BAS 258: Growth and Nutrition of

Animals and Plants:

Prof. Chris Antwi

Whatsapp: 0244966265
 Nutrition

v The process of furnishing the cells inside the

animal with that portion of the external chemical
environment needed for optimum functioning of
the many metabolic chemical reactions involved
in growth, maintenance, work, production and
reproduction

v Nutrition integrates the knowledge of

biochemistry and physiology into a unifying
concept of the relationship between an organism
and its food supply.
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 Food

v The material which, after ingestion by animals, is

capable of being digested, absorbed and utilised

v The components of food capable of being utilised by animals

are known as nutrients

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 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL
BODY AND PRODUCTS

ü Different organs and parts of the body differ in their chemical

composition as the animal grows

Post-natal period (days)

0 7 14 28
Empty body weight (g) 1450 3044 5248 9651
Lipid (%) 1.2 10.1 15.1 18.3
Protein (%) 12.0 14.4 14.4 14.6
Ash (%) 4.2 3.1 3.0 3.3
Water (%) 82.6 72.5 67.3 63.6

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 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL
BODY AND PRODUCTS

Chemical compounds classified broadly into two:

§ Moisture portion or water
§ Dry matter portion: A. Inorganic – minerals
B. Organic – vitamins, carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids, organic acids
Typical Chemical Composition of milk, semen and the hen’s egg
Chemical component (%)
Protein Lipid Water Ash Lactose
Bovine milk 3.4 3.7 87.3 0.7 4.8
Hen’s egg 12.0 11.0 67.0 10.0 -
Sheep semen 5.0 - 85.0 - -

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 Energy

vEnergy is not a nutrient but a characteristic of all

feeds.
– Energy is stored in the carbohydrates, fats and
proteins of foods.

Functions:
§ For growth of body tissues
§ Production of milk, eggs, etc.
§ Carrying out of vital physical activities
§ Maintenance of normal body temperature
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 Symptoms and signs of a deficiency of
energy

v Animals tend to increase feed intake as the energy content of the

diet is reduced
v When the energy level is below that required for maintenance:
– the animal loses weight until this wasting process becomes severe
enough to affect vital functions, and consequently the animal dies

v Under energy-starvation conditions:

– First, the small amounts of glycogen normally stored in the body are
exhausted
– Secondly, most of the fat reserves become exhausted
– Finally, the protein tissues are used to maintain the blood sugar
level and to support other vital functions

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 Symptoms of excess of energy

v A dietary excess of energy occurs:

– ratio of energy to protein (E:P) is in excess of that needed by the
animal for normal growth, production, activity and maintenance of
vital functions

v When the energy content is grossly excessive,

– feed intake is so curtailed that severe deficiencies of protein, amino
acids, minerals and vitamins occur, growth may cease entirely
– the animals become very fat but at the same time show signs of
protein and vitamin starvation.

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 Major Energy Sources

vCarbohydrates

vLipids

vProteins

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 Carbohydrates
v A naturally occurring compunds made up of Carbon
(C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (0)

v Carbohydrates are the major components in plant

tissues and they comprise up to
– 50% of the dry matter of forages, although higher
concentrations
– (up to 80%) may be found in some seeds, especially
cereal grains

Function:
v Serve as a source of energy for normal processes
 Classification of Carbohydrates:
Sugars

Carbohydrates: usually divided into two main groups:

1. Sugars and
2. Non-sugars

Simplest sugars: monosaccharides

Monosaccharides – divided into sub-groups depending on
the number of C atoms present in the molecule
– Trioses – 3 carbon atoms
– Tetroses - 4
– Pentoses - 5
– Hexoses - 6
– Heptoses - 7
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 Classification of Carbohydrates: Non Sugars

vPolysaccharides: polymers of monosacchride units.

v Classified into two groups:
– Homoglycans – contain only a single type of monosaccharide
unit.
– Heteroglycans – on hydrolysis yield mixtures of
monosaccharides and derived products.
vThe complex carbohydrates are a group of compounds
which contain carbohydrates in combination with non-
carbohydrate molecules.
– They include the glycolipids and glycoproteins.
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 Lipids

v Lipids: used for all ether-soluble materials

v They are organic compounds containing C, H & O, but

differ from carbohydrates in being insoluble in water.
v
v They are however soluble in organic solvents such as
benzene, ether and chloroform.

v Fats are those glycerol esters which are solids while

oils are liquids at ordinary temperatures
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 Classification of Lipids
v Simple lipids: esters of fatty acids with various alcohols,
particularly glycerol and cholesterol.
Ø Eg. Fats, oils and waxes are simple lipids.
– Fats and oil are esters of fatty acids with glycerol and
– Waxes are esters of fatty acids with an alcohol other than glycerol.

v Compound lipids: are esters of glycerol which contain two fatty

acid residues plus another chemical group such as choline.

v Examples
– Phospholipids are fats containing phosphoric acid and N
– Glycolipids are fats containing carbohydrate and often N.
– Lipoproteins are lipids bound to proteins in blood and other
tissues.

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 Classification of Lipids

vDerived lipids: Substances derived from

groups 1 and 2 by hydrolysis,
– i.e. fatty acids, glycerol and other alcohols such as
cholesterol, ergosterol and sitosterol.

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 Fatty acids

v Fatty acids consist of chains of carbon (C)

atoms ranging from 2 to 24 or more C’s in
length that have a carboxyl group on the
end of each chain.

v The general structure is R-COOH

– where “R” is a chain of variable length.

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Names and number of carbons for
fatty acids most common in plant
and animal tissues
Acids Systematic name No. of Carbons
Butyric Butanoic 4
Caproic Hexanoic 6
Caprylic Octanoic 8
Capric Decanoic 10
Lauric Dodecanoic 12
Myritic Tetradecanoic 14
Palmitic Hexadecanoic n 16
Pamitoleic Hexadec-9-enoic 16
Stearic Octadecanoic 18
Oleic Cis-9-octadecanoic 18
Linoleic Octadecadienoic 18
Linolenic Octadecatrienoic 18
Arachidic Eicosanoic 20
Arachidonic Eicosatetraenoic 20
Lignoceric Tetracosanoic 24
 Essential Fatty Acids (EFA)

v Linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids

cannot be synthesised by animals, so must be
supplied in the diet.
– They are therefore termed as essential fatty
acids (EFA).

v Arachidonic acid can be synthesised from

linoleic acid, and therefore is required in the
diet only if linoleic acid is not available.
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 Constants are used to characterise the
chemical properties of fats
v Saponification Number – is the no of mg of KOH required
for the saponification (hydrolysis) of 1 g of fat.

v Reichert-Meissl (RM) number – is the number of ml. of 0.1N

KOH solution required to neutralise the volatile water-
soluble fatty acids (short-chain) obtained by hydrolysis of 5
g of fat.

v Iodine Number – is the number of g of iodine that reacts

with the unsaturated bonds in 100 g of fat.
– Iodine number is a measure of the degree of hydrogenation
(saturation) of the fatty acids in the fat

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 Functions of Lipids

v To supply energy for normal maintenance and productive

functions
v To serve as a source of essential fatty acids (linoleic,
linolenic).
v To serve as a carrier of the fat-soluble vitamins. Absorption
of the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D ,E, K) is a function of
digestion and absorption of fats
v Serve as materials which reduce the dustiness of feeds
v Help to improve the palatability of some feeds

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 Effect of EFA deficiency

vScaly skin and necrosis of the tail

vGrowth failure
vReproductive failure
vOedema
vSubcutaneous haemorrhage
vPoor feathering in chicks

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 Proteins and Amino Acids

v Proteins are essential organic constituents of

living organisms, and are the class of
nutrients in highest concentration in
muscle tissues of animals

v All proteins are composed of simple units,

amino acids

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 Structure of Amino Acids (AAs)

v The essential components of amino acids are a

carboxyl group and an amino group (NH2) on the C
atom adjacent to the carboxyl group.
– This amino group is designated as the α-amino group.

v All cells synthesise proteins for part or all of their life

cycle. Without protein synthesis, life could not exist.
– Except in animals whose intestinal microflora can synthesise
protein from non-protein N sources, protein or its constituent
amino acids must be provided in the diet to allow normal
growth and other productive functions.
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 Structure of Amino Acids (AAs)
cont’d
v There are more than 200 naturally occurring AAs,
– only about 20 are commonly found in most proteins and
– up to 10 are required in the diet of animals because tissue
synthesis is not adequate to meet metabolic needs.

v Amino acids which cannot be synthesised by animals

and therefore must be supplied in the diet are classified
as the essential or indispensable amino acids.

v Those that can be synthesised by the animal and are

generally not needed in the diet are termed non-
essential or dispensable amino acids.

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Essential (Indispensable) Non-essential (Dispensable)

Arginine Alanine
Histidine Aspartic acid
Isoleaucine Cystine*
Leucine Glutamic acid
Lysine Glycine
Methionine Hydroxyproline
Phenylalanine Proline
Threaonine Serine
Trptophan Tyrosine*
Valine

*Synthesised from limited substrates: Cystine from methionine and tyrosine

from phenylalanine.
 Classification of Proteins

v All proteins can be classified on the basis of

their shape, their solubilities in water, salt,
acids, bases and alcohol.
v Such a broad classification includes the
following:
1. Globular Proteins
2. Fibrous Proteins
3. Conjugated Proteins

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 Globular Proteins

vSoluble in water or in dilute acids or bases or in

alcohol.
Examples are:
1. Albumins
2. Globulins
3. Glutelins
4. Prolamines
5. Histones
6. Protamines
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 Fibrous Proteins

vInsoluble in water and resistant to digestive

enzymes.
Examples are:
1. Collagens – the major protein of skeletal
connective tissues
2. Elastins – the proteins of the elastic tissues such
as tendons and arteries
3. Keratins – proteins of feathers, hairs, claws,
beak, hoofs and horns
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 Conjugated Proteins

v These proteins contain non-amino acid moiety which is

usually termed the prosthetic group.
v Examples are:
– Nucleoproteins – these are present in cells as
deoxyribonucleoproteins and ribosomal
ribonucleoprotein.
– Mucoids (Mucoproteins) – complex proteins eg.
cholinesterase, the hormone gonadotrophin and mucous
secretions.
– Glycoproteins – proteins containing less than 4%
carbohydrate, often as a simple hexose such as 1.7%
mannose in egg albumin.
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 Functions of proteins

v Form important structural parts of the soft tissues of the

animal body such as muscle, connective tissue, collagen, skin,
hair, feathers, hoofs and nails

v The blood proteins, albumin and the globulins, help to

maintain homeostasis, regulate osmotic pressure, act as a
reserve supply of amino acids

v Enzymes, hormones and immune antibodies all serve

important specialised functions in the body

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 Signs of Protein Deficiency

– Anorexia
– Reduced growth rate
– Reduced or negative N balance
– Reduced efficiency of feed utilisation
– Reduced serum protein concentration
– Anaemia
– Fat accumulation in the liver

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 Signs of Protein Deficiency cont’d

vOedema (in severe case)

vReduced birth weight of young
vReduced milk production
vReduced egg production in poultry
vReduced synthesis of certain enzymes and
hormones
vIn severe protein or amino acid deficiency,
growth is arrested completely

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 Signs of Excessive Intake of
Protein
v Above certain protein intake, there is a linear depression in
weight gain with increasing protein
v Feed intake decreases
v Hair becomes dull and coarse
v High protein diet reduces activity of several adipose tissue
enzymes associated with fatty acid synthesis in pigs.
v Ammonia toxicity is a practical problem in ruminants fed urea
as a NPN source
– Toxic symptoms in ruminants include: uneasiness, laboured breathing,
excessive salivation, muscle and skin tremors, incoordination, tetany
and death within 2h of onset of symptoms.

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 Water
v Water is one of the most important inorganic chemical
compounds in the animal body.
– It makes up about ½ to ⅔ of the body mass of adult animals
– up to 90% of that of new born animals

Importance of Water to Animals

v It is the basic substance of the blood and the intercellular and
intracellular fluids which act in the transport of nutrients, metabolites
and waste products to and from all the cells of the body

v Because of its high specific heat and its evaporative properties, H2O is a
most important regulator of body temperature

v Helps to maintain homeostasis by participating in reactions and

physiological changes which control pH, osmotic pressures, electrolyte
concentrations and other functions necessary for life

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 Sources of Water
v Drinking water:- major source of H2O. Domestic farm animals all
require copious amounts of water when producing at a high level
particularly when they are heat-stressed

v Water contained in feed:- The water content of feedstuffs

consumed by animals is highly variable
For example:
– commercial diets for poultry contain ≈ 10% moisture.
– In forage: in mature plants and hays as low as 5-7%
– lush young vegetation ≈ 90% or more

v Metabolic Water (water of oxidation): results from the oxidation of

organic components in the cells of the body
– Catabolism of 1kg of fat, carbohydrate or protein produces 1190g, 560g or
450g of water

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 Water losses
10% loss of H2O causes serious disorders and the loss of 20% causes
death
Loss of water from the animal body occurs through the following:

v Urine : Water excreted via urine acts as a solvent for products excreted
from the kidney
– Consumption of excess water during periods of heat stress or consumption of
diuretics such as caffeine and alcohol may increase kidney excretion of water
considerably
v Faeces: In ruminant species such as cattle, faecal water loss usually
exceeds urinary losses. Other species tend to be intermediate
– Animals that consume fibrous diets excrete higher percentages of total water
through faeces
– Those that form faecal pellets usually excrete drier faeces and are more adapted
to drier climates and more severe water restriction than those which do not form
faecal pellets

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 Regulation of Drinking

v The regulation of drinking is a highly complex physiological

process
– At times, it is induced as a result of dehydration of body tissues

v Most domestic animals generally drink during eating

periods if water is close at hand or soon afterwards when
they can.

v The frequency of drinking is increased in hot weather as

well as the amount consumed.

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 Water Requirements

v Water requirements for any class or species of healthy

animals are difficult to state except in very specific
situations

v Reason
– This is because numerous dietary and environmental factors
affect water absorption and excretion

Ø ability to conserve water,

Ø differences in activity, gestation, lactation, etc. compound the problem when
different classes or species of animals are compared

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 Factors affecting water intake:
Dietary factors
v Dry matter intake is highly correlated to H2O intake at
moderate temperatures
v H2O content of feed consumed affects total H2O intake
v Protein level in diet: high levels of protein = increase H2O
intake.
v An increased intake of fat may increase H2O intake
v Consumption of NaCl or other salts increases consumption
and excretion of water
– Some salts may cause diarrhoea and greater faecal excretion of H2O,
– but those, such as NaCl, that are absorbed almost completely, result in
much greater urinary excretion and tissue dehydration occurs if H2O is
not available

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 Factors affecting water intake:
Environmental factors

v High temperature is the major factor which causes

increased consumption of H2O
v Heat stress/ low humidity, which also increases the need
for H2O because heat losses, which result from evaporation
of H2O from the body surface and lungs, are reduced with
high humidity
v Accessibility to H2O – the greater the distance that must be
travelled between H2O and feed, the less frequently the
animal drinks and the less it consumes in a 24h period

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 Effect of water restriction

1. Reduced feed intake and reduced productivity. Urine

and faecal water excretions drop significantly.

2. Weight loss is rapid as the body dehydrates

Ødehydration is accompanied by increased renal excretion of
N and electrolytes such Na+ and K+
pulse rate and rectal temperatures increase especially at
hot temperatures

3. Pulse rate and rectal temperatures increase especial-

lly at hot temperatures
Øanimal no longer has sufficient H2O to evaporate to maintain
normal body temperatures

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Effect of water restriction – C’td

– Respiration rate also increases

– Increase in blood concentration
– Nausea – i.e. feeling of sickness
– Difficulty in muscular movements.
– Animals tend to become highly irritable i.e. made
angry or annoyed
– If severe water deprivation continues long enough
there is prostration i.e. lying stretched out on the
ground because of exhaustion and eventually
death follows
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 Effect of consumption of large
amounts of water

v Water intoxication may occur in some

species (humans, calves, chickens) as a result
of sudden ingestion of large amounts after a
short period of deprivation

v In calves, death may result because of a slow

adaptation of the kidney to the sudden
high H2O load

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 Vitamins

v A vitamin is generally accepted to be an organic compound

which:
a) is a component of natural food but distinct from
carbohydrate, fat, protein and water
b) is present in foods in minute amounts
c) is essential for development of normal tissue and for health,
maintenance and growth
d) when absent from the diet or not properly absorbed or
utilised, results in a specific deficiency disease or syndrome
e) cannot be synthesised by the animal and therefore must be
obtained from the diet

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Exceptions to one or more of the definitions:
- Vitamin D may be synthesised on the surface of the skin by
ultra-violet irradiation

- Nicotinic acid is synthesised to some extent from tryptophan.

 Classification of the Vitamins

v Vitamins have been divided into 2 groups based upon their

solubilities in either fats and fat solvents or in water

v The fat-soluble vitamins are vitamins A, D, E and K

– They are found in feedstuffs in association with the lipids.
– The fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with the dietary fats by
mechanisms similar to those involved in fat absorption
– The fat-soluble vitamins are stored in appreciable quantities in the
animal body and are not excreted in the urine

49
 Classification of the Vitamins

v The water-soluble vitamins, except for B12, are not stored

but excesses are rapidly excreted in the urine.

– A constant dietary supply of the water-soluble vitamins is needed to

avoid deficiencies

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 Fat-soluble Vitamins: Vitamin A

vVitamin A is required in the diet of all

animals. It can occur as either:

– vitamin A alcohol (retinol)

– vitamin A aldehyde (retinal) or
– vitamin A acid (retinoic acid) in the free form or
esterified with a fatty acid, for example, as vitamin
A palmitate

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 Sources of Vitamin A

v Vitamin A is derived primarily from

– fish liver oils
– industrial chemical synthesis
– Other sources are butter, cheese, eggs, and milk
v Pro-vitamin A synthesised by plants as a group of yellow
pigments known as carotenoids

– More than 500 carotenoid pigments exist in nature, but β-carotene

is biologically the most active

– Plants do not synthesise vitamin A per se, but all animals possess
enzymes in the intestinal mucosa which are capable of converting
the provitamin A carotenoids into vitamin A

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 Functions of Vitamin A

v Required (as retinal) for normal vision

v Required for prevention of a severe ataxia (imperfect control
of voluntary bodily functions) in young chicks
v Required for maintenance of the normal integrity of the
mucous membrane
v Required for growth
v Required for reproduction
v Required for proper growth of the cartilage matrix upon
which bone is deposited
v Required for normal cerebrospinal fluid pressure

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 Deficiency Signs of Vitamin A

Some of the common deficiency signs in various animals are:

v Xerophthalmia (condition characterised by dryness and
irritation of the cornea and conjunctiva of the eye and results
in cloudiness and infection)

v Keratinisation of respiratory epithelium resulting in

greater severity of respiratory infections

v Abnormal skeletal development

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 Deficiency Signs of Vitamin A

v Reproductive difficulties, including abortions and birth of

weak offspring, and associated thickening of vaginal
epithelium

v Reproductive failure in males because of effects on

spermatogenic epithelium

v Embryonic death in chicks and mammalian embryos.

v Poor growth in surviving young ones

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 Toxicity Signs of Viatamin A
Vitamin A is not excreted readily, therefore long-term intake of
amounts larger than needed or acute dosage with a large excess may
result in toxic symptoms and this includes:
v Anorexia
v Weight loss
v Skin thickening
v Scaly dermatitis
v Swelling and crusting of the eyelids
v Hair loss
v Haemorrhaging
v decreased bone strength
v Spontaneous bone fractures
v Death

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 Vitamin D
Vitamin D is the general term applied to a number of fat-soluble sterol
derivatives which are active in the prevention of rickets in animals

v Several sterols have biological vitamin D activity

– but only two i.e. vitamin D2 (irradiated ergosterol or calciferol) and vitamin D3
(irradiated 7-dehydrocholesterol) are of major importance.
– Most animals use either vitamin D2 or vitamin D3 efficiently, but birds require
vitamin D3

v Ergosterol is found in plants and 7-dehydrocholesterol is found in animal

tissues
– Ultra-violet light converts each provitamin to its respective biological active form
– Exposure of harvested green forage to sunlight for several hours converts plant
sterols to vitamin D2
– Exposure of animals to sunlight for a few minutes per day is sufficient to convert
skin sterols to vitamin D3, therefore eliminating the need for a dietary source
under most conditions

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 Functions of Vitamin D

vVitamin D functions to
Øelevate plasma Ca and P levels for normal bone
mineralisation, egg shell formation birds

Øprevention of tetany produced by hypocalcaemia.

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 Deficiency of Vitamin D

vAbnormal skeletal development.

vThe term applied to vitamin D deficiency in young
animals is rickets and osteomalacia in adults.
vIn each instance, inadequate calcification of organic
matrix occurs, which results in lameness, bowed
and crooked legs and spontaneous fractures of long
bones and ribs.
vIn young animals, the weight gain may be
depressed.

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 Toxicity Signs of Vitamin D

vExcess vitamin D causes abnormal

deposition of Ca in soft tissues.
– This Ca is resorbed from bone resulting in brittle
bones subject to deformation and fractures.
vHypervitaminosis D can lead to death, usually
from uremic poisoning resulting from severe
calcification of kidney tubules

60
 Vitamin E

vFirst recognised as fat-soluble factor needed for

reproduction in rats but has now been shown to be
concerned in the normal functioning of most of the
tissues of the animal body and in preventing many
deficiency diseases.
vVitamin E is very unstable.
– Its oxidation is increased by the presence of minerals and of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
– Alpha-tocopherol is the most active biological form of
vitamin E.
– Other forms of tocopherol are β and γ tocopherols
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 Sources of Vitamin E

vThe richest sources of vitamin E are the

ØVegetable oils
Øun-milled cereals and eggs
vCorn oil, cotton seed oil, soya bean oil and
wheat germ oil contain 0.01 – 0.05%
tocopherols.

62
 Functions of Vitamin E

vIt acts as an antioxidant

vIt influences the synthesis of specific
proteins and of prostaglandins.

63
 Deficiency Signs of Vitamin E

v Vitamin E deficiency results in:

ØReproductive failure
ØDerangement of cell permeability
ØMuscular lesions
ØEncephalomalacia and exudative diathesis in chicks
ØNutritional muscular dystrophy in several animal
species
ØLiver necrosis and cardiac muscle degeneration in pigs
and calves
ØMuscular dystrophy and liver necrosis can be
prevented by dietary selenium.

64
 Vitamin K

vVitamin K is a group of compounds

Øphylloquinone (vitamin K1) and

Ømenaquinone (vitamin K2)

65
 Sources of Vitamin K

vVitamin K1 is common in green leafy vegetables

vVitamin K2 is produced by the bacterial flora in
the gastrointestinal tract of animal and humans
– However, the chick does not receive vitamin K from
intestinal microbial synthesis.
– Biologically active synthetic vitamin K (i.e.
menadione or vitamin K3) is produced commercially
on large scale

66
 Functions of Vitamin K

vVitamin K is required for normal blood

clotting.
– It is required especially for synthesis of
prothrombin in the liver
vIt is not a component of prothrombin but
acts on enzyme systems involved in
prothrombin synthesis and in the synthesis
of other factors involved in the total blood
clotting mechanism

67
 Deficiency Signs of Vitamin K

A deficiency of vitamin K results in:

Øprolonged blood clotting time
Øgeneralised haemorrhages
Ødeath in severe cases

68
 Toxicity Signs of Vitamin K

vPhylloquinine and menaquinine derivatives are non-

toxic even in high dosage levels, but menadione is
toxic to the skin and respiratory tract of several
animal species
vMenadione given in prolonged high doses produces
anaemia and other abnormalities in animals and
chest pains and shortness of breath in humans

69
 Water Soluble Vitamins

v Water-soluble vitamins are all organic compounds but are

unrelated to each other in structure
v Unlike the fat-soluble vitamins, they are not stored in
appreciable quantities in body tissues, except vitamin
B12, and therefore must be supplied in the diet daily for those
animals whose gastrointestinal does not provide appreciable
microbial synthesis
v Under normal conditions, the water-soluble vitamin
requirement of ruminants is met almost entirely from
microbial synthesis in the rumen and the lower
gastrointestinal tract

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 Water Soluble Vitamins cont’d

v In herbivores such as the horse and rabbit, microbial

synthesis occurs in the colon or caecum. There is therefore no
need to provide routine dietary sources of these species

v For pigs, poultry and other simple-stomached animals,

including humans, a dietary source is essential
v However, some water-soluble vitamins such as biotin, may be
synthesised by microflora in the gastrointestinal tract of
non-ruminant animals in amounts sufficient to meet
requirements
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 Water Soluble Vitamins
v Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
Sources : cereal grains and their by-products, soyabean meal, cotton seed
meal, groundnut meal and alfalfa meal. Pure synthetic thiamine
hydrochloride is also commercially available

v Riboflavin (Vitamin B2)

Sources: Yeast, liver, milk and eggs

v Niacin (Nicotininc Acid , B3)

Sources: Nicotinic acid is widely distributed in grains and their by-products
and in the protein supplements

v Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)

Sources: Liver, yeast, eggs and green leafy plants

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v Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine, Pyridoxal And Pyridoxamine
Sources: Meat, liver, green leafy material and whole grains

vVitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)

Sources: Widely distributed in foods of animal origin, for
example, kidney, liver, meat, milk, eggs, fish and shell fish. The
best sources for animal feeding are special fermentation
products

vFolic Acid (Folacin)

Sources: Folic acid compounds are widely distributed in
animals, plants and micro-organisms
v Biotin
Sources: Richest sources of biotin are liver, yeast, molasses,
groundnut and eggs. Most green leafy plants are fairly good
sources

v CHOLINE
Sources: Liver, fishmeal, yeast and soyabean meal

v Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin C is synthesised in the tissues of most animals, but
some species, including humans, monkeys, and guinea pigs,
require a dietary source
Ascorbic acid is formed from D-glucose by the following
reactions:
D-glucose--- D-glucoronic acid--- L-gulonic acid--- L-gulono-
gamma-lactone--- L-ascorbic acid
 Functions of Water Soluble Vitamins

v Most of the water-soluble vitamins function as

metabolic catalysts, usually as coenzymes

75
 Deficiency Sings of Water Soluble
Vitamins

Thiamin
v Anorexia i.e. reduction in appetite
v In humans, thiamin deficiency syndrome is known as
beriberi
– This includes weakness and stiffness in the thighs, oedema of the
feet and legs, unsteady gait and paralysis
v Polyneuritis in chicks (retraction of the head ) and rats walk
in circles
v Bradycardia (slow heart rate) is common in all animals with
thiamine deficiency
v Heart failure in swine
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 Deficiency Sings of Water Soluble
Vitamins
v Riboflavin
Facial dermatitis, insomnia, irritability, lesions of the eye,
anorexia, vomiting, birth of weak or still born young ones,
curled toe paralysis in chicks, diarrhoea and loss of hair

v Niacin
Diarrhoea, dermatitis around the eye, poor growth

v Pyridoxine
Convulsions, poor growth, anorexia, abnormal feathering in
chickens

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 Deficiency Sings of Water Soluble
Vitamins

vPantothenic acid
Poor growth, graying of hair in some species, dermatitis,
embryonic death in chicks, loss of hair and incoordination
in walking
vBiotin
Dermatitis, perosis in chickens
vCholine
Abnormal gait (walking), reproductive failure in females,
haemorrhagic kidneys
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 Deficiency Sings of Water Soluble
Vitamins

v Folacin
Anaemia, gastrointestinal disturbances, impaired coordination
v Cyanocobalamin
Anaemia, poor feathering, low hatchability, enlarged hearts in
chickens and turkeys, rough hair coats, incoordinated hind leg
movements, anaemia and abortion
v Vitamin C
Early signs, known as scurvy in humans, include oedema, weight
loss and diarrhoea. Structural defects occur in bone, teeth,
cartilage, connective tissues and muscles

79
 Toxicity signs of Water Soluble Vitamins

vRapid kidney excretion of water-soluble

vitamins ingested in excess of
requirements makes toxicity signs unlikely

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 Minerals

vAt least 21 mineral elements have been shown to

be required by animals
vThe mineral elements required in the diet of
animals for normal body functions can be divided
into two groups: macro minerals and micro or trace
minerals
vThe distinction between macro-minerals and micro
or trace minerals is based on the relative amounts
required in the diet for normal body functions
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 Macro – Minerals: Calcium

v Calcium
About 99% of the Ca stored in animal body is in the skeleton as a
constituent of bones and teeth. It occurs in about 2:1 ratio with P in
bone
Sources: Fishmeal, meat and bone meal, limestone, oyster shell and
calcium phosphate supplements
Functions:
ü the most obvious function of Ca is as a structural component of
the skeleton.
ü Ca is required for normal blood coagulation

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Deficiency Symptoms of Calcium

vReduced growth
vReduced activity and sensitivity
vReduced bone calcification resulting in rickets in
young animals and osteomalacia in adults
vAbnormal posture and gait
vSusceptibility to internal haemorrhages
vThin egg shells and reduced egg production
vTetany

83
 Toxicity Signs of Calcium

vChronic ingestion of Ca in excess of metabolic

requirements results in abnormalities in bone
vCalcification of soft tissues may occur
vUrinary calculi (kidney stones) which block the
kidney tubules or ureters may occur in animals
vExcess Ca in the diet reduces the absorption and
utilisation of other minerals

84
 Macro – Minerals: Phosphorus

v Phosphorus, like Ca, is a major constituent of the skeleton

v It is also a component of phospholipids
v It is a constituent of several enzyme systems

Sources: Meat and bone meal, dicalcium phosphate, fishmeal and

cereal grain by-products

Functions:
v Like Ca, it provides structural support for the body
v P functions in energy metabolism and several enzyme systems
85
Deficiency Symptoms of Phosphorus

vRickets
vFall in appetite
vReduction in growth
vSevere deficiency results in death

86
 Toxicity signs of Phosphorus

An excess of dietary P results in:

– nutritional secondary hyperthyroidism which is
manifested in excessive bone reabsorption which
may result in lameness and spontaneous fractures of
long bones
– high phosphate diets depress intestinal absorption
of Ca
– high P has a laxative effect so that dietary excesses
result in diarrhoea

87
 Macro – Minerals: Magnesium

v Magnesium is widely distributed in the body and is third

to Ca and P in total body mineral content
– About half is in the bone. Mg in soft tissues is concentrated
within the cells

Sources: Limestone, meat and bone meal and fish meal

v Functions
– Mg is required for normal skeletal development
– For oxidative phosphorylation by mitochondria
– For activation of many enzyme systems

88
Deficiency Symptoms of Magnesium

vAnorexia
vReduced weight gain
vReduced serum Mg
vHypomagnesemic tetany, which is characterised by
hyper-irritability, tetany, convulsions and death.
vDeficiency in laying hens results in rapid decline in
egg production, reduced egg weight and reduction
in egg shell quality

89
 Toxicity signs of Magnesium

vMg toxicity in animals include:

– depressed feed intake
– reduced growth rate
– diarrhoea
– loss of reflexes
– cardio-respiratory depression

90
 Macro – Minerals: Potassium, Sodium and
Chlorine

v These 3 minerals are considered together because they

are all electrolytes that play a role in maintaining osmotic
pressure in the extra-cellular and intra-cellular fluids, and
in maintaining acid-base balance. In addition, each has its
own special functions
v Sources
– Potassium: - alfalfa meal, beans, coconut oil meal, cotton
seed meal, fish meal, meat and bone meal, groundnut meal,
soya bean meal and yeast
– Sodium: - Common salt, fishmeal, meat and bone meal and
alfalfa meal
– Chlorine:- Common salt, blood meal fish meal and meat and
bone meal
91
 Functions of Potassium

Potassium is located mostly within cells

– It functions in maintenance of acid-base balance in
the body
– It is required in enzymic reactions
– It facilitates uptake of amino acids by cells
– It influences carbohydrate metabolism
– It is required for normal tissue protein synthesis in
protein-depleted animals

92
 Functions of Sodium

vSodium is present largely in extra-cellular fluids

with less than 10% within cells
– It functions in the transfer of nerve impulses
– It functions in maintaining acid-base balance

93
 Functions of Chlorine

Chlorine is present almost exclusively in the extra-

cellular fluid
– It functions in regulation of extra-cellular osmotic
pressure and in maintaining acid-base balance in the
body

94
Deficiency Symptoms of Potassium,
Sodium and Chlorine
vPotassium deficiency results in abnormalities
in the heart, general muscle weakness and
emaciation
vThe main sign of Sodium deficiency is
reduced feed intake and weight loss
vThe major signs of Chlorine deficiency are
depressed growth and kidney lesions

95
 Toxicity signs of Potassium, Sodium
and Chlorine
v Because the kidney normally regulates its excretion of K, Na, and Cl
in accordance with variations in dietary intake, a toxicity of any of
the three electrolytes is unlikely except when water intake is
restricted, drinking water is saline, or as a result of kidney
malfunction
– Chronic K excess induced by one of the above means leads to a
series of metabolic disorders, for example, elevated insulin
secretion
– Chronic, excess intake of Na results in hypertension associated
with heart disease
– Symptoms of acute salt toxicity include staggering, marked
weakness, paralysis of hind limbs or general paralysis, violent
convulsions and death
v Excess Cl is not likely

96
 Macro – Minerals: Sulpur

v Sulphur is required mainly as a constituent of organic

compounds, including the amino acids, methionine, cystine,
cysteine and the vitamins, biotin and thiamine
– It is distributed widely throughout the body and in every cell
and makes up about 0.15% of body weight
v Function
– Inorganic sulphate from exogenous dietary sources and from
endogenous release from organic substances such as Sulphur-
containing amino acids is used in synthesising other organic
constituents that contain sulphur

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 Deficiency Symptoms of Sulphur

vDeficiency signs of sulphur are related to the

signs observed for nutrients which contain
sulphur
vDeficiency of methionine, thiamine or biotin,
each of which contains sulphur, produces
functional and morphological changes as
discussed already

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 Toxixity signs of Phosphorus

v Because the intestinal absorption of inorganic

sulphur compounds is low, sulphur toxicity is
not a practical problem

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 Micro (Trace) Minerals

v The following trace minerals are known to be required by one or

more animal species for normal life processes:
– cobalt, iodine, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, selenium, chromium,
fluorine, molybdenum and silicon
v Others possibly required, based on limited evidence are:
– aluminium, arsenic, boron, bromine, cadmium, lithium, nickel, lead, tin
and vanadium
Functions:
ü Trace elements function as activators of enzyme systems or as
constituents of organic compounds and are required in small
amounts

100