curve. [i.e., no two distinct values of t
correspond to the same point (𝑥, 𝑦).

Closed Curve: A curve is said to be closed if end points are coinciding. [𝑖. 𝑒. ∅(𝑎) = ∅(𝑏) and 𝜓(𝑎) = 𝜓(𝑏)]
Contour: Contour is a continuous chain of a finite number of smooth arcs.
Closed Contour: A piecewise smooth closed curve without points of self-intersection is called closed contour.
Example: Boundaries of circle, ellipse, rectangle, triangle etc.
Positive sense: of traversing a contour is the direction such that the interior domain bounded by the given closed
contour remains on the left of the direction of the motion.
If 𝑓(𝑧) is a single-valued, continuous function in

Complex integrals
Some region 𝑅 in the complex plane then we define
The Integral of 𝑓(𝑧) along a path 𝐶 in 𝑅 as:

∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

= ∫𝐶 (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖∫𝐶 (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

We often interpret real integrals in terms of area.

Example. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is given by 𝑥 = 3𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 , −1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4.

Solution. Here, we have

𝑧(𝑡) = 3𝑡 + 𝑖𝑡 2 , 𝑧′(𝑡) = 3 + 2𝑖𝑡
& 𝑧(𝑡) = 3𝑡 + 𝑖𝑡 2 = 3𝑡 − 𝑖𝑡 2
4
Thus, ∫𝐶 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ∫−1(3𝑡 − 𝑖𝑡 2 )(3 + 2𝑖𝑡)𝑑𝑡
4 4
= ∫−1(2𝑡 3 + 9𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖 ∫−1 3𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

= 195 + 65𝑖

1
Example. Evaluate ∳𝐶 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 , where 𝐶 is the circle 𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = sin 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋.

Solution. Here, we have

𝑧(𝑡) = cos 𝑡 + 𝑖 sin 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑧′(𝑡) = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑡
1
𝑓(𝑧) = = 𝑒 −𝑖𝑡
𝑧
1 2 2
Thus, ∳𝐶 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ∫0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝟐𝝅𝒊.

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Properties of Contour Integrals
➢ ∫𝐶 𝑘𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑘 ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 , 𝑘 is a constant

➢ ∫𝐶 [𝑓(𝑧) ± 𝑔(𝑧)] 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 ± ∫𝐶 𝑔(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

➢ ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶1 ∪ 𝐶2

1 2

➢ ∫−𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = − ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧, where −𝐶 denotes the

curve having the opposite orientation of 𝐶.

Example. Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the contour in given figure:

Solution. We have ∫𝐶(𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑧

1 2

on 𝐶1 : 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑥 → 0 𝑡𝑜 1
1
Now, ∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫0 (𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑥 2 )(1 + 𝑖)𝑑𝑥
1

1 𝟐
= (1 + 𝑖)2 ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝟑 𝒊

on 𝐶2 : 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 → 1 𝑡𝑜 2
2
∫𝐶 (𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫1 (1 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑖𝑑𝑦
2

2 2 𝟕
= − ∫1 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖 ∫1 𝑑𝑦 = − + 𝒊
𝟑

2 7 𝟕 𝟓
Finally, ∫𝐶(𝑥 2 + 𝑖𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑧 = 3 𝑖 + (− 3 + 𝑖) = − 𝟑 + 𝟑 𝒊.
1+𝑖
Example. Evaluate ∫0 (𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧, along real axis from 𝑧 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 and then along a line parallel to
imaginary axis from 𝑧 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖.
1+𝑖
Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∫0 (𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑧

= ∫𝐶 (𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 (𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧
1 2

on 𝐶1 : 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 and 𝑥 → 0 𝑡𝑜 1
1 1 1
Now, ∫𝐶 (𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫0 (𝑥 − 𝑖𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 − 3 𝑖
1

on 𝐶2 : 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 → 0 𝑡𝑜 1
1 1
∫𝐶 (𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑧 = ∫0 (1 − 𝑖 − 𝑦)𝑖𝑑𝑦 = 1 + 2 𝑖
2

1 1 1 3 1
∴ 𝐼 = − 𝑖 + 1 + 𝑖 = + 𝑖.
2 3 2 2 6

Example. Evaluate ∫𝐶 (𝑧 − 𝑧 2 ) 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the upper half of the circle. |𝑧 − 2| = 3. What is the value of integral if
𝐶 is the lower half of the circle?

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Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∫𝐶(𝑧 − 𝑧 2 ) 𝑑𝑧

Here, |𝑧 − 2| = 3 ⇒ 𝑧 = 2 + 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 & 𝑑𝑧 = 3𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜋
∴ 𝐼 = ∫0 [2 + 3𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 4 − 9𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 12𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ] 3𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
= 3𝑖 ∫0 [−2𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 9𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 9𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 ] 𝑑𝜃

2 9 3 𝜋
= −3𝑖 [ 𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 2𝑖 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 + 𝑖 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 ]
0

9 9
= −3 [2𝑒 𝜋𝑖 + 2 𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 + 3𝑒 3𝜋𝑖 − 2 − 2 − 3]

9 9
= −3 [2(−1) + 2 + 3(−1) − 2 − 2 − 3]

= −3(−10) = 𝟑𝟎.

Example. Evaluate ∫𝐶 log 𝑧 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the unit circle |𝑧| = 1.

Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∫𝐶 log 𝑧 𝑑𝑧

Here, |𝑧| = 1 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 & 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃

2𝜋 2𝜋
∴ 𝐼 = ∫0 (𝑖𝜃) 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − ∫0 𝜃𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
= − [𝜃 𝑖
− 2
𝑖 0
]

= −[−2𝜋𝑖. 𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 + 𝑒 2𝜋𝑖 + 0 − 1]

= −[−2𝜋𝑖 + 1 + 0 − 1] = 𝟐𝝅𝒊.

Cauchy’s integral theorem (Cauchy’s theorem)

Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic and 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is continuous at each point within and on a simple closed curve 𝐶, then
∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0

Proof: Let 𝑅 be the region bounded by 𝐶

Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑖𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦), then

∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∮𝐶 (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦)

= ∮𝐶 (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖∮𝐶 (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
∵ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is continuous, the partial derivatives, 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦, 𝜕𝑥 , 𝜕𝑦 are also
continuous.
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑀
By Green’s Theorem, ∮𝐶 (𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦) = ∬𝑅 ( 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦
) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬𝑅 (− 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖∬𝑅 (𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∬𝑅 (− 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖∬𝑅 (𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= ∬𝑅 (𝜕𝑦 − 𝜕𝑦) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + 𝑖∬𝑅 (𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦

=0

Hence, ∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
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Note: Cauchy’s Integral theorem without assumption that 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) is continuous is known as Cauchy-Goursat Theorem.
i.e Cauchy-Goursat Theorem can be stated as:
If f is analytic at all points within and on a simple closed contour C,

Then, ∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
C-R equations: = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

Example. Verify Cauchy’s theorem by integrating 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 along the boundary of the triangle with the vertices at the
points 1 + 𝑖, −1 + 𝑖 & − 1 − 𝑖.

Solution. Let 𝐶 be the boundary of triangle consists of three lines 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 & 𝐶3

By Cauchy’ theorem, ∮𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0

∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0
1 2 3

𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆. = ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1 2 3

1+𝑖 −1+𝑖 −1−𝑖

= ∫−1−𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫1+𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫−1+𝑖 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧
1
= [𝑒 𝑖(1+𝑖) − 𝑒 𝑖(−1−𝑖) + 𝑒 𝑖(−1+𝑖) − 𝑒 𝑖(1+𝑖) + 𝑒 𝑖(−1−𝑖) − 𝑒 𝑖(−1+𝑖) ]
𝑖
1
= 𝑖 [𝑒 −1+𝑖 − 𝑒 1−𝑖 + 𝑒 −1−𝑖 − 𝑒 −1+𝑖 + 𝑒 1−𝑖 − 𝑒 −1−𝑖 ]

= 𝟎 = 𝑹. 𝑯. 𝑺.

Example. Evaluate ∳𝐶 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 , where C is shown in given figure.

Solution.
The function 𝑒 𝑧 is entire and C is a simple closed contour.
Thus, the integral is zero.

Hence, ∳𝐶 𝑒 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 0

𝑑𝑧
Example. Evaluate ∫𝐶 𝑧2 where 𝐶 is the ellipse 4(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 − 5)2 = 4.
1
Solution. We find that 𝑧2 is analytic except at 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 0 is not a point interior to or on 𝐶.
𝑑𝑧
Thus, ∫𝐶 = 0.
𝑧2

Simply and Multiply connected Domains: A domain in which every closed curve can be
shrunk to a point without passing out of the region is called a simply connected domain. If
a domain is not simply connected, then it is called multiply connected domain.
Simply and Multiply connected Regions: A curve is called simply closed curve if it does
not cross itself (Fig. a). A curve which crosses itself is called a multiple curve (Fig. b).
A region is called simply connected If every closed curve in the region encloses points of
the region only.

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A region which is not simply connected is called a multiply connected region.

A simply connected region is one which has no holes.

A multiply connected region enclosed between two or more separate curves.

Ex.

Simply connected region Doubly connected region Triply connected region

Extension of Cauchy’s integral theorem

Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the region 𝑅 between two simple closed curves 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , then

∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧, when integral along each curve is taken in anti-clockwise direction.
1 2

Proof: Let 𝐶 ≡ 𝐶1 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐶2 + 𝐵𝐴
By Cauchy’s integral theorem, we have

∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟏
∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐵𝐴 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
1 2 𝑨 𝑩
∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∫𝐴𝐵 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
1 2

∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 − ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 [Reversing the direction of 𝐶2 ]

1 2

∴ ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
1 2

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Similarly, for triply connected region, We can show that

∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

1 2

In general, suppose 𝐶, 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … . , 𝐶𝑛 are simple closed curves with a

positive orientation such that 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , … . , 𝐶𝑛 are interior to 𝐶 but the regions
interior to each 𝐶𝑘 , 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … … , 𝑛 have no points in common.
If 𝑓 is analytic on each contour and at each point interior
to 𝐶 but exterior to all the 𝐶𝑘 , 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … … , 𝑛

∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

𝑘

Cauchy’s integral formula

Statement: If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic within and on a closed curve 𝐶 and 𝑧0 is any point within 𝐶, then
1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 OR ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑓(𝑧0 )
0 0

Proof. By Cauchy’s theorem, we have

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐿 𝑧−𝑧0
𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶
𝑧−𝑧0
𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐿
𝑧−𝑧0
𝑑𝑧 =0
0 1 0 2
𝑓(𝑧)
∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = − ∮𝐶
𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧
L z
𝑧−𝑧0
0 0
L C C
Now,
The equation of the circle 𝐶0 is |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝑟

Or 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧0 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
∴∮ 𝑑𝑧 = − ∫ 𝑖𝜃
𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐶 𝑧 − 𝑧0 2𝜋 𝑟𝑒
2𝜋
= 𝑖 ∫0 𝑓(𝑧0 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑑𝜃
2𝜋
= 𝑖 ∫0 𝑓(𝑧0 ) 𝑑𝜃 [as 𝑟 → 0]

= 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑓(𝑧0 )
1 𝑓(𝑧)
OR 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧
0

𝑧 2 −4𝑧+4
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧| = 2.
𝑧+𝑖

Solution. Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 4

which is analytic and 𝑧0 = −𝑖 is within 𝐶. Thus
𝑧 2 −4𝑧+4
∮𝐶 𝑧+𝑖
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑓(−𝑖)

= 2𝜋𝑖. [(−𝑖)2 − 4(−𝑖) + 4]

= 2𝜋𝑖. [−1 + 4𝑖 + 4]
= 2𝜋𝑖(3 + 4𝑖) = 2𝜋(−4 + 3𝑖)

8|Page
 𝑧
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 𝑧2 +9 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧 − 2𝑖| = 4.

Solution. Here, We have 𝑧 = 3𝑖 is only point within C,

𝑧 𝑧
Now, ∮𝐶 𝑧2 +9 𝑑𝑧 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧+3𝑖)(𝑧−3𝑖) 𝑑𝑧
𝑧
[(𝑧+3𝑖)]
= ∮𝐶 (𝑧−3𝑖)
𝑑𝑧
𝑧
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+3𝑖) which is analytic within C

and 𝑧0 = 3𝑖 interior to 𝐶. Thus

𝑧
(𝑧+3𝑖) 1 𝑧
∮𝐶 (𝑧−3𝑖)
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑓(3𝑖) = 2𝜋𝑖. 2 = 𝜋𝑖 ∴ ∮𝐶 𝑧2 +9 𝑑𝑧 = 𝝅𝒊.

5𝑧+7
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 𝑧2 +2𝑧−3 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧 − 2| = 2.

Solution. Here,
5𝑧+7 5𝑧+7
∮𝐶 𝑧2 +2𝑧−3 𝑑𝑧 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧+3)(𝑧−1) 𝑑𝑧

1 1
= 3∮𝐶 𝑧−1 𝑑𝑧 + 2∮𝐶 𝑧+3 𝑑𝑧

∵ 𝑧 = 1 is interior to 𝐶 and 𝑧 = −3 is exterior to C.

We have,
5𝑧+7
∮𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = 3(2𝜋𝑖) + 2(0)
𝑧 2 +2𝑧−3

= 𝟔𝝅𝒊.

sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2
Example. Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧| = 3.

sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2
Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝑧 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 2 are two points within 𝐶, at which the integrand is not analytic. Then
sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2 sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2
𝐼 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)
𝑑𝑧
1 2

Where, 𝐶1 & 𝐶2 are two circles of very small radii with centres at 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = 2
respectively.
sin 𝜋𝑧2 +cos 𝜋𝑧2 sin 𝜋𝑧2 +cos 𝜋𝑧2
[ 𝑧−2
] [ 𝑧−1
]
𝐼 = ∮𝐶 𝑧−1
𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶 𝑧−2
𝑑𝑧
1 2

sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2 sin 𝜋𝑧 2 +cos 𝜋𝑧 2

= 2𝜋𝑖. [ 𝑧−2
] + 2𝜋𝑖. [ 𝑧−1
]
𝑧=1 𝑧=2

0−1 0+1
= 2𝜋𝑖 ( −1 ) + 2𝜋𝑖 ( 1
) = 2𝜋𝑖 + 2𝜋𝑖 = 𝟒𝝅𝒊

9|Page
 𝑒 2𝑧
Example. Use Cauchy’s integral formula to evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧| = 3.

𝑒 2𝑧
Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝑧 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 2 are two points within 𝐶, at which the integrand is not analytic.
Then
𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
𝐼 = ∮𝐶 𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶 𝑑𝑧
1 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2) 2 (𝑧−1)(𝑧−2)

Where, 𝐶1 & 𝐶2 are two circles of very small radii with centres at 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = 2 respectively.
𝑒2𝑧 𝑒2𝑧
[𝑧−2] [𝑧−1] 𝑒 2𝑧 𝑒 2𝑧
𝐼 = ∮𝐶 𝑧−1
𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶 𝑧−2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑧−2] + 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑧−1]
1 2 𝑧=1 𝑧=2

𝑒2 𝑒4
= 2𝜋𝑖 ( ) + 2𝜋𝑖 ( ) = 𝟐𝝅𝒊𝒆𝟐 (𝒆𝟐 − 𝟏)
−1 1

Cauchy’s integral formula for the derivative of an analytic function

Statement: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in the region 𝐷,then its derivative at any point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 of 𝐷 is also analytic in
𝐷 and is given by
1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 OR ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ), where 𝐶 is any closed contour in 𝐷 surrounding the
0) 0)
point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .
Proof. By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧0 ) = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 ----------------- (1)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑧0

1 𝑓(𝑧)
⇒ 𝑓(𝑧0 + ℎ) = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 ----------------- (2)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑧0 −ℎ

1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ 𝑓(𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = ∮ [ − ] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 𝑧−𝑧0 −ℎ 𝑧−𝑧0

1 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ 𝑓(𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = ∮𝐶 [ − ] 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑧0 − ℎ 𝑧 − 𝑧0
1 ℎ
OR 𝑓(𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 [(𝑧−𝑧 ] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
0 −ℎ)(𝑧−𝑧0)

𝑓(𝑧0 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑧0 ) 1 𝑓(𝑧)

⇒ = ∮ [ ] 𝑑𝑧
ℎ 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧0 −ℎ)(𝑧−𝑧0 )

Taking 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 as ℎ → 0
𝑓(𝑧0 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑧0 ) 1 𝑓(𝑧)
lim = lim 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 [(𝑧−𝑧 ] 𝑑𝑧
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 0 −ℎ)(𝑧−𝑧0 )

1 𝑓(𝑧)
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = ∮ [ ] 𝑑𝑧 ---------------- (3)
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧0 )2

∵ 𝑧0 is a point of 𝐷, so by eqn (3), 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) is analytic in 𝐷.

Thus, the derivative of an analytic function is analytic.

10 | P a g e
General form of Cauchy’s integral formula for the derivatives of an analytic function
Statement: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic in a domain 𝐷, then at any point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 of 𝐷, 𝑓(𝑧) has derivatives of all
orders all of which are again analytic in 𝐷, their values are given by
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧 OR ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 )
0) 0)

Where, 𝐶 is any closed contour in 𝐷 surrounding the point 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .

Proof. We shall prove this theorem by Mathematical Induction.
Here, we have
𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑧 --------------- (1)
0)

1 𝑓(𝑧)
Put 𝑛 = 1, 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
[(1)𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1]
0)

Let (1) be true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 then, we have

𝑘! 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑘! 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓 𝑘 (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑧 ⇒ 𝑓 𝑘 (𝑧0 + ℎ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+1 𝑑𝑧
0) 0 −ℎ)

𝑘! 1 1
OR 𝑓 𝑘 (𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓 𝑘 (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 [(𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+1 − (𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+1 ] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
0 −ℎ) 0)

𝑘! 1 (𝑧−𝑧0 )𝑘+1
= 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 [
)𝑘+1 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+1 − 1] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
0 0 −ℎ)

𝑘! 1 1
= 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+1 [ 𝑘+1 − 1] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
0) ℎ
{1−(𝑧−𝑧 )}
0

𝑘! 1 ℎ 𝑘+1
= ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 )𝑘+1 [{1 − (𝑧−𝑧 )} − 1] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 0 0

−(𝑘+1)
𝑘! 1 ℎ
𝑓 𝑘 (𝑧0 + ℎ) − 𝑓 𝑘 (𝑧0 ) = ∮𝐶 [{1 − } − 1] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑘+1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )

𝑘! 1 (𝑘+1)ℎ (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)ℎ2
= ∮ [1 + (𝑧−𝑧 ) + + ⋯ … . −1] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧0 )𝑘+1 0 (𝑧−𝑧0 )2

𝑘! 1 (𝑘+1)ℎ (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)ℎ2
= 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 )𝑘+1
[ (𝑧−𝑧 ) + (𝑧−𝑧0 )2
+ ⋯ … . ] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
0 0

𝑓𝑘 (𝑧0 +ℎ)−𝑓𝑘 (𝑧0 ) 𝑘! (𝑘+1) (𝑘+2)ℎ

= ∮ [1 + (𝑧−𝑧 ) + ⋯ … . ] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
ℎ 2𝜋𝑖 𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧0 )𝑘+2 0

Taking 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 as ℎ → 0
𝑓𝑘 (𝑧0 +ℎ)−𝑓𝑘 (𝑧0 ) (𝑘+1) ! 1
lim = ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+2 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
ℎ→0 ℎ 2𝜋𝑖 0)

𝑓𝑘 (𝑧0 +ℎ)−𝑓𝑘 (𝑧0 ) (𝑘+1) ! 1

lim = ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑘+2 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
ℎ→0 ℎ 2𝜋𝑖 0)

(𝑘+1) ! 1
⇒ 𝑓 𝑘+1 (𝑧0 ) = ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 (𝑘+1)+1 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑖 0)

Hence, the theorem is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)
∴ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧 𝑛+1 ----------------------- (1)
0)

Since, 𝑧0 is a point of 𝐷, so by eqn (1), 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 ) is analytic in 𝐷.

11 | P a g e
Thus, the derivatives of 𝑓(𝑧) of all orders are analytic if 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic.

Liouville’s Theorem
Statement: If a function 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic for all finite values of 𝑧 and is bounded, then it is a constant.
Proof. Since 𝑓(𝑧) is bounded, so |𝑓(𝑧)| ≤ 𝑀 where 𝑀 is a positive constant.
Let 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 be any two points of the 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒. Take the contour 𝐶 to be a large circle with its centre at the origin and
radius 𝑅 enclosing the points 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 so that, 𝑅 > |𝑧1 | and 𝑅 > |𝑧2 |.
By Cauchy’s integral formula, we have
1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧1 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ---------------- (1)
1

1 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧2 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 𝑧−𝑧 𝑑𝑧 ------------------ (2)
2

Subtracting (1) from (2), we get

1 1 1 1 (𝑧1 −𝑧2 )𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑓(𝑧2 ) − 𝑓(𝑧1 ) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 [𝑧−𝑧 − 𝑧−𝑧 ] 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∫𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧2 )(𝑧−𝑧1 )
2 1

1 (𝑧1 −𝑧2 )𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

|𝑓(𝑧2 ) − 𝑓(𝑧1 )| = | ∫ 𝐶 |
2𝜋𝑖 (𝑧−𝑧2 )(𝑧−𝑧1 )

1 |𝑧1 −𝑧2 ||𝑓(𝑧)||𝑑𝑧|

≤ |2𝜋𝑖| ∫𝐶 |𝑧−𝑧2 ||𝑧−𝑧2 |

1 |𝑑𝑧|
≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧2 |𝑀∫𝐶 |𝑧−𝑧 ∵ |𝒇(𝒛)| ≤ 𝑴
2𝜋 1 2 ||𝑧−𝑧2 |

1 |𝑑𝑧|
≤ |𝑧 − 𝑧2 |𝑀∫𝐶 (𝑅−|𝑧 ∵ |𝒛| = 𝑹
2𝜋 1 2 |)(𝑅−|𝑧1 |)

∵ |𝒛| = 𝑹 ⇒ 𝒛 = 𝑹𝒆𝒊𝜽

∴ 𝒅𝒛 = 𝑹𝒊𝒆𝒊𝜽 𝒅𝜽 ⇒ |𝒅𝒛| = 𝑹𝒅𝜽

1 |𝑧1 −𝑧2 |𝑀 2𝜋
∴ |𝑓(𝑧2 ) − 𝑓(𝑧1 )| ≤ . ∫ 𝑅𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 (𝑅−|𝑧2 |)(𝑅−|𝑧1 |) 0

1 |𝑧1 −𝑧2 |2𝜋𝑅

≤ .
2𝜋 (𝑅−|𝑧2 |)(𝑅−|𝑧1 |)

→ 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑅 → ∞
Hence, 𝑓(𝑧1 ) = 𝑓(𝑧2 )
Since this holds for all values of 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 , therefore 𝑓(𝑧) is constant.
Note: A function which is analytic in the whole of the 𝑧 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 is called an entire function.
𝑒 2𝑧
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑧+1)5 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧| = 2.

𝑒 2𝑧
Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧+1)5 𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝑧 = −1 is a point within 𝐶, at which the integrand is not analytic.

By Cauchy’s integral formula for the derivative of an analytic function
𝑒 2𝑧
𝐼 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧+1)5 𝑑𝑧

2𝜋𝑖 𝑑 4 2𝜋𝑖 𝟒𝝅𝒊

= [ (𝑒 2𝑧 )]
4 ! 𝑑𝑧 4
= 24
[16𝑒 2𝑧 ]𝑧=−1 = 𝟑𝒆𝟐
𝑧=−1

12 | P a g e
 𝑒 −𝑧
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 𝑧2 (𝑧2−4) 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧| = 1.
𝑒 −𝑧 𝑒 −𝑧
Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∮𝐶 𝑧2 (𝑧2 −4) 𝑑𝑧 = ∮𝐶 𝑧2(𝑧+2)(𝑧−2) 𝑑𝑧

Here, 𝑧 = 0 is only point within 𝐶, at which the

integrand is not analytic.
𝑒 −𝑧
𝑒 −𝑧 [ ]
𝑧2 − 4
𝐼 = ∮𝐶 𝑑𝑧 = ∮𝐶 𝑑𝑧
𝑧 2 (𝑧 2 − 4) 𝑧2
𝑑 𝑒 −𝑧 (𝑧 2 − 4)(−𝑒 −𝑧 ) − 𝑒 −𝑧 . 2𝑧
= 2𝜋𝑖. [ ( 2 )] = 2𝜋𝑖. [ ]
𝑑𝑧 𝑧 − 4 𝑧=0 (𝑧 2 − 4)2 𝑧=0

(0 − 4)(−𝑒 −0 ) − 0
= 2𝜋𝑖. [ ]
(0 − 4)2
4 𝝅𝒊
= 2𝜋𝑖. [16] = 𝟐
.
𝑑𝑧 𝜋
Example. Show that ∮𝐶 (𝑧2 +4)2 = 16; 𝐶 ≡ |𝑧 − 𝑖| = 2.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧2 +4)2 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧+2𝑖)2(𝑧−2𝑖)2

Here, 𝑧 = 2𝑖 is only point within 𝐶, at which the

integrand is not analytic.
1
𝑑𝑧 [ ]
(𝑧 + 2𝑖)2
𝐼 = ∮𝐶 = ∮𝐶 𝑑𝑧
(𝑧 + 2𝑖)2 (𝑧 − 2𝑖)2 (𝑧 − 2𝑖)2
𝑑 1 −2 −2 𝝅
= 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑑𝑧 {(𝑧+2𝑖)2 }] = 2𝜋𝑖. [(𝑧+2𝑖)3 ] = 2𝜋𝑖. [−64𝑖] = 𝟏𝟔.
𝑧=2𝑖 𝑧=2𝑖

𝑧 2 −2𝑧
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑧+1)2(𝑧2 +4) 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧| = 3.

𝑧 2 −2𝑧 (𝑧 2 −2𝑧)𝑑𝑧
Solution. Let 𝐼 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧+1)2(𝑧2+4) 𝑑𝑧 = ∮𝐶 (𝑧+1)2(𝑧+2𝑖)(𝑧−2𝑖)

𝑧2 −2𝑧 𝑧2 −2𝑧 𝑧2 −2𝑧

[ 2 ] [(𝑧+1)2 (𝑧−2𝑖)] [(𝑧+1)2(𝑧+2𝑖)]
𝑧 +4
𝐼= ∮𝐶 (𝑧+1) 2 𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶 𝑧+2𝑖
𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶 𝑧−2𝑖
𝑑𝑧
1 2 3

Where, 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 & 𝐶3 are circles of very small radius with

centres at 𝑧 = −1, 𝑧 = −2𝑖 & 𝑧 = 2𝑖 respectively.
𝑑 𝑧 2 −2𝑧 𝑧 2 −2𝑧 𝑧 2 −2𝑧
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝑖 [{𝑑𝑧 ( 𝑧2 +4 )} + {(𝑧+1)2 (𝑧−2𝑖)} + {(𝑧+1)2 (𝑧+2𝑖)} ]
𝑧=−1 𝑧=−2𝑖 𝑧=2𝑖

𝑧 2 +4𝑧−4 1−𝑖 1+𝑖

= 2𝜋𝑖 [2 { (𝑧2 } + + ]
+4)2 𝑧=−1 4−3𝑖 4+3𝑖

14 1−𝑖 1+𝑖 14 14
= 2𝜋𝑖 [− 25 + 4−3𝑖 + 4+3𝑖] = 2𝜋𝑖 [− 25 + 25] = 𝟎

13 | P a g e
Power Series
An infinite series of the form
∑∞ 𝑘 2
𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ⋯ … .. ------------- (1)
where ak are complex constants, is called a power series in (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ). (1) is said to be centered at z0 and z0 is referred to
the center of the series.

Circle of Convergence
Every complex power series ∑∞ 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) has radius of convergence R and has a circle of convergence defined
by |z – z0| = R, 0 < R < . The radius R can be
(i) zero (converges at only z = z0).
(ii) a finite number (converges at all interior points of the circle (|z − z0| = R).
(iii)  (converges for all z).

A power series may converge at some, all, or none of the points on the circle of
convergence.
𝑧 𝑘+1
Example. Consider the series ∑∞
𝑘=1 𝑘
, by ratio test.

𝑧𝑛+2
𝑛+1 𝑛+1
lim | 𝑧𝑛+1
| = lim |𝑧| = |𝑧|
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
𝑛
Thus, the series converges absolutely for |𝑧| < 1 & the radius of convergence 𝑅 = 1

Summary: R.O.C. using ratio test for the power series ∑∞

𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑘

𝑎𝑛+1 1
(i) lim | | = 𝐿 ≠ 0, the R.O.C. is 𝑅 = 𝐿.
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑎
(ii) lim | 𝑛+1 | = 0 the R.O.C. is .
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑎
(iii) lim | 𝑎𝑛+1 | = ∞ the R.O.C. is 𝑅 = 0.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

To find R.O.C. using ratio test

(−1)𝑘+1 (𝑧−1−𝑖)𝑘
Consider the power series ∑∞
𝑘=1 𝑘!

(−1)𝑛+2
(−1)𝑛+1 1
with 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛!
(𝑛+1)!
, lim | (−1)𝑛+1 | = lim |𝑛+1| = 0 The R.O.C. is .
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
𝑛!

R.O.C. using root test

6𝑘+1 𝑘
Consider the power series ∑∞
𝑘=1 (2𝑘+5) (𝑧 − 2𝑖)
𝑘

6𝑛 + 1 𝑛 𝑛 6𝑛 + 1
𝑎𝑛 = ( ) , lim √|𝑎𝑛 | = lim =3
2𝑛 + 5 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 5

1 1
This root test shows the R.O.C. is 3. The circle of convergence is |𝑧 − 2𝑖| = 3 ; the series converges absolutely for
1
|𝑧 − 2𝑖| < .
3

14 | P a g e
 Taylor Series
Suppose a power series represents a function 𝑓 for |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑅, 𝑅 ≠ 0, that is:

𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑘 2 3
𝑘=0 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + 𝑎3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ⋯

It follows that

𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑘=1 𝑘 𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑘−1
= 𝑎1 + 2𝑎2 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + 3𝑎3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 + ⋯ …

𝑓 ″ (𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑘=2 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑘−2
= 2 ⋅ 1𝑎2 + 3 ⋅ 2𝑎3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ⋯

𝑓 3 (𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑘=3 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)𝑎𝑘 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
𝑘−3
= 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1𝑎3 + ⋯

From the above, at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 we have

𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 𝑎0 , 𝑓′(𝑧0 ) = 1! 𝑎1 , 𝑓"(𝑧0 ) = 2! 𝑎2 , . . . 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 ) = 𝑛! 𝑎𝑛
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑧0 )
𝑎𝑛 = , 𝑛≥0
𝑛!
When 𝑛 = 0, We interpret the zeroth derivative as 𝑓(𝑧0 )
Now, we have
𝑓𝑘 (𝑧0 )
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑘!
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑘

This series is called the Taylor series for f centered at 𝑧0 .

A Taylor series with center 𝑧0 = 0,
𝑓𝑘 (0) 𝑘
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞
𝑘=0 𝑘!
𝑧 , is referred to as a Maclaurin series.

Laurent’s Series
If 𝑓(𝑧) is analytic inside and on the boundary of the annular region 𝑅 bounded by two concentric circles 𝐶1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶2 of
radii 𝑟1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟2 (𝑟1 > 𝑟2 ) respectively having centre at 𝑧0 , ∀ 𝑧 𝑖𝑛 𝑅
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
−𝑛

Where,
1 𝑓(𝑤)
𝑎𝑛 = ∮ 𝑑𝑧 ; 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … … . .
2𝜋𝑖 𝐶1 (𝑤 − 𝑧0 )𝑛+1
1 𝑓(𝑤)
𝑏𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝐶 (𝑤−𝑧0 )−𝑛+1
𝑑𝑧 ; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … … ….
2

we have, f(z) = ∑∞ n ∞
n=0 a n (z − z0 ) + ∑n=1 b(z − z0 )
−n
-------------------- (1)
The part with negative powers is called the principal part of (1) and will converge for |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | > 𝑟1 .
The part with non-negative powers is called the analytic part of (1) and will converge for |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | > 𝑟2 .
Hence the sum of these parts converges when𝑟1 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑟2.
sin 𝑧
Example. The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3
is not analytic at 𝑧 = 0 and hence can not be expanded in a Maclaurin series. We
find that converges for all 𝑧. Thus
𝑧3 𝑧5 𝑧7
sin 𝑧 = 𝑧 − 3!
+ 5!
− 7!
+ ⋯ … … . . ..
sin 𝑧 1 1 𝑧2 𝑧4
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3
= 𝑧2 − 3! + 5!
− 7!
+ ⋯ … … … ..

This series converges for all 𝑧 except 𝑧 = 0, 0 < |𝑧|.

15 | P a g e
 1
Example. Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑧−1) in a Laurent series valid 1 < |𝑧 − 2| < 2

Solution. Here, 𝑓(𝑧) can be written as:

1 1
f(z) = − + = f1 (z) + f2 (z)
z z−1
1 1 1 1
where, f1 (z) = − z = − 2+z−2 = − 2 [ z−2 ]
1+( )
2

1 𝑧−2 𝑧−2 2 𝑧−2 3

= − 2 [1 − 2
+ ( 2
) −( 2
) + ⋯…...]

1 𝑧−2 (𝑧−2)2 (𝑧−2)3

= −2 + 22
− 23
+ 24
− ⋯ … ..
𝑧−2
This series converges for | 2
| < 1 or |𝑧 − 2| < 2

and

1 1 1 1
𝑓2 (𝑧) = 𝑧−1 = 1+𝑧−2 = 𝑧−2 [ 1 ]
1+
𝑧−2

1 1 1 1
𝑓2 (𝑧) = = = [ ]
𝑧−1 1+𝑧−2 𝑧−2 1+ 1
𝑧−2
1 1 1 2 1 3
= 𝑧−2 [1 − 𝑧−2 + (𝑧−2) − (𝑧−2) + ⋯ … . . ]
1 1 1
= 𝑧−2 − (𝑧−2)2 + (𝑧−2)3 − ⋯ ….

1
This series converges for |𝑧−2| < 1 or 1 < |𝑧 − 2|
8𝑧+1
Example. Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(1−𝑧) in a Laurent series valid for 0 < |𝑧| < 1.

Solution. We can write

8𝑧+1 8𝑧+1 1 1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(1−𝑧) = 𝑧
[1−𝑧] = (8 + 𝑧) [1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + ⋯ … . ]

1
= + 9 + 9𝑧 + 9𝑧 2 + ⋯ ….
𝑧

𝑧3
Example. Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 about 𝑧 = 1.

𝑧3 [(𝑧−1)+1]3 (𝑧−1)3 +3(𝑧−1)2 +3(𝑧−1)+1

Solution. 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2 = (𝑧−1)2
= (𝑧−1)2

1 3
= (𝑧−1)2 + + 3 + (𝑧 − 1)
𝑧−1

1
Example. Expand 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 −1 about 𝑧 = 𝑖.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Solution. 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 +1 = 2𝑖 (𝑧−𝑖 − 𝑧+𝑖) = 2𝑖 (𝑧−𝑖 − 2𝑖+𝑧−𝑖)
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑛
= ( − ⋅ )= − ∑ (− ) (𝑧 − 𝑖)𝑛
2𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 2𝑖 1 + 𝑧 − 𝑖 2𝑖 𝑧 − 𝑖 (2𝑖)2 2𝑖
2𝑖 𝑛=0
𝑖 1 1 𝑖
=− + + (𝑧 − 𝑖) … … . ⋯
2𝑧 −𝑖 4 8

16 | P a g e
 Zero of an Analytic function
The value of 𝑧 for which the analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) becomes zero is said to be the zero of 𝑓(𝑧).
An analytic function 𝑓(𝑧) is said to have a zero of order 𝑚 if 𝑓(𝑧) is expressible as
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧 − 𝑎)𝑚 𝜙(𝑧), where 𝜙(𝑧) is analytic and 𝜙(𝑎) ≠ 0
Singularity:
A point 𝑧0 is said to be a singular point or singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) if 𝑓(𝑧) fails to be analytic at 𝑧0 but is analytic at some
point in the neighbourhood of 𝑧0 .
Isolated and Non-Isolated Singularity
If 𝑧 = 𝑎 is a singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) and if there is no singularity within a small circle surrounding the point 𝑧 = 𝑎, then
𝑧 = 𝑎 is said to be an isolated singularity of the function 𝑓(𝑧), otherwise it is called non-isolated.
𝑧+1
Example. Consider the function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑧−2)

It is analytic everywhere except at 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 2. Thus 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 2 are the only singularities of this function.
There are no other singularities of 𝑓(𝑧) in the neighbourhood of 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 2. Hence 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 2 are the
isolated singularities of this function.
Again, consider the function
1 𝜋
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝜋 = cot ( 𝑧 )
tan( )
𝑧

𝜋 𝜋
It is not analytic at the points where tan ( ) = 0 = tan 𝑛𝜋 𝑖. 𝑒. at the points where = 𝑛𝜋
𝑧 𝑧
1
⇒𝑧= (1, 2, 3, … … … … )
𝑛
1 1
Thus 𝑧 = 1, , , … … … . . , 𝑧 = 0 are the singularities of the function all of which are isolated except 𝑧 = 0 because
2 3
1
in the neighbourhood of 𝑧 = 0, there are infinite number of other singularities z = 𝑛 where 𝑛 is large. Therefore, 𝑧 = 0
is an non-isolated singularity of the given function.

Types of Singularity
If 𝑧0 is an isolated singularity, then in some deleted neighbourhood of 𝑧0 the function is analytic and hence its
Laurent’s expansion exists as
𝑓(𝑧) = ∑∞ 𝑛 ∞
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ∑𝑛=1 𝑏𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )
−𝑛
where 0 < |𝑧 − 𝑎| <
∞
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏𝑛
= ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 + + + + ⋯…….+ + ⋯…
𝑧 − 𝑧0 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛
𝑛=0

The first series on the right side of Laurent expansion is the regular part ( Taylor series) while series with negative
powers of (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) is called Principal Part.
(𝑖) Removable Singularity: If in some neighbourhood of an isolated singularity 𝑧0 , the Laurent series expansion of the
function has no Principal Part (P.P.) then 𝑧0 is called a removable singularity. Moreover, the nomenclature is justified
as it can be removed by appropriately defining the function at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 .
Note, that the function
sin 𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = , 𝑧 ≠ 0 ; is undefined at 𝑧 = 0.
𝑧

Note that it has a removable singularity at 𝑧 = 0 due to the absence of the Principal Part in the Laurent expansion.

17 | P a g e
sin 𝑧 1 𝑧3 𝑧5 𝑧2 𝑧4
= (𝑧 − + − ⋯………) = 1 − + − ⋯ … … … , 0 < |𝑧| < ∞
𝑧 𝑧 3! 5! 3! 5!

However, if we define
sin 𝑧
𝑔(𝑧) = { 𝑧 ,z ≠ 0
0, 𝑧=0
Now the above series converges to 1 at 𝑧 = 0 and the function becomes analytic at this point.
Essential Singularity: If the Principal Part in the Laurent series expansion of a function 𝑓(𝑧)in some deleted
neighbourhood of 𝑧0 contains infinitely many terms then 𝑧0 is called an essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).

The function 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑒 1⁄𝑧 has 𝑧 = 0 as an essential singularity since

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑒 1⁄𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + 2! 𝑧2
+ 3! 𝑧3
+ ⋯ … … + 𝑛! 𝑧𝑛 + ⋯ … … … , 0 < |𝑧| < ∞

Pole: If in the Laurent series expansion of a function 𝑓(𝑧) in some deleted neighbourhood of 𝑧0 the Principal Part
contains finite number of terms then the singularity 𝑧0 is called a Pole.
Suppose 𝑏𝑚 ≠ 0, 𝑏𝑚+1 = 𝑏𝑚+2 = 𝑏𝑚+3 = ⋯ … … … … = 0, then the point 𝑧0 is termed as a Pole of order 𝑚.
𝑧 2 −2𝑧+3 3
Example: 𝑓(𝑧) = =𝑧+ , 0 < |𝑧 − 2| < ∞
𝑧−2 𝑧−2

The point 𝑧 = 2 is a Pole of order 1 or simple pole.

𝑒𝑧
The function 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)3 has a pole of order 3 since

𝑒𝑧 𝑒. 𝑒 𝑧−1 1 1 1 1
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)3 = (𝑧−1)3
= 𝑒 [(𝑧−1)3 + (𝑧−1)2 + 2! (𝑧−1)
+ ⋯ … … ], , 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < ∞

Note:
(1) The limit point of the zeros of a function 𝑓(𝑧) is an isolated essential singularity.
(2) The limit point of the poles of a function 𝑓(𝑧) is a non-isolated essential singularity.
𝑧−2 1
Example 1. Find out the zero and discuss the nature of the singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2
sin 𝑧−1

Solution. Zeros of 𝑓(𝑧) are obtained by equating to zero its numerator, so that
we have,
1
(𝑧 − 2) sin =0
𝑧−1

𝑧 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 2 is a simple zero of 𝑓(𝑧).

1 1
sin 𝑧−1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧−1 = 𝑛𝜋, 𝑛∈ℤ
1
⇒ 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑛𝜋 , 𝑛∈ℤ

which are also zeros of order 1.

1
Since 𝑧 = 1 is a limit point of the zeros 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑛𝜋 , 𝑛 ∈ ℤ,

therefore 𝑧 = 1 is an isolated essential singularity of 𝑓(𝑧).

Again, to obtain the poles of 𝑓(𝑧) equating to zero its denominator we get

𝑧 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 0, 0
Hence 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 2.

18 | P a g e
 𝑧−sin 𝑧
Example 2. Discuss the nature of the singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3
at 𝑧 = 0.
𝑧−sin 𝑧 1
Solution. We have 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧3
= 𝑧3 (𝑧 − sin 𝑧)

1 𝑧3 𝑧5 𝑧7 1 𝑧3 𝑧5 𝑧7
= [𝑧 − (𝑧 − + − + ⋯ … … … )] = ( − + + ⋯………)
𝑧3 3! 5! 7! 𝑧 3 3! 5! 7!

1 𝑧2 𝑧4
= 3! − 5!
+ 7!
+ ⋯……

Since there is no term in the principal part of the given function hence 𝑧 = 0 is a removable singularity.
cot 𝜋𝑧
Example 3. Discuss singularity of 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑎)2 at 𝑧 = 𝑎 and 𝑧 = ∞ .

cot 𝜋𝑧 cos 𝜋𝑧
Solution. We have 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑎)2 = (𝑧−𝑎)2 sin 𝜋𝑧

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by (𝑧 − 𝑎)2 sin 𝜋𝑧 = 0

⇒ z = 𝑎, 𝑛, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
z = 𝑎 is a pole of order 2 and since z = ∞ is a limit point of these poles, therefore z = ∞ is a non-isolated essential
singularity.

The Calculus of Residues (Integration)

Recall Laurent’s series

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 + 𝑎3 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 + ⋯ … ⋯
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
+ 𝑧−𝑧1 + (𝑧−𝑧2 )2 + (𝑧−𝑧3 )3 + (𝑧−𝑧4 )4 + ⋯ … . ⋯
0 0 0 0

1
The residue of a function is the coefficient of the term 𝑧−𝑧 (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑏1 ) in the Laurent series expansion.
0

−2𝑧+3 1 1 1 𝑧 𝑧2
Example. 𝑧2 −3𝑧+2 = ⋯ … − 𝑧2 − 𝑧 + 2 + 4 + 8
+ ⋯……… 𝑏1 = −1
1
Example. 1−𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 + ⋯ … … … . … 𝑏1 = 0

Methods to find Residues.

There are two methods:
1. By Definition (Expansion Method)
1
[Expand 𝑓(𝑧)as Laurent’s series and take the coefficient 𝑏1 of 𝑧−𝑧0
]

2. By Formula (Use formula directly)

Formula for finding the residue for a simple pole:

If 𝑓(𝑧) has a simple pole at 𝑧0 , then the Laurent series is:
𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ⋯ + 𝑧−𝑧1 (0 < |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | < 𝑅)Or (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 + ⋯ + 𝑏1
0

19 | P a g e
Taking 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 as 𝑧 → 𝑧0
lim ( 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑏1
𝑧→𝑧0

OR Res 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑏1
𝑧=𝑧0

= lim ( 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑧0

∴ Res 𝑓(𝑧) = lim ( 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧)

𝑧=𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

2𝑧−𝑖
Example. Find the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧2 +1) at 𝑧 = 𝑖.

Solution. Res 𝑓(𝑧) = lim ( 𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑓(𝑧)

𝑧=𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

(𝑧−𝑖)(2𝑧−𝑖) (2𝑧−𝑖) 𝑖
= lim (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧2 +1) = lim (𝑧+𝑖)2 = − 4
𝑧→𝑖 𝑧→𝑖

(Residue by definition) Laurent series is:

2𝑧−𝑖 2𝑧−𝑖 1 2𝑧−𝑖 1
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧2 +1) = [
𝑧−𝑖 (𝑧+𝑖)2
] = [
𝑧−𝑖 {2𝑖+(𝑧−𝑖)}2
]

2𝑧−𝑖 1 1 𝑖 1
= (𝑧−𝑖)(2𝑖)2 [ 𝑧−𝑖 2
] = [− 2 − 4(𝑧−𝑖)] . [ 𝑧−𝑖 2
]
{1+ } {1+ }
2𝑖 2𝑖

1 𝑖 (𝑧−𝑖) (𝑧−𝑖)2 (𝑧−𝑖)3

= [− − ] . [1 − 2 +3 2 −4 + ⋯….]
2 4(𝑧−𝑖) 2𝑖 (2𝑖) (2𝑖)3
𝑖 1 1 5 1
= − 4 𝑧−𝑖 − 4 − 16 (𝑧 − 𝑖) + 2 (𝑧 − 𝑖)2 ⋯ … (0 < |𝑧 − 𝑖| < 2)
𝑧+1
Example. Find the residue at the poles of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 −2𝑧
𝑧+1 𝑧+1 1
Solution. Res𝑓(𝑧) = lim 𝑧 𝑧(𝑧−2) = lim 𝑧−2 = − 2
𝑧=0 𝑧→0 𝑧→0

𝑧+1 𝑧+1 3
Res𝑓(𝑧) = lim( 𝑧 − 2) 𝑧(𝑧−2) = lim =2
𝑧=2 𝑧→2 𝑧→2 𝑧

(Residues by definition) Laurent series are:

𝑧+1 𝑧+1 1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑧−2) = − {
2𝑧 1−𝑧/2
}

𝑧+1 𝑧 𝑧2 1 3 3𝑧 3𝑧 2
=− 2𝑧
{1 + 2 + 22
+ ⋯ } = − 2𝑧 − 4 − 8
− 16
+ ⋯ … ⋯ (0 < |𝑧| < 2)

𝑧+1 (𝑧−2)+3 1 (𝑧−2)+3 1

𝑓(𝑧) = = [ ] = [ ]
𝑧(𝑧−2) (𝑧−2) 2+(𝑧−2) 2(𝑧−2) 1+𝑧−2
2
(𝑧−2)+3 𝑧−2 (𝑧−2)2
= [1 − + 2 + ⋯…………..]
2(𝑧−2) 2 2

3 1 1 (𝑧−2) (𝑧−2)2
= 2 . (𝑧−2) − 2 + 4
− 8
+ ⋯ …. (0 < |𝑧 − 2| < 2)

II Approach for residue at a simple pole

𝑔(𝑧)
Suppose 𝑓(𝑧) = ℎ(𝑧) , has a simple pole at 𝑧 = 𝑧0 such that 𝑔(𝑧0 ) ≠ 0

𝑔(𝑧) 𝑔(𝑧) 𝑔(𝑧 )

Then, lim ( 𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) ℎ(𝑧) = lim ℎ(𝑧)−ℎ(𝑧0 ) = ℎ′(𝑧0 )
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0 0
𝑧−𝑧0

𝑔(𝑧 )
[Res 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧0 = ′ 0
ℎ (𝑧 ) 0

20 | P a g e
 𝑧+1
Example. Find the residues of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 +9
𝑧+1 𝑧+1
Solution. Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 +9 or 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+3𝑖)(𝑧−3𝑖)

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are 𝑧 = 3𝑖 and 𝑧 = −3𝑖

𝑧+1 𝑧+1 3𝑖+1 3−𝑖

[𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=3𝑖 = [ 𝑑 ] = [ 2𝑧 ] = =
(𝑧 2 +9) 𝑧=3𝑖 6𝑖 6
𝑑𝑧 𝑧=3𝑖
𝟑+𝒊
Similarly, [𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=−3𝑖 = 𝟔
.

Example. Find the residues of 𝑓(𝑧) = cot 𝑧

cos 𝑧
Solution. Here 𝑓(𝑧) = cot 𝑧 or 𝑓(𝑧) = sin 𝑧

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by

sin 𝑧 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑛𝜋

cos 𝑧 cos 𝑧
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑛𝜋 = [ 𝑑 ] = [cos 𝑧] =1
sin 𝑧 𝑧=𝑛𝜋
𝑑𝑧 𝑧=𝑛𝜋

Formula for finding the residue for a pole of order 2

If 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 2 at 𝑧0 , then the Laurent series is:
𝑏 𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) … … … ⋯ + 𝑧−𝑧1 + (𝑧−𝑧2 )2
0 0

Or (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ⋯ … . ..
Differentiate
𝑑
𝑑𝑧
[(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 𝑓(𝑧)] = 2𝑎0 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + 3𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 + ⋯ … ⋯ + 𝑏1

Taking 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 as 𝑧 → 𝑧0
𝑑
lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 𝑓(𝑧)] = 𝑏1
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧

𝑑
∴ Res 𝑓(𝑧) = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧=𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧

1
Example. Find the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2(𝑧−3) at 𝑧 = 1.

Solution. Here 𝑧 = 1 is a pole of order 2

1 𝑑 𝑑 1 −1 1
[Res 𝑓(𝑧)]1 = lim (𝑧 − 1)2 𝑓(𝑧) = lim ( ) = lim = −4
1! 𝑑𝑧 𝑧→1 𝑑𝑧 𝑧−3 (𝑧−3)2 𝑧→1 𝑧→1
𝑧
Example. Find the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+2)(𝑧−1)2
at 𝑧 = 1

𝑑 𝑑 𝑧 2 2
Solution. Res 𝑓(𝑧) = lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 𝑓(𝑧)] = lim [ ] = lim [(𝑧+2)2 ] = 9
𝑧=𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧→1 𝑑𝑧 𝑧+2 𝑧→1
Check: the Laurent series is

𝑧 (𝑧−1)+1 1 (𝑧−1)+1 1
𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧+2)(𝑧−1)2 = {
(𝑧−1)2 3+(𝑧−1)
} = {
3(𝑧−1)2 1+𝑧−1)
}
3
(𝑧−1)+1 𝑧−1 (𝑧−1)2
= 3(𝑧−1)2
{1 − 3
+ 32
− ⋯….⋯}

21 | P a g e
 (𝑧−1)+1 1 1 1 (𝑧−1)
= 3
{(𝑧−1)2 − 3(𝑧−1) + 32 − 33 … … . . ⋯ }
1 2 1 2 2(𝑧−1)
= 3(𝑧−1)2
+ 9 . (𝑧−1) − 27 + 81 − ⋯ … … ⋯ (0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 3)

Formula for finding the residue for a pole of any order:

If 𝑓(𝑧) has a pole of order 𝑚 at 𝑧0 , then the Laurent series is
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏𝑚
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) + ⋯ … . ⋯ + + ………⋯+
𝑧−𝑧0 (𝑧−𝑧0 )2 (𝑧−𝑧0 )𝑚

Or (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑎0 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 + 𝑎1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚+1 +. . ⋯ + 𝑏1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚−1

+𝑏2 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚−2 + ⋯ … … ⋯ + 𝑏𝑚

Now, differentiate (𝑚 − 1) times and let 𝑧 → 𝑧0 to get

𝑑 𝑚−1
∴ lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 𝑓(𝑧)] = (𝑚 − 1)! 𝑏1
𝑧→𝑧0 𝑑𝑧 𝑚−1

1 𝑑 𝑚−1
Res 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑚−1)! lim [𝑑𝑧𝑚−1 {(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 𝑓(𝑧)}]
𝑧=𝑧0 𝑧→𝑧0

1 𝑑 𝑚−1
OR Res 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑚−1)! [𝑑𝑧𝑚−1 {(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑚 𝑓(𝑧)}]
𝑧=𝑧0 𝑧=𝑧0

sinh 𝑧
Example. Find the residue at poles of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧4
.
sinh 𝑧
Solution. Here 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧4

For poles 𝑧 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 4

1 𝑑3 sinh 𝑧
Res𝑓(𝑧) = lim 3 [𝑧 4 4 ]
𝑧=0 (4 − 1)! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧 𝑧
1 𝑑3
= lim 3 [sinh 𝑧]
3 ! 𝑧→0 𝑑𝑧

1 1
= lim cosh 𝑧 =
6 𝑧→0 6

Residue at Infinity
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=∞ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚[−𝑧𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧→0

OR
1
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=∞ = − [𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧
𝑧3
Example. Find the residue of 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 −1 at 𝑧 = ∞.
𝑧3 𝑧3
Solution. We have, 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 −1 = 1
𝑧 2 (1− 2 )
𝑧

1 −1
= 𝑧 (1 − 𝑧2 )
1 1 1
= 𝑧 + 𝑧 + 𝑧3 + 𝑧 5 + ⋯ ……
1
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=∞ = − (𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ) = −1
𝑧

22 | P a g e
 𝑑𝑧
Example. Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝑧 sin 𝑧 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1
1
Solution. Here, Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 sin 𝑧
1 1
= 𝑧3 𝑧5 𝑧7
= 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6
𝑧(𝑧− + − +⋯…………… ) 𝑧 2 (1− + − +⋯…………… )
3! 5! 7! 3! 5! 7!

−1
1 𝑧2 𝑧4 𝑧6
= [1 − ( 3! − + + ⋯ … … … … … )]
𝑧2 5! 7!
1 1 7
= 𝑧2 + 6 + 360 𝑧 2 +………………

This shows that 𝑧 = 0 is a pole of order 2

1
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 = 0
𝑧
𝑑𝑧
∴ ∫𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 0 = 0.
𝑧 sin 𝑧
1
Example. Evaluate ∳𝐶 (𝑧−1)2(𝑧−3) 𝑑𝑧 , where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧| = 2.

Solution. Since only the pole 𝑧 = 1 lies within the circle, then there is only one singular point 𝑧 = 1 within 𝐶, then
1
∳𝐶 (𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−3) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=1
1 𝑑 1
= 2𝜋𝑖. 1! lim [𝑑𝑧 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧−1)2 (𝑧−3)]
𝑧→1
1 𝝅𝒊
= 2𝜋𝑖. lim [− ] =−
𝑧→1 (𝑧−3)2 𝟐

Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

Let 𝐷 be a simply connected domain and 𝐶 a simply closed contour lying entirely within 𝐷. If a function 𝑓 is analytic
on and within 𝐶, except at a finite number of singular points 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , … … … … . , 𝑧𝑛 within 𝐶, then

∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. ∑𝑛𝑘=1[𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧𝑘

Proof. We have

∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ⋯ . . +∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

1 2 𝑛

= ∑𝑛𝑘=1 [∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧]

𝑘

= ∑𝑛𝑘=1[2𝜋𝑖. {𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)}𝑧𝑘 ]

∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑘=1{𝑅𝑒𝑠 𝑓(𝑧)}𝑧𝑘

24𝑧−7
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)2(2𝑧+3) 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 ≡ |𝑧| = 2.
24𝑧−7
Solution. Let 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−1)2(2𝑧+3)
3
𝑪 ≡ |𝒛|
Here, 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = −2 are two poles and both lie within 𝐶.
𝑑 24𝑧−7 86 86
=𝟐
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=1 = lim [ (𝑧 − 1)2 . ] = [(2𝑧+3)2 ] = 25
𝑑𝑧 𝑧→1 (𝑧−1)2 (2𝑧+3) 𝑧=1

3 24𝑧−7 1 24𝑧−7 86
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=−3 = lim3 [(𝑧 + ) . ] = 2 [(𝑧−1)2 ] =−
2 2 (𝑧−1)2 (2𝑧+3)
𝑧→− 𝑧=−
3 25
2 2

23 | P a g e
By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
24𝑧−7
∮𝐶 (𝑧−1)2 (2𝑧+3) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶]

86 86
= 2𝜋𝑖. [25 − 25] = 𝟎.
2+𝑧
Example. Integrate the function 𝑧2−𝑧 around |𝑧| = 2.
2+𝑧 2+𝑧 2+𝑧
Solution. ∮𝐶 𝑧2 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 {Res 𝑧2−𝑧 + Res 𝑧2−𝑧}
𝑧=0 𝑧=1

2+𝑧 2+𝑧
= 2𝜋𝑖. {lim 𝑧−1 + lim }
𝑧→0 𝑧→1 𝑧
2+𝑧
∴ ∮𝐶 𝑧2 −𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [−2 + 3] = 𝟐𝝅𝒊
𝑑𝑧
Example. Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝑧(𝑧−2)4 𝐶: |𝑧 − 2| = 1

Solution. Poles are 𝑧 = 0 (simple) and 𝑧 = 2 (pole of order 4)

Only 𝑧 = 2 lies inside 𝐶: |𝑧 − 2| = 1

[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑧(𝑧−2)4 ]
1
=
1 𝑑3
lim [ 3 (𝑧
3 ! 𝑧→2 𝑑𝑧
− 2)4
1
𝑧(𝑧−2)4
] =−
1
16
C
𝑧=2

𝑑𝑧 1 𝝅𝒊
∴ ∫𝑐 𝑧(𝑧−2)2 = 2𝜋𝑖 (− 16) = − 𝟖
.

1
Example. show ∫𝑐𝑒 𝑧2 𝑑𝑧 = 0 , where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1
1
Solution. Here, 𝑒 𝑧2 is analytic everywhere except 𝑧 = 0
1
1 1 1 1 1
𝑒 𝑧2 = 1 + + + + ⋯ . . . 0 < |𝑧| < ∞
1! 𝑧 2 2! 𝑧 4 3! 𝑧6
1
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 𝑧2 ] =0 [𝑎𝑠 𝑏1 = 0]
𝑧=0
1
∴ ∫𝑐𝑒 𝑧2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × 0 = 0
5𝑧−2
Example. Evaluate ∫𝑐 𝑧(𝑧−1) 𝑑𝑧 where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 2

Solution. Poles are 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = 1 both lie in 𝐶: |𝑧| = 2

5𝑧−2
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=0 = lim [𝑧. ]=2
𝑧(𝑧−1)
𝑧→0

5𝑧−2
& [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=1 = lim [(𝑧 − 1) 𝑧(𝑧−1)] = 3
𝑧→1
0 2
5𝑧−2
∴ ∫𝑐 𝑧(𝑧−1) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋 𝑖 (2 + 3) = 𝟏𝟎𝝅𝒊.

II Method:

Solution. Poles are 𝑧 = 0, 𝑧 = 1

(a) when 0 < |𝑧| < 1
5𝑧−2 5𝑧−2 −1
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑧−1) = 𝑧
. 1−𝑧

24 | P a g e
 2
= (5 − ) (−1 − 𝑧 − 𝑧 2 . . . . . )
𝑧

𝑏1 = 𝐵1 = [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=0 = 2
(b) when 0 < |𝑧 − 1| < 1
5𝑧−2 5(𝑧−1)+3 1
𝑧(𝑧−1)
= 𝑧−1
. 1+(𝑧−1)
3
= (5 + 𝑧−1) [1 − (𝑧 − 1) + (𝑧 − 1)2 . . . . . . . ]
b1 = 𝐵2 = 3
5𝑧−2
∴ ∫𝑐 𝑧(𝑧−1) 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋 𝑖 (2 + 3) = 10𝜋𝑖.

𝑧 1
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 𝑧2 −3𝑧+2 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 ≡ |𝑧 − 2| = 2.
𝑧 𝑧
Solution. Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 −3𝑧+2 = (𝑧−2)(𝑧−1)
1
Here, poles are 𝑧 = 1 & 𝑧 = 2, but only 𝑧 = 2 lies within 𝐶. |𝑧 − 2| =
𝑧
2
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=2 = lim [(𝑧 − 2). ]
𝑧→2 (𝑧−2)(𝑧−1)

𝑧
= [𝑧−1] =2
𝑧=2

By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

𝑧
∮𝐶 𝑧2 −3𝑧+2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶]

= 2𝜋𝑖. [2] = 𝟒𝝅𝒊.

𝑧−3
Example. Evaluate ∮𝐶 𝑧2 +2𝑧+5 𝑑𝑧, where 𝐶 is the circle |𝑧 + 1 − 𝑖| = 2.
𝑧−3 𝑧−3
Solution. Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧2 +2𝑧+5 = (𝑧−𝛼)(𝑧−𝛽), where 𝛼 = −1 + 2𝑖, 𝛽 = −1 − 2𝑖

Here, poles are 𝑧 = 𝛼 & 𝑧 = 𝛽, but only 𝑧 = 𝛼 lies within 𝐶.

𝑧−3
[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝛼 = lim [(𝑧 − 𝛼). ]
𝑧→𝛼 (𝑧−𝛼)(𝑧−𝛽)

𝑧−3 −4 + 2𝑖
=[ ] =
𝑧 − 𝛽 𝑧=𝛼 4𝑖

By Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

𝑧
∮𝐶 𝑧2 −3𝑧+2 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶]
−4+2𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖. [ 4𝑖
]

= 𝝅(𝒊 − 𝟐).

25 | P a g e
 Contour Integration
Contour Integral: The contour integral of a complex function 𝑓: 𝐶 → 𝐶 is a generalization of the integral for real-
valued functions.

Contour integration: The process of evaluating the values of a contour integral around a given contour in the
complex plane is called contour integration. Contour integration is closely related to the calculus of residues.

Evaluation of Real Integrals

In this section we shall discuss how the residue theorem can be used to evaluate real integrals of the forms:
2𝜋
∫0 𝐹(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 ----------- (1)
∞
∫−∞ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ------------ (2)
𝟐𝝅
Integral of the Form∫𝟎 𝑭(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)𝒅𝜽
2𝜋
The basic idea is to convert the given integral form ∫0 𝐹 (cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 into a complex integral.

Consider a circle C: |𝑧| = 1 as contour |𝑧| = 1 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃

1 1 1 1 1 1
cos 𝜃 = 2 (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ) = 2 (𝑧 + 𝑧), sin 𝜃 = 2𝑖 (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 ) = 2𝑖 (𝑧 − 𝑧)
𝑑𝑧
and 𝑑𝜃 = ; 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
𝑖𝑧

2𝜋 𝑧+𝑧 −1 𝑧−𝑧 −1 𝑑𝑧
∴ ∫0 𝐹 (cos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃)𝑑𝜃 = ∳𝐶 𝐹 ( , )
2 2𝑖 𝑖𝑧

2𝜋 1
Example. Evaluate ∫0 𝑑𝜃
(2+cos 𝜃)2

2𝜋 1
Solution. Let I = ∫0 (2+cos 𝜃)2
𝑑𝜃

1 1 𝑑𝑧
put cos 𝜃 = [𝑧 + ] , 𝑑𝜃 =
2 𝑧 𝑖𝑧 |𝒛|
∴ 𝐼 = ∳𝐶
4 𝑧
𝑑𝑧 , where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1
C= 𝟏
𝑖 (𝑧 2 +4𝑧+1)2

4 𝑧
= ∳𝐶 𝑑𝑧
𝑖 (𝑧−𝑧1 )2 (𝑧−𝑧2 )2

where, 𝑧1 = −2 + √3 , 𝑧2 = −2 − √3
Since only 𝑧1 is inside the unit circle 𝐶.
z 4
∴ ∳C (z2 +4z+1)2 dz = i . 2πi. [Res. of f(z)]z=z1

d
Now, [Res. of f(z)]z=z1 = lim (z − z1 )2 f(z)
z→z1 dz

d z
= lim
z→z1 dz (z − z2 )2
(z + z2 ) 1
= lim [− 3 ]=
z→z1 (z − z2 ) 6√3
2π 1 4 1 𝟒𝝅
∫0 (2+cos θ)2
dθ = i [2πi (6 3)] = 𝟑√𝟑.
√

26 | P a g e
 2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
Example. Evaluate ∫0 𝑎+𝑏 cos 𝜃
, where 𝑎 > |𝑏|
2𝜋 dθ
Solution. Let I = ∫0 𝑎+𝑏 cos θ

1 1 𝑑𝑧
put cos 𝜃 = 2 [𝑧 + 𝑧] , 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖𝑧
|𝒛| = 𝟏
2𝑧 𝑑𝑧
C
∴ 𝐼 = ∳𝐶 [𝑏𝑧2 +2𝑎𝑧+𝑏] ( 𝑖𝑧 ) , where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1

2 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑖𝑏 ∳𝐶 2𝑎
[𝑧 2 + 𝑧+1]
𝑏

2 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑖𝑏 ∳𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧
1 )(𝑧−𝑧2 )

𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2 𝑎 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2
where 𝑧1 = − 𝑏 + 𝑏
and 𝑧2 = − 𝑏 − 𝑏
1 2
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑧 ∴ 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑏 ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ----------(1)
1 )(𝑧−𝑧2 )

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by

(𝑧 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧 − 𝑧2 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 (both are simple)

it is given that 𝑎 > |𝑏| ⇒ |𝑧2 | > 1

∵ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = 1 ∴ |𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = 1
⇒ |𝑧1 |. |𝑧2 | = 1 ⇒ |𝑧1 | < 1 [𝑎𝑠 |𝑧2 | > 1]
Hence only z1 lies inside the unit circle 𝐶
Now, [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑧1 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑧1 )𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑧1

1 1 𝑏
= lim = =
𝑧→𝑧1 (𝑧−𝑧2 ) 𝑧1 −𝑧2 2√𝑎 2 −𝑏2

𝑏 𝑏𝜋𝑖
∴ ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ( )=
2√𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 √𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
2 𝑏𝜋𝑖 2𝜋
From (1), 𝐼 = 𝑖𝑏 [ ]=
√𝑎2 −𝑏2 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2

2𝜋 𝑑𝜃
Example. Evaluate ∫0 𝑎+𝑏 sin 𝜃
, where 𝑎 > |𝑏|
2𝜋 dθ
Solution. Let I = ∫0 𝑎+𝑏 sin 𝜃

1 1 𝑑𝑧
put sin 𝜃 = 2𝑖 [𝑧 − 𝑧] , 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖𝑧
|𝒛| = 𝟏
2𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧
C
∴ 𝐼 = ∳𝐶 [𝑏𝑧2 ( ), where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1
+2𝑖𝑎𝑧−𝑏] 𝑖𝑧

2 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑏 ∳𝐶 2𝑖𝑎
[𝑧 2 + 𝑧−1]
𝑏

2 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑏 ∳𝐶 (𝑧−𝑧
1 )(𝑧−𝑧2 )

𝑖𝑎 𝑖√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 𝑖𝑎 𝑖√𝑎 2 −𝑏2

where 𝑧1 = − + and 𝑧2 = − −
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
1 2
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑧 )(𝑧−𝑧
∴ 𝐼 = 𝑏 ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 ---------- (1)
1 2)

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by

27 | P a g e
(𝑧 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧 − 𝑧2 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 (both are simple)

it is given that 𝑎 > |𝑏| ⇒ |𝑧2 | > 1

∵ 𝑧1 . 𝑧2 = −1 ∴ |𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = 1
⇒ |𝑧1 |. |𝑧2 | = 1 ⇒ |𝑧1 | < 1 [𝑎𝑠 |𝑧2 | > 1]
Hence only z1 lies inside the unit circle 𝐶
Now, [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑧1 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑧1 )𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑧1

1 1 𝑏
= lim =𝑧 =
𝑧→𝑧1 (𝑧−𝑧2 ) 1 −𝑧2 2𝑖√𝑎 2 −𝑏2

𝑏 𝑏𝜋
∴ ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ( )=
2𝑖√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2

2 𝑏𝜋 2𝜋
From (1), 𝐼 = 𝑏 [ ]=
√𝑎 2 −𝑏2 √𝑎 2 −𝑏2

2𝜋 cos 3𝜃
Example. Evaluate ∫0 5−4 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
2𝜋 cos 3𝜃
Solution. Let I = ∫0 5−4 cos 𝜃
dθ

2𝜋 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃 2𝜋 𝑒 3𝑖𝜃
𝐼 = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ∫0 5−4 cos 𝜃
dθ = R.P. [∫0 5−2(𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 )
dθ]

𝑑𝑧
put 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑧 , 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑖𝑧

𝑧3 𝑑𝑧
∴ I = R.P.[∳𝐶 5−2(𝑧+𝑧−1 ) ( 𝑖𝑧 )], where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1

1 𝑧3 1 𝑧3
= R.P. [− 𝑖 ∳𝐶 2𝑧2 −5𝑧−2 𝑑𝑧] = R.P. [− 2𝑖 ∳𝐶 5 𝑑𝑧]
𝑧 2 − 𝑧−1
2

𝑧3 1
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑧 , where 𝑧1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 2
1 )(𝑧−𝑧2 ) 2

1
∴ 𝐼 = R.P. [− ∳ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧] ---------------- (1)
2𝑖 𝐶

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by (𝑧 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧 − 𝑧2 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑧1 , 𝑧2

(both are simple) it is very clear that only z1 lies inside the unit circle 𝐶.
𝑧3 𝑧1 3 1
Now, [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑧1 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑧1 )𝑓(𝑧) = lim =𝑧 = − 12
𝑧→𝑧1 𝑧→𝑧1 (𝑧−𝑧2 ) 1 −𝑧2

1 𝑖𝜋
∴ ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 (− )=−
12 6
1 𝑖𝜋 𝝅
From (1), 𝐼 = R.P. [− 2𝑖 (− 6 )] = 𝟏𝟐.

2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃−2 cos 𝜃

Example. Evaluate ∫0 2+cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃

2𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃−2 cos 𝜃

Sol. Let I = ∫0 2+cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃

1 2𝜋 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃−4 cos 𝜃

= ∫0 𝑑𝜃
2 2+cos 𝜃

1 2𝜋 1−cos 2𝜃−4 cos 𝜃

= 2 ∫0 2+cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃

28 | P a g e
 1 2𝜋 1 − 𝑒 2𝑖𝜃 − 4𝑒 𝑖𝜃
I = 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 [ ∫ 𝑑𝜃 ]
2 0 2 + cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑧
put 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑧 , 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑖𝑧

1 1−𝑧 2 −4𝑧 𝑑𝑧
∴ I = R.P.[2 ∳𝐶 (𝑧+𝑧−1 )
( 𝑖𝑧 )], where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1
2+
2

1 1−𝑧 2 −4𝑧
I = R.P.[ 𝑖 ∳𝐶 𝑧2 +4𝑧+1 𝑑𝑧], where 𝐶: |𝑧| = 1

1−𝑧 2 −4𝑧
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧−𝑧
1 )(𝑧−𝑧2 )

where 𝑧1 = −2 + √3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = −2 − √3
1
∴ 𝐼 = R.P. [ 𝑖 ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧] ---------- (1)

Poles of 𝑓(𝑧) are given by

(𝑧 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧 − 𝑧2 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 (both are simple)

it is very clear that only z1 lies inside the unit circle 𝐶.

Now, [𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑧)]𝑧=𝑧1 = lim (𝑧 − 𝑧1 )𝑓(𝑧)
𝑧→𝑧1

1−𝑧 2 −4𝑧 1−𝑧1 2 −4𝑧1 1

= lim = =
𝑧→𝑧1 (𝑧−𝑧2 ) 𝑧1 −𝑧2 √3

1 2𝜋𝑖 1 2𝜋𝑖 2𝜋
∴ ∳𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ( ) = , therefore, From (1), 𝐼 = R.P. [ ( )] =
√3 √3 𝑖 √3 √3

2𝜋 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃
Example. Evaluate ∫0 1−𝑎 sin 𝜃
, 𝑎 is real and |𝑎| < 1.
(𝑧−1/𝑧)/2𝑖 𝑑𝑧 1 𝑧 2 −1 1
Solution. 𝐼 = ∮𝐶 1−𝑎(𝑧−1/𝑧)/2𝑖 𝑖𝑧 = 𝑖 ∮𝐶 𝑧 −𝑎𝑧2 +2𝑖𝑧+𝑎 𝑑𝑧

1 1−𝑧 2
= 𝑖𝑎 ∮𝐶 𝑧(𝑧2 −2𝑖𝑧/𝑎−1) 𝑑𝑧

We have 3 simple poles, 𝑧0 = 0 and 𝑧 2 − 2𝑖𝑧/𝑎 − 1 = 0

𝑖 C
⇒𝑧= (1 ± √1 − 𝑎2 ) . |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = 1, |𝑧2 | > |𝑧1 |
𝑎
⇒ 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑧1 lies in the circle C.Res 𝑓(0) r
1 − 𝑧2 1
= lim [𝑧 ]= .Res 𝑓(𝑧1 ) =
𝑧→0 𝑧(𝑧 − 𝑧1 )(𝑧 − 𝑧2 ) 𝑧1 𝑧2
1−𝑧 2 1−𝑧12
= lim [(𝑧 − 𝑧1 ) 𝑧(𝑧−𝑧 ] =𝑧 .Res 𝑓(0) + Res 𝑓(𝑧1 )
𝑧→𝑧1 1 )(𝑧−𝑧2 ) 1 (𝑧1 −𝑧2 )

1 1 1−𝑧12 1−𝑧1 𝑧2
= 𝑧 (𝑧 + 𝑧 ) =𝑧
1 2 1 −𝑧2 2 (𝑧1 −𝑧2 )

1−(−1)
= 𝑖 −2𝑖
𝑎
(1+√1−𝑎2 )⋅( 𝑎 √1−𝑎 2 )
𝑎 2 2𝜋𝑎
= =
(1+√1−𝑎2 )√1−𝑎2 (1+√1−𝑎2 )√1−𝑎2

1 𝑎2 2𝜋𝑎
𝐼 = 𝑖𝑎 ⋅ 2𝜋𝑖 ⋅ =
(1+√1−𝑎2 )√1−𝑎2 (1+√1−𝑎 2 )√1−𝑎 2

29 | P a g e
Semi Circular Contour
∞ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
Integral of the type ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥 , where 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials in 𝑥, such that [𝑥 ] → 0 as 𝑥 → ∞ and
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

(i) 𝑔(𝑥) has no zeros on the real axis

(ii) the degree of 𝑔(𝑥) is greater than that of 𝑓(𝑥) by at least 2.
𝑓(𝑧)
Consider the integral ∮𝐶 𝑔(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 over the closed contour 𝐶 consisting of the real axis
from −𝑅 to 𝑅 and the semi-circle 𝐶𝑅 of a very large radius 𝑅 in the upper half plane.
𝑓(𝑧)
Let 𝐹(𝑧) = 𝑔(𝑧)

By Residue theorem, we have

∮𝐶 𝐹(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐹(𝑧) 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐶]

𝑅
∫−𝑅 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝐶𝑅 𝐹(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 × ∑𝑛𝑘=1[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝐹(𝑧)]𝑧𝑘
𝑅
∫−𝑅 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −∫𝐶𝑅 𝐹(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + 2𝜋𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑘=1[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝐹(𝑧)]𝑧𝑘
𝑅
lim ∫−𝑅 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − lim ∫𝐶 𝐹(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + 2𝜋𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑘=1[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝐹(𝑧)]𝑧𝑘 ----------(1)
𝑅→∞ 𝑅 𝑅→∞
𝜋
Now, lim ∫𝐶 𝐹(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫0 𝐹(𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑖𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 0 [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑅 → ∞]
𝑅→∞ 𝑅

∞
From (1), We have ∫−∞ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∑𝑛𝑘=1[𝑅𝑒𝑠. 𝑜𝑓 𝐹(𝑧)]𝑧𝑘
∞ 1
Example. Evaluate the Cauchy principal value of ∫−∞ (𝑥 2+1)(𝑥2+9) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
Solution. Let 𝑓(𝑧) = (𝑧2 +1)(𝑧2+9) = (𝑧+𝑖)(𝑧−𝑖)(𝑧+3𝑖)(𝑧−3𝑖)
Only 𝑧 = 𝑖 and 𝑧 = 3𝑖 are in the upper half-plane.
1 R 1 1
∮C (z2 +1)(z2 +9) 𝑑𝑧 = ∫−R (x2 +1)(x2 +9) dx + ∫C (z 2 +1)(z 2 +9) dz
R

= I1 + I2
1
𝐼1 = 2𝜋𝑖. [Res𝑓(𝑧) + Res 𝑓(𝑧)], here 𝑓(𝑧) = 2
𝑧=𝑖 𝑧=3𝑖 (z +1)(z2 +9)

1 1 𝝅
= 2𝜋𝑖 [16𝑖 − 48𝑖] = 𝟏𝟐.

Now let R →  and note that on CR:

|(𝑧 2 + 1)(𝑧 2 + 9)| = |(𝑧 2 + 1)||(𝑧 2 + 9)|
≥ ||𝑧|2 − 1| ||𝑧|2 − 9| = (𝑅 2 − 1)(𝑅 2 − 9)
From the ML-inequality
1 𝜋𝑅
|𝐼2 | = |∫ 𝑑𝑧| ≤ 2 |𝐼 | → 0 as 𝑅 → ∞
𝐶𝑅 (𝑧 2 2
+ 1)(𝑧 + 9) (𝑅 − 1)(𝑅 2 − 9) 2
𝑅 1 𝜋
Thus, lim ∫−𝑅 (𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥2 +9) 𝑑𝑥 = 12
𝑅→∞

Behavior of Integral as R → 
𝑓(𝑧)
Suppose 𝐹(𝑧) = 𝑔(𝑧), where the degree of 𝑓(𝑧) is 𝑛 and the degree of 𝑔(𝑧) is 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛 + 2. If CR is a Semicircular
contour 𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 then ∫𝐶 𝐹(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑅 → ∞
𝑅

30 | P a g e
 ∞ 1
Example. Evaluate the Cauchy principal value of ∫−∞ 𝑥 4+1 𝑑𝑥
𝑖𝜋⁄ 3𝑖𝜋⁄
Solution. Firstly we check that poles in the upper half-plane are 𝑧1 = 𝑒 4 and 𝑧2 = 𝑒 4. We also knew that
1 1 1 1
Res 𝑓(𝑧) = − − 𝑖, and Res 𝑓(𝑧) = − 𝑖
𝑧=𝑧1 4√2 4√2 𝑧=𝑧2 4√2 4√2
∞ 1
P.V. ∫−∞ 𝑥 4 +1 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑖. [Res 𝑓(𝑧) + Res 𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧=𝑧1 𝑧=𝑧2
𝜋
=
√2
∞ ∞
Integral of the form ∫−∞ 𝒇(𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒌𝒙 𝒅𝒙, ∫−∞ 𝒇(𝒙) sin 𝒌𝒙 𝒅𝒙 (𝒌 > 𝟎)
∞ 𝑥 sin 𝑥
Example. Evaluate the Cauchy principal value of ∫0 𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥
Solution. Note that the lower limit of this integral is not −. Firstly, we check that the integrand is even, so we have
∞ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1 ∞ 𝑥 sin 𝑥
∫0 𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫−∞ 𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥
𝑧 𝑧 𝑅 𝑥
∫𝐶 𝑧2 +9 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝐶 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫−𝑅 𝑥 2 +9 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑅 𝑧 2 +9 𝑪𝑹
𝑅 𝑥𝑒 𝑖𝑥
= 0 + ∫−𝑅 𝑥 2 +9 𝑑𝑥

𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑧
= 2𝜋𝑖. [Res 𝑧2 +9]
𝑧=3𝑖

= 2𝜋𝑖. [(𝑧 − 3𝑖) (𝑧−3𝑖)(𝑧+3𝑖)]

𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑧 −𝑹 𝑹
𝑧=3𝑖

𝑧 𝑧𝑒 𝑖𝑧
∫𝐶 𝑧2 +9 𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖. [(𝑧 − 3𝑖) (𝑧−3𝑖)(𝑧+3𝑖)]
𝑧=3𝑖

3𝑖𝑒 −3 𝜋𝑖
= 2𝜋𝑖. [ 6𝑖
] = 𝑒3
∞ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 ∞ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝜋𝑖
Or ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖 ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 2 +9 𝑥 2 +9 𝑒3
∞ 𝑥 cos 𝑥 ∞ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝜋
⇒ ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥 = 0 and ∫−∞ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 2 +9 𝑥 2 +9 𝑒3
∞ 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝝅
∴ ∫0 𝑥 2 +9
𝑑𝑥 = 𝟐𝒆𝟑.

Indented Semi Circular Contour:

𝑃(𝑧)
The complex functions 𝑓(𝑧) = of the improper integrals (2) and (3) did not have poles on the real axis. When
𝑄(𝑧)
𝑓(𝑧) has a pole at 𝑧 = 𝑐, where 𝑐 is a real number, we must use the indented contour as in figure.
Suppose 𝑓 has a simple pole 𝑧 = 𝑐 on the real axis.

If 𝐶𝑟 is the contour defined by 𝑧 = 𝑐 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 then

lim∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝜋𝑖. [Res𝑓(𝑧)]

𝑟→0 𝐶𝑟 𝑧=𝑐

Proof: Since 𝑓 has a simple pole at 𝑧 = 𝑐, its Laurent series is

1 𝑏
𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧−𝑐 + 𝑔(𝑧), where 𝑏1 = Res. 𝑓(𝑧) and 𝑔 is analytic at 𝑐.
𝑧=𝑐

Using the Laurent series and the parameterization of 𝐶𝑟 .

we have

31 | P a g e
 𝜋 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝜋
∫𝐶 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑏1 ∫0 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 ∫0 𝑔(𝑐 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 ) 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
= 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
First, we see
𝜋 𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝜋
𝐼1 = 𝑏1 ∫0 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 +9
𝑑𝜃 = 𝑏1 ∫0 𝑖𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋𝑖𝑏1 = 𝜋𝑖. [Res𝑓(𝑧)]
𝑧=𝑐

Next, 𝑔 is analytic at 𝑐 and so it is continuous at 𝑐 and is bounded in a neighborhood of the point; that is, there exists
an 𝑀 > 0 for which |𝑔(𝑐 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )| ≤ 𝑀.

Hence, It follows that lim |𝐼2 | = 0 & lim𝐼2 = 0.

𝑟→0 𝑟→0
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼2 = |𝑖𝑟 ∫0 𝑔(𝑐 + 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑑𝜃 | ≤ 𝑟 ∫0 𝑀𝑑𝜃 = 𝜋𝑟𝑀
∞ sin 𝑥
Example. Evaluate the Cauchy principal value of ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑥 2−2𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥 .

𝑒 𝑖𝑧 𝑑𝑧
Sol. We consider the contour integral ∳𝐶 𝑧(𝑧2 −2𝑧+2)

1
Let 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧(𝑧2 −2𝑧+2)

𝑓(𝑧) has simple poles at 𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 in the upper half-plane.

Now, we have
−𝑟 𝑅
∳𝐶 = ∫𝐶 + ∫−𝑅 + ∫−𝐶 + ∫𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑖. [ Res 𝑓(𝑧)𝑒 𝑖𝑧 ]
𝑅 𝑟 𝑧=1+𝑖

Taking the limits as R →  and r → 0, we have

∞ 𝑒 𝑖𝑥
P.V. ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝜋𝑖. [Res𝑓(𝑧)𝑒 𝑖𝑧 ] = 2𝜋i. [ Res 𝑓(𝑧)𝑒 𝑖𝑧 ]
𝑧=0 𝑧=1+𝑖

1
Now,[Res𝑓(𝑧)𝑒 𝑖𝑧 ] = 2
𝑧=0
1
[ Res 𝑓(𝑧)𝑒 𝑖𝑧 ] = 𝑒 −1+𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)
𝑧=1+𝑖 4
∞ 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 1 1
P.V. ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋𝑖. 2 + 2𝜋𝑖. [− 4 𝑒 −1+𝑖 (1 + 𝑖)]

Using 𝑒 −1+𝑖 = 𝑒 −1 [cos 1 + sin 1], then

∞
cos 𝑥 𝜋
P.V. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 −1 [cos 1 + sin 1]
−∞ 𝑥(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2) 2
∞ sin 𝑥 𝜋
P.V. ∫−∞ 𝑥(𝑥 2 −2𝑥+2) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 [1 + 𝑒 −1 (sin 1 − cos 1)].

32 | P a g e
 Exercise
Evaluate the following:
𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝝅
1. ∫𝟎 ; 𝒂 > |𝒃| Ans:
𝒂+𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 √𝒂𝟐 −𝒃𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝜽
2. ∫𝟎 √𝟐−𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 Ans: 𝟐𝝅
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
3. ∫𝟎 𝟏−𝟐𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽+𝒂𝟐 ; 𝟎 <𝒂<𝟏 Ans:
𝟏−𝒂𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝒅𝜽 𝟐𝝅
4. ∫𝟎 𝟓+𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 Ans:
𝟑
𝝅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝜽𝒅𝜽 𝝅
5. ∫𝟎 𝟓−𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽; Ans:
𝟐𝟒
𝟐𝝅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝜽𝒅𝜽 −𝝅
6. ∫𝟎 𝟓+𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽; Ans:
𝟏𝟐
𝝅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝜽𝒅𝜽 −𝝅
7. ∫𝟎 𝟓+𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽; Ans:
𝟐𝟒

E-resources:
https://video.aukdc.edu.in/watch.php?vid=a88c1806e

https://video.aukdc.edu.in/watch.php?vid=60af682a7

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https://video.aukdc.edu.in/watch.php?vid=808b126d6

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