Narrative work! What on earth?

Concepts and methods

HAN University of Applied Sciences
HAN research group Local Service Provision from a Client Perspective/
Lectoraat Lokale Dienstverlening vanuit Klantperspectief

Dr M.A.W. van Biene

Dr M.M.J.G. Heessels
Ir J.J.B. Kohlmann
E.C. Bobbink
H.M. Degen-Nijeboer
E.C.M. Geurts
M.M.H. Pelzer
J.N. Woudenberg

Design: A. Haegens, G. van Limbeek & J.J.B. Kohlmann

Photography: E.C. Bobbink et al.

Printed by Bureau Ketel graphic design, Nijmegen, first English edition April 2013
ISBN: 978-90-8707-027-4

This publication and its contents may be reproduced and distributed with appropriate reference to the authors.
Preface
A story can be told in many ways. Stories give insight into the how, what and why of life, and help to
bring memories to the fore. This book represents the efforts of a group of students to fill the narrative
gaps they encountered in their research on lecturers’ experiences with narrative research and narrative
methods.

While many lecturers already use narrative methods and research, they are not always aware that they
are doing so. Furthermore, it appears that lecturers would like to gain more knowledge and experience
in the use of narrative methods and research. Many lecturers are curious about these fields, but some
are sceptical. With this book, the students aim to cultivate lecturers’ knowledge about and experience
with narrative methods and research in a playful way.

In the first part, we clarify the concepts involved. Subsequently, we present interactive methods for
working with the stories that are collected. These methods are designed to bring individuals’ stories to
the fore and foster understanding of them. To this end, the reader is invited to give meaning to them,
to search for the storyline and to identify the plot. Meanwhile, telling your own story provides insight
into your thoughts and actions. Working with narrative methods gives the students the opportunity for
personal development.

When it comes to narrative research and methods some lecturers still have a way to go. Lecturers agree
on the usefulness of studying the meaning of clients’ stories in the social work context. But, most lec-
turers are unfamiliar with the concepts and methods of narrative research. With this book, we hope to
challenge our colleagues as well as their students to give further shape to narrative methods and re-
search within the curriculum.

This book is about the wonderful combination of talking about the past and present, and acting in the
here and now! Allow us to surprise you …

Lieselotte, Helga, Elke, Milou and Joshi, your dedication and perseverance have been impressive. We
wish you all a bright future full of stories.

Dr Martha van Biene

Dr Meike Heessels
Ir Jidske Kohlmann
5
Table of contents
9 Introduction

11 Theory
13 Narrative
14 Working with narratives
15 Narrative research
21 Working with dialogues

23 Interactive methods
26 Writing a life story
30 Drawing the future
34 Photo elicitation
38 Making a treasure map
42 Inspiration cards
46 Musical stories
50 Bringing back memories
54 Playing with associations
58 Life-size
62 Open interview

67 References
71 Images

7
Introduction
This book started as a research project on the use of narrative methods by lecturers of Cultural and
Social Development at HAN. In the study, we asked lecturers about their knowledge, experience and per-
ceptions of narrative research and methods. The following seven question patterns emerged, which the
lecturers recognised and acknowledged during a transdisciplinary meeting to foster dialogue.
1. How can the use of narrative methods be improved and integrated within the existing HAN
curricula?
2. How can the existing knowledge and skills of HAN lecturers with respect to narrative methods be
increased?
3. How can the existing knowledge and skills of HAN lecturers with respect to narrative research be
increased?
4. How can narrative research be implemented/taught in the existing curricula?
5. How can narrative research be used in creative ways?
6. How can the quality of HAN research be improved?
7. How can students of Social Work at HAN gain sufficient knowledge of general research methods
and skills within the available time?

The study showed that lecturers lacked clarity with respect to the broader concepts of narrative meth-
ods and narrative research. They indicated that an insightful book defining and explaining the narrative
approach would be of use, particularly one that described concrete interactive methods. Due to lectur-
ers’ heavy workloads, the book should be written in an accessible manner and the interactive methods
should be straightforward to incorporate into lessons. Furthermore, the lecturers were looking for a link
between narrative and creative methods. During the study, we interviewed the chair of the curriculum
committee and the manager of the Cultural and Social Development programme. We learned that would
also welcome a workbook on narrative methods and research for lecturers.

Therefore, this book is aimed at lecturers and students of social work courses in higher professional
education that involve the use of creative methods. We aim to inspire lecturers to elicit narratives from
their students using interactive methods and to start working with these narratives. In addition, students
and lecturers can use these interactive methods with diverse target groups in their professional field.
We have written the book as generally as possible, so that the methods described can be used both for
students and for target groups in the field.

9
The book consists of two parts. In the first part we explain the concepts involved in working with narra-
tives. The second part presents 10 compact, interactive methods for getting started with stories, which
can be put into practice immediately. Each method can be modified for different purposes and settings;
experimentation is encouraged. For inspiration, therefore, we provide suggestions for variants as well as
references to further information. A complete list of sources can be found in the reference list.

10
 Theory
Working and researching in dialogue

11
Narrative
This book is about narrative methods and narrative research. The word narrativity derives from the Latin
word narrare, which means ‘to tell’. Narratives are present everywhere. They come in the form of fairy
tales, drama, drawings, art, history, biography, myths and legends. Narratives can be found at all ages
and in all societies. Stories have always played an important role in human life (Ten Holter, 2010). Simply
put, a story is a sequence of coherent events. The following questions can usually be asked: How did it
start? Then what happened? How did it end? (Bijl, Baars & Schueren, 2002). In the field of narratology,
stories are the object of study and the focus is on the way in which these stories are told. Narratives are
about biographical events as told by those who experienced them (Van Biene et al., 2008). They often
have a time sequence; i.e. the narrator establishes a link between the past, the present and the future.
People tell stories from a particular perspective. The narrator takes his or her own position in a story, but
positions can also be assigned by others (e.g. the listener) (ibid). In addition to the narrator, narratives
also include other parties; for example, a person may speak about their family or neighbours.

13
Working with narratives
Definition
Working with narratives means working with stories. In working with stories, the narrator and the
listener ascribe themselves and the other a place in various contexts. Working with narratives can
contribute to the attribution of meaning, identity construction and empowerment among individuals
and/or groups.

What is working with narratives all about?

Stories can be used to convey emotions, feelings, knowledge and insight. Van Rosmalen (1999) suggests
that in a narrative reconstruction, you can present yourself as you wish. ‘Reconstruction’ in this context
means that by retelling certain events, the narrator is able to give them a new meaning. This narrative
reconstruction can help people to move forward in their lives by giving events a new meaning. According
to Lohuis, Schilpenoort and Schout (in Dries & Hoffman, 2008), a life story is a subjective construction
of reality. When working with narratives, it is important to take the temporal context into account. The
description of a situation can never be viewed separately from the past and the future of the person
involved (Kloppenburg & Heemelaar, 1999). This approach, also known as constructivism, assumes that
people create their own reality based on the subjective selection of personal and social experiences. It
is assumed that ‘truths’ can be viewed in various ways and on various levels, and that a single objective
reality does not exist. In reading about or practising narrative reconstruction, also keep in mind the
differences between cultures. What is seen as strange or foreign in one culture may be perfectly normal
in another (Ten Holter, 2010).

According to Dries and Hoffman (2008), stories help linking the present, the past and the future.
Through stories, people discover what influence a particular event has had in their life. Stories speak to
our subconscious and our intuitions. You can also use imagery to tell a story, asking students or clients
to depict the essence of their story in a different way (Dries & Hoffman, 2008). The interactive methods
described later suggest a range of creative techniques for this.

14
Narrative research
Definition
Narrative research is a form of interpretive research. The narrator’s story serves as the starting point
from which to analyse events, the way in which the narrator experiences them, and the meaning that
the narrator ascribes to them.

How do you conduct narrative research?

In narrative research, the story takes centre stage. Mighelbrink (2007) describes the goal of qualitative
research as gaining insight into how people experience and ascribe meaning to reality. It concerns the
narrator’ story; his or her signal, question or objective. According to Dries & Hoffman (2008), people
are narrative and dialogical beings. By way of stories, people can express themselves, get to know one
another and help one another. During dialogues, the events that people have experienced are selected,
organised and connected to one another.

One of the key characteristics of narrative research is its focus on the construction of meaning
between the researcher and the research subject (Ten Holter, 2010). This relationship is described as a
collaborative process. In narrative research, research is not conducted on people but with people.

In conducting research, various steps are taken to progress from a research question to a result. Within
the research group Local Service Provision from a Client Perspective, we distinguish eight steps for
conducting narrative research (see figure 1).

15
 ,

Figure 1: Narrative research process, Local Service Provision from

a Client Perspective (2013).

16
Step 1. Research question
All research starts with a problem or question. This question may be raised by an institution or a private
party, or it may arise from a problem that you yourself identify in practice or in the literature.

Step 2. Study design

Once you have identified the problem, you set up a study design and choose a particular methodology.
Then you reformulate the problem into an objective, a research question and a series of subquestions
(Van der Donk & Van Lanen, 2011).

Step 3. Conducting interviews

Having established the research questions and methods, you can now arrange the interviews. You start
by selecting potential interviewees by way of stratified or purposive sampling (Boeije, 2005; Robson
2011). The issue here is how to represent various manifestations of a phenomenon in your study
population. For example, you may want to ensure a balance between men and women, or a spread
across all age groups. In narrative research, open interviews are used. This means the interviewer’s main
role is to listen and to invite and encourage the participant to tell his or her story, in order to obtain as
much information as possible. These interviews are semi-structured, following an interview guide that
sets out the objective, the direction and the structure of the interview. The guide also contains a number
of questions that serve to elicit more information during the interview; these should be broad, open
questions that steer the interview as little as possible (Van Biene et al., 2008).

17
Step 4. Processing the data
Make sure you gain the interviewee’s consent to record the interview. You can then transcribe the
interviews verbatim, including all hesitations, self-corrections, jumbled sentences and emotions. The
transcript should be presented to the interviewees to allow them to correct any inaccuracies or make
additions; this is also known as a ‘member check’ (Boeije, 2005). You then process these changes into
the transcript. Once the interviews have been fully processed, you divide each transcript into fragments.
Each time a new topic is broached in the interview, you start a new fragment (Van Biene et al., 2008).

Step 5. Coding the data

Once you have divided the interviews into fragments, you can start coding them. The idea here is to
identify what and who has been spoken about, and how (Van Biene et al., 2008). The codes may be
determined by means of an ‘open’ coding process. This means you first read a number of interviews and
try to figure out what they are about. Then you establish a number of codes that are broad enough not
to restrict the research or to frame it too early. This way you creat a ‘bottom-up’ coding format. In other
cases, the codes are predetermined. The research group has a standard coding format that is often used
with various modifications. The advantages of this format are that it has been tested, approved and that
the format is predetermined yet open enough to let the stories ‘speak for themselves’. Below we explain
the system’s categories.

‘What’ categories
These categories relate to the composition of the world that emerges from the narrative: the events, the people,
their experiences and mutual relationships. In short, the ‘what’ categories concern the essence of what the
interviewee’s comments are about.

‘Who’ categories
The ‘who’ categories indicate the perspective from which the ‘what’ has to be interpreted. Narratives involve an
alternation between the primary and the secondary speaker. This results in different levels of language, which can
be classed as either ‘internal’ or ‘external’. The internal narrator talks about him- or herself and is the actor in his
or her own story. The external narrator speaks on behalf of a broader group of people, for example the family or
neighbourhood. In the coding system, you translate this into ‘own’, ‘close relations’ and ‘others’.

18
‘How’ categories
The ‘how’ categories refer to the way in which a person says something. This may include the interviewee’s
opinion about the ‘what’, but also his or her use of language, such as figures of speech. Think in terms of
dichotomous pairs like positive/negative, demand/supply or problem/solution; in narratives, both terms of a pair
can be applicable simultaneously.

Throughout the coding process, it is crucial that the team members discuss their interpretations of the different
codes. This form of peer debriefing contributes to the validity of qualitative research (Robson, 2011: 158). One
approach is to have each team member first read and code five fragments and then discuss these with the group.
This helps to ensure that the codes mean the same thing for all researchers. This guarantees that the coding is as
consistent as possible and that the right fragments are identified in the analysis process.

Step 6. Analysing the data

After all fragments have been coded, you can begin ‘questioning’ the data. This means that you figure
out for each subquestion, which codes are useful in answering it, thus using the codes as a sort of
formula. By applying the formula and various filters for each question, you uncover the narratives that
relate to the subquestion. In establishing the formula, you consider the ‘who’, ‘what’ and ‘how’ codes
per category. Try not to use too many codes, so as to avoid selecting too many fragments. The codes
lend themselves readily to contrasts such as ‘own’ versus ‘close relations’, which allows you to contrast
the various perspectives while the rest of the codes remain the same.

Once the narratives for each subquestion have been identified, they can be analysed using the following
steps:

- Read the narratives.

- Note down whatever you think is important for each narrative in an associative manner.
- Mark the narratives that speak to you.
- When you have studied all narratives relating to a particular subquestion, summarise your
findings in a few sentences. Below your summary, add the quotes that were particularly striking
or noteworthy.

19
Step 7. Discovering patterns
When this is done, discuss all subquestions with the group. This is another moment of peer debriefing
(Robson, 2011: 158). Focus on what was particularly striking or noteworthy and what patterns stood out;
think of common characteristics, recurrent structures and cultural conventions (Van Biene et al., 2008).
Assign someone to take minutes of this meeting, which can then form the input for investigation of the
question patterns.

Once you have identified all themes, the next step is to draw up a ‘needs framework’. This involves
looking at what the interviewees need, want, require and can contribute per theme. Give every section
a catchy title, derived from a quote or recurrent pattern. These then serve as the question patterns
(recurrent themes) that are presented to the interviewees during the transdisciplinary dialogue.

Step 8. Transdisciplinary dialogue

To increase the validity of the question patterns, the interviewees are invited to take part in a
transdisciplinary meeting. During this meeting, the ‘needs frameworks’ are presented and the
interviewees are asked whether the patterns seem familiar. In addition, subgroups are formed to identify
initiatives that stem from each question pattern, what contributions the different parties could make,
and what the resulting actions should be. After this meeting, the conclusions can be finalised and used
to develop a product, action or intervention.

20
Working with dialogues
Working with dialogues means working at a personal level. You start a dialogue and keep the dialogue
going. In this context, the listener is equal to the narrator (Van Biene, 2005). It is of vital importance
that the participants do not feel pressured, and that everyone has the same opportunities to discuss
and question one another’s ideas (Dixon, 1998). Every contribution is taken seriously and accepted
as meaningful. Multiple dialogues arise when various stories come to the fore alongside one another
during your search for solutions to a question. When people tell their stories, certain ways of thinking
and acting emerge. The key objective is to identify the question underlying the question (Van Biene,
2005). If this is achieved, dialogues can help to change an individual’s present thoughts and actions.

To investigate the underlying question, it is important to continue asking questions to get to the very
core of the matter. Use questions like: ‘What do you mean by that?’ ‘What did you experience?’ ‘How
did things go in this situation?’ The aim is not to end up in a debate (Van Biene, 2005). Dialogues
are not about who is speaking the truth, but how the other’s situation can be viewed from different
perspectives. Rather than trying to convince the other of your view, you try to understand their view.
The aim is to arrive at shared insight, which can form a basis for new directions and common goals.

Keep in mind that in a dialogue, listening is just as important as talking (Van Biene, 2005). Listen to the
people around you and show engagement in the theme being discussed. You can do this by adopting an
active listening attitude, in which you summarize to check whether you have really understood what the
other is saying.

21
A dialogue is different from a discussion (Van Biene, 2005). A dialogue calls for different skills and
triggers different emotions. Using the following examples you can figure out for yourself whether you
are a dialogue or a discussion type. If you tend to say things like ‘yes, it could be, if ...’, then dialogues are
for you. On the other hand, if you often find yourself saying ‘yes, but ...’, ‘that can’t be, because ...’ or ‘I
think that ...’ then you are more of a discussion type. In the client–professional relationship, the dialogue
is the most appropriate approach (see figure 2).

In working with narratives and conducting narrative research, the dialogue is a tool used to uncover the
interviewee’s story, and to search for personal meanings and solutions.

DIALOGUE DISCUSSION
- Conversation between two people - Yes, but …
- Search for the question underlying the question - I think that …
- Ask more and more questions - Impose one’s own opinion
- Try to learn something from the other - Want to be right
- Facilitate the other in telling their story, instead - Stick to your own views
of filling it in for them - Maintain existing knowledge
- Gain new knowledge - Go on the defensive
- Bring to light the other’s qualities - Do not gain new knowledge

It could be, if … That can’t be, because …

Figure 2: Dialogue versus discussion (Van Biene, 2005)

In a dialogue, the aim is not to change the other, but to learn from one another. Differences in views are
respected, recognised and acknowledged, and are seen as enriching the dialogue. The goal is to figure
out how to deal constructively with the differences observed. The question is not who is right, but how
everyone can use the insights gained to move forwards.

The participants are not trying to convince one another; instead, they are mutually seeking the right
information, meaningful interpretations, clear insights, appropriate conclusions and the best choices.
A dialogue is about gaining a better understanding of one another’s views and dealing with challenges
to one’s own views, with the ultimate aim of reaching shared insights that can serve as the basis for
common goals (Van Biene, 2005).
22
Interactive methods
On bringing stories to light

23
11
Interactive methods
On bringing stories to light

On the following pages you will find 10 interactive methods. These methods can be applied in the
classroom, in practice or for personal development. Each method serves as an invitation to bring
people’s stories to light in creative ways. The stories that emerge can then be used for work or research
purposes.

Writing a life story Drawing the future

24
Photo elicitation Making a treasure map Inspiration cards

Musical stories Bringing back memories Playing with associations

Life-size Open interview

25
Writing a life story
Describing an inner journey

26
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Increase your capacity for reflection. o Computer or pen and paper
o Commit your feelings and thoughts to paper.
o Reflect on the phases of your life in the past,
present and future.
o Think about who serves as an example for you.
o Take yourself seriously by doing something
with your insights.

Writing a life story helps people to give themselves a voice. They can identify ways to further develop
their talents, dreams and ambitions. As a narrative approach, writing a life story can be a stepping stone
to the narrator’s future, as it helps defining a career path or broadening your personal vision (De Lange,
2000; Van Stekelenburg, 2008). By writing down your life story, you get a clear picture of what you have
achieved and where you now stand.

You can use the following steps to write your life story.

Step 1: Make sure you write from your own point of view.
Step 2: Start by describing the different phases in your life to date. Include both the
pleasant and not so pleasant aspects, and pay extra attention to memories that
stick out in your mind.
Step 3: Give meaning to your life story. Choose three or four moments that have been
the most important for you. Identify who your heroes are, and why.
Step 4: Once you have written your story down, read it back carefully. What stands
out? What insights have you gained? Ask yourself how a particular insight could
help you in the future.

27
* Variant
You can also write your life story based on personal items, such as bags, books, jewellery, clothes or
shoes. By introducing objects in the dialogue stories are elicited though people’s particular associations
with the objects (Collier in Samuels, 2004). Use the following steps:

Step 1: Identify the personal items you want to use; for example, your shoes. Try to
remember all the shoes you have had.
Step 2: Describe the shoes in chronological order, from oldest to newest.
Step 3: Now for every pair of shoes, try to describe the period in which you used them.
Do you remember how old you were? Who played a role in your life then? What
did you enjoy or not enjoy about this period?
Step 4: Have you kept certain shoes that you no longer use? Why is that?
Step 5: Which shoes are your least preferred, and why? Which episodes in your life do
you associate these shoes with?
Step 6: Which shoes do you most like to use, and why? Which episodes in your life do
you associate these shoes with?

28
Image 1.

29
Drawing the future
Give your future shape and colour

30
 Learning outcomes Requirements
For participants: o Paper
o Identify and put into words your desires and o Pencils, pens and chalk
needs. o Scissors (optional)
o Tap into and utilise one’s own power.
Eigen kracht aanboren en benutten.

For facilitators:
o Facilitate rather than influence the
participants.

This method gives participants the opportunity to give shape to their personal goals. The drawing they
make paints a picture of their future. To this end, the following questions are useful to keep in mind:
‘What has changed?’, ‘What do these changes look like?’ and ‘What do you want?’

Step 1: Decide on a theme or let the participants choose their own theme.
What should their images of the future be about? The more concrete the
situation, the more useful the narratives you elicit will be.
Step 2: Give the participants free reign to create their drawing. The focus should be on
their ideas, desires and needs. You can encourage or guide them, but try not to
influence them.
Step 3: Discuss the drawing. What does the participant see in the drawing? What
meaning does the participant give to the different elements?

31
* Variant
This variant is based on ‘Signs of Safety’, also known as the ‘Three Houses’ method (Rozeboom &
Timmer, 2012). The drawing exercise is divided into four steps, with a predetermined theme.

Step 1: The first drawing is about safety. What does the participant consider to be
safe? This could be anything – whatever the participant comes up with. Who is
present with respect to the theme? Where are they and what are they doing?
Step 2: The second drawing is about ‘non-safety’ in the context of the theme. Again,
they key here is to address whatever the participant comes up with. What does
the participant consider to be unsafe? Who is present, where are they, and
what are they doing?
Step 3: The final drawing is about the future. What does the participant want in the
future with respect to the theme? Again, consider the individual’s environment
and the people in it.
Step 4: Discuss the three drawings with the participant in line with the principles of
dialogue (see figure 2). Focus on the participant’s story. You will find that the
drawings help to bring the participant’s perceptions to the fore.

32
Image 3.

33
 Photo elicitation
The power of pictures to elicit narratives

34
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Learn to utilise the power of the other. o Camera with memory card
o Understand what the other considers important. o Photo printer and photo paper
o Discover people’s underlying desires and needs
and discuss them in dialogue.

Pictures can be used in interviews to stimulate the respondents’ memory (Clark-Ibaňez, 2004; Samuels
2004). The use of pictures enables dialogue on taboo subjects, as interviewer and respondent both
focus on the pictures, relieving the strain of being questioned directly (Collier, 1957: 849). When the
researcher introduces the images, it is called photo elicitation (Vanderveen, 2008). But, the researcher
can also ask respondents to take pictures themselves, this method is called photovoice (Ibid.). For
example, the respondents can be asked to take pictures of their own living environment (Royers & De
Ree, 2003). You can use this method with individuals or groups, using the following steps.

Step 1: Decide on a theme. As the facilitator you can choose this in advance, or decide
on it jointly with the participants.
Step 2: Have the participants take photos based on this theme.
Step 3: Ask the participants to tell a story with their photos. The idea is to consider
what associations and meanings the photos evoke. The participant’s own
experiences take centre stage (see figure 2 on the principles of dialogue versus
discussion).
Step 4: Ask more questions. Based on the story elicited by the photos, ask further
questions about the participant’s experiences, desires, needs and strengths.

35
* Variant 1
Instead of having the participant take photos on a particular theme, you can use photos the participant
already has. The advantage of this is that it helps to elicit stories involving experiences and events
from the past. You can encourage the participant to talk about how the past has led to the present, for
example by compiling a photo album with old and new photos relating to the theme. This gives rise to
possible topics for new dialogues, follow-up steps or research.

* Variant 2
Alternatively, the photos can be replaced by personal belongings. The participant then discusses his or
her experiences and perceptions related to particular belongings, and you can examine the significance
of the theme for the participant’s past, present and future.

* Variant 3
Another alternative is to use the ‘association cards’ by Dommisse (2007). This set consists of 40 cards
with colourful photos, which can serve as inspiration to elicit stories. Note that it is important that the
participant chooses his or her own cards.

36
Image 4.

37
 Making a treasure map
A personal image of reality

38
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Learn to give direction to your life. o Paper
o Discover your desires and goals. o Scissors
o Become aware of the central elements in your o Pencils, crayons, markers, paint and brushes
life. o Magazines (for pictures)
o Identify the steps you need to take to realise
your desires and goals.

Making an artistic treasure map is a good way to visualise your goal. By focusing your attention in this
way, you can really give direction to your goal and create a piece of work that embodies your energy and
desires. The following steps for making a treasure map are based on Hoefsloot (2007).

Step 1: Decide on the topic. Focus on one goal that you would love to have realised
already, for example having the perfect job.
Step 2: Be positive. Positivity in your treasure map is important; don’t use anything
that could hold you back from your treasure. The treasure map should show an
image of yourself when you have reached your treasure.
Step 3: Create the treasure map. You can use paint, pencils, crayons, photos or other
images, or a combination of all of them. Only use materials that you think can
really represent your treasure.
Step 4: Be creative in a way that suits you. You can even take a photo or draw a picture
of yourself and work this into your treasure map, so that it is clear that the map
is about you and your desires.

39
* Variant
As an alternative to using the treasure map to formulate a particular goal, you can also map all the
treasures that are already present in your life. This exercise will help you to better visualise your life,
which in turn can give you more self-confidence. It is a nice way to see what you have already achieved
in your life and how rich you actually already are.

Start by choosing a particular topic, a period in your life, or your whole life. Then follow the steps above.
Be positive about the experiences that have shaped you and everything that has made you stronger,
friendlier, more professional, etc.

40
Image 5.

41
 Inspiration cards
Your life is what your thoughts make of it

42
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Develop a creative process. o Inspiration cards from De Bruin (2004)
o Reflect on your own story and message.
o Identify what action you will take, how and when.
o Discover people’s underlying desires and needs and
discuss them in dialogue.

One way of eliciting a narrative is by using the inspiration cards by De Bruin (2004). Each card shows a
cheerful picture. One side has an inspiring text like ‘Just being yourself is the best that you can be’, and
the other side reads ‘If you were to be completely yourself, what would you do NOW? Do it.’ These cards
help to raise awareness of your own habits and patterns, and also provoke inquisitiveness. You gain
insight into alternative ways of dealing with your story, what you can do and what your options are (Van
Rosmalen, 1999).

The inspiration cards are useful for those moments when you feel you have no inspiration. They will also
come in handy when working with a group of students, clients or residents. The steps are as follows:

Step 1: Take the cards out of the box.

Step 2: Arrange them into a fan shape.
Step 3: Have each participant pick a card and read the inspiring message aloud.
Step 4: Encourage each participant to explain the card; i.e. to talk about what feelings
and thoughts this message evokes for them.
Step 5: Then have the participant read aloud the back of the card and do the
assignment (or have them explain how, where and when they intend to do the
assignment).

43
* Variant 1
As an alternative, you could use the ‘Getting to know you’ game by Gerrickens and Verstege (2008). This
allows you to get to know others and elicit stories in a creative way. The game consists of 56 cards with a
question and an accompanying colour photo that encourages involvement. The different photos are fun,
funny, provocative and inviting.

* Variant 2
Another alternative is to use the ‘association cards’ by Dommisse (2007). This set consists of 40 cards
with colourful photos showing images of activities, people, animals and culture. You can use the
following steps:

Step 1: Spread the cards face up across a table.

Step 2: Have the participants pick out two cards that suit their personality.
Step 3: Get each participant to explain why they chose the card, what story it
elicits and what emotion it evokes. If necessary, ask further questions to
get them talking.

44
Image 6.

45
 Musical stories
‘What do people do with music and what does music do with people?’
(Van Remmen, music therapist, no date)

46
 Learning outcomes Benodigdheden
o Elicit people’s stories using music and emotion. o Music
o Experience feelings and put them into words. o CD player

Emotions and music are often linked to one another (Van Kol, 2012). Music evokes different emotions in
people, which can often be traced to a particular personal experience. Whether they are religious or not,
many people have questions about the meaning of their lives. Music can help to answer such questions.
The following steps for using music as a tool are based on Music and Emotion (Dutch Association of
Music Therapy [NVvMT], 2009):

Step 1: Choose several songs that suit the person or people you will be working with.
Keep in mind that music can directly influence, strengthen or change people’s
feelings.
Step 2: Play one of the songs and ask what emotion it evokes. If a participant says that
a particular song does not speak to them and they cannot link an emotion to it,
play a different one. You can also ask the participant(s) to bring their own music;
that way you immediately create a personal and involved atmosphere.
Step 3: Ask the participant to link this emotion to a particular event. Then ask
more questions: What is it about this emotion that makes you think of that
event? How do you feel about the event? In this way, the music can help the
participant to explore this event or life experience.

47
* Variant 1
There are other musical methods too. You could sing a song together, play a sound game (e.g. make
noises with your mouth or instruments) or do a speech test (Haverkort, Van der Lei & Noordam, 2007).
What emotions does this elicit in the participant(s)?

* Variant 2
You can also use dance instead of music. The dancer takes up a position somewhere in the room and
improvises a dance to music he or she has chosen personally. What emotions does this evoke in the
dancer?

48
Image 7.

49
Bringing back memories
One person’s memory speaks to
the other’s imagination

50
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Elicit memories. o Attention
o Get to know yourself better and understand o Questions that stimulate the senses
emotions and feelings in the context of
memories.
o Discover people’s underlying desires and needs
and discuss them in dialogue.

The ‘Bringing back memories’ method is about finding the hidden elements of stories. When a person
repeats a story and you always ask the same type of questions, you end up stuck in one particular part
of the story. By asking questions that stimulate the senses, you allow other parts of the story to come to
life (Vane, 2003). The following steps are based on the work in Vane (2003).

Step 1: Have the narrator tell a story on a topic of his/her own choosing.
Step 2: Elicit narratives by appealing to the person’s senses: smell, taste, sound,
temperature, etc. By asking questions that speak to the other’s imagination, you
help to call up their mental images.
Step 3: Use your imagination to put yourself in the person’s story. Ask about their
experiences and perceptions: What were you wearing that day? How were the
key people dressed? What kinds of sounds did you hear? What did you eat? By
asking what they could see, hear, taste and feel, you help to dig down into their
sensory perceptions.

51
* Variant
The story could also be about the future. This reveals the person’s desires.

Step 1: When you are talking with a colleague, client or student about a particular
memory, you can also try to engage their imagination by asking questions like:
What would happen if …? Imagine that … and so on (Vane, 2003). By doing so,
you appeal to their imagination. But make sure the step from reality to fantasy
is not too big; they need to be able to picture the situation easily.
Step 2: Ask about the steps the person could take and, together, try to formulate
actions that could lead to concrete objectives.

52
Image 8.

53
 Playing with associations
Every thought is important

54
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Elicit memories. o Ball
o Get to know yourself better and understand o Association words referring to a particular theme
emotions and feelings in the context of memories.
o Discover people’s underlying desires and needs
and discuss them in dialogue.

This interactive method serves to stimulate the participants’ associative capacities. Our associative ca-
pacity has to do with the fact that we are all constantly engaged in comparing things, deliberating over
them and weighing them up. A person’s associative capacity tells us something about their personal
values and about the way in which they interact with themselves, others and the environment. It allows
us to understand and process what we are actually experiencing. You can work with associations in a
playful manner, for example by way of a ball game with a predetermined theme on which the associa-
tions are based.

Step 1: Choose a theme. You can decide on this in advance or in consultation with the
group. Either way, choose a theme about which you want to know more from
the group, and be sure to convey the theme in a visual way. According to Van
Rosmalen (1999), visual language helps people to retrieve and share memories,
mental pictures and fantasy images. You could portray the theme by means of
objects, images or a brief introduction. Make sure the theme is broad enough
that everyone can associate it with something.
Step 2: Start the game. Have the participants stand in a circle and make sure there
is enough room to throw a ball. By throwing and catching the ball, every
participant has to actively participate.

55
Step 3: When a participant catches the ball, he/she calls out a word associated with
the theme. The facilitator writes this word on a flipchart.
Step 4: The participant then throws the ball to another participant.
Step 5: Repeat steps 3 and 4 until the group has come up with sufficient words. As the
facilitator, you can keep an eye on this and let the participants know when they
can stop. If the participants have any more associations, add the words to the
list; if not, you can start on a new theme. worden op een nieuw thema.

* Variant
If you don’t have a big enough room to use, you can also play a small-scale version of the game. Sit
the participants on chairs in a circle and have them pass on or roll a ball or another object (which, if
you wish, can be related to the theme). Again, in this way every group member is invited to participate
actively.

56
Image 9.

57
 Life-size
As big as your own reality

58
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Become aware of your life and the people/things o Wallpaper
that play an important role in it. o Pencils, markers, crayons and/or paint
o Learn to work with dialogues. o Brushes
o Scissors
o Magazines

In the assignment ‘Life-size’, the silhouettes of the participants are drawn to scale. They then fill in their
silhouette with objects, people, food, text or photos that have a special meaning for them. In this way,
each participant literally ‘fills in’ his/her life.

Step 1: First, cut out a piece of wallpaper big enough to fit the silhouette of the whole
person.
Step 2: Have the person lie on the piece of wallpaper and draw his/her silhouette.
Step 3: Now the person can fill in the silhouette however they please. Encourage the
participants to consider questions like: Who are you? What do you like? Which
people/animals/objects are important to you?
Step 4: Start a dialogue. Based on the completed silhouette, discuss the person’s world.

59
* Variant
You can also use a piece of clothing belonging to the participant.

Step 1: Have the participant choose a piece of clothing – for example, a shoe – place it
on a piece of white paper and draw the silhouette of the item.
Step 2: Ask the participant to write on the shoe everything the shoe has seen and done
today.
Step 3: Discuss the events that the participant wrote down.

60
Image 10.

61
Open interview
Stories are paramount

62
 Learning outcomes Requirements
o Learn to use an open interview method. o Self-prepared interview guide
o Work with dialogues. o Facilitator
o Ask open questions – and keep on asking. o Interviewees
o Focus on listening. o Voice recorder
o Empower the interviewee. o Video camera (optional)
o Be led by the interviewee’s story.

An open interview revolves around the ‘human experience’ that is the result of all events in our lives
(Van Biene et al., 2008). By way of questions, the interviewer invites the participant to tell his or her
story with the aim of collecting data in the form of narratives. These are fragments with a start, an end
and a plot, which help us to answer the predetermined research question. Narratives are best elicited by
means of open questions (‘Tell me about …’) rather than closed questions (which require only a yes or
no answer). As an interviewer, it is important to pay close attention to what the participant is saying. Be
sure to follow the principles of dialogue and avoid getting into a debate.

Preparation for an open interview

Step 1: Consider the question ‘What is worth exploring when it comes to the
interviewee’s social setting, taking into account his or her social, cultural or
organisational background?’.
Step 2: Draw up an interview guide.

63
The interview
Step 1: Start the interview with an open question. This may be a broad or a surprising
question. But keep in mind that this opening question may not be enough
for some participants. The interviewer’s task is to elicit the story without
influencing the interviewee too much. Avoid the use of leading questions, but
encourage the interviewee by nodding, making the appropriate noises and
listening actively.
Step 2: Start with the opening questions in the interview guide, but if these are
not enough, continue to ask further questions to elicit stories from the
interviewee.
Step 3: Allow the interviewee to tell his/her story.
Step 4: Focus on what is actually being said, and explore this narrative in depth.

* Variant
To start the interview, you can also use a creative medium to elicit the participant’s story. For example,
you could present the interview guide in the form of a suitcase filled with objects that represent the
topics to be covered in the interview. The story can then be told based on these objects. This variant was
inspired by an idea by Van Heuveln (no date), lecturer at HAN University of Applied Sciences.

64
Image 11.

65
References
Gerrickens, P., & Verstege, M. (2008). Kennismakingsspel [‘Getting to know you’ game]. ‘s-Hertogenbosch:

Gerrickens Training and Advice.

Biene, M.A.W. van. (2005). Wederkerig leren. Onderzoek naar georganiseerde leerondersteuning voor
mensen met een verstandelijke beperking én professionals [Reciprocal learning: Research on organised
learning support for people with intellectual disabilities and professionals]. Delft: Eburon Academic
Publishers.

Biene, M.A.W. van, et al. (2008). De standaardvraag voorbij. Narrative research naar vraagpatronen
[Beyond the standard question: Narrative research on question patterns]. Nijmegen: HAN research group
Local Service Provision from a Client Perspective.

Bijl, J., Baars, P., & Schueren, A. van der. (2002). Vertellen werkt. Mogelijkheden van storytelling in
organisaties [Storytelling works: Options for organisations]. Amsterdam: Pearson Education Benelux in
collaboration with De Baak Management Centre VNO-NCW.

Boeije, H. (2005). Analyseren in kwalitatief onderzoek. Denken en doen [Analysis in qualitative research:
Thinking and doing]. ‘s-Gravenhage: Boom Lemma.

Bruin, S. de. (2004). 64 inspiratie kaarten [64 inspiration cards]. Groningen: De Zaak.

Clark-Ibaňez, M. (2004). Framing the social world with photo-elicitation interviews. American Behavioral
Scientist, 47 (12), 1507-1527.

Collier, J.J. (1957). Photography in anthropology: a report on two experiments. American Anthropologist,
59 (5), 843-859.

Dixon, N.M. (1998). Dialogue at work. London: Lemos & Crane.

Dommisse, R. (2007). Associatiekaarten [Association cards]. Zaltbommel: Thema.

67
Donk, C. van der., & Lanen, B. van. (2011). Praktijkonderzoek in zorg en welzijn [Applied research in
healthcare and welfare]. Bussum: Coutinho

Dries, M. & Hoffman, E. (2008). Diversiteit en Aandacht. Een handelingskader voor sociale activering
[Diversity and attention: A framework for social activation]. Nijmegen: HAN.

Haverkort, F., Lei, R. van der., & Noordam, L. (2007). Eigen-wijs: Liedbundel voor het basisonderwijs
[Song bundle for primary education]. Utrecht: Hoonte Bosch en Keuning.

Hoefsloot, R. ( 2007). Kunstzinnig dynamisch coachen [Artistic dynamic coaching]. Amsterdam: Schors.

Jansen, H., & Linde, R. van der. (2006). Vertellend leren, digital storytelling binnen levend leren
[Narrative learning: Digital storytelling within living learning]. Utrecht: Agiel.

Local Service Provision from a Client Perspective. (2013). Vraagpatronen Narratief werken/onderzoek
[Question patterns in narrative methods/research] (PowerPoint). Nijmegen: HAN research group Local
Service Provision from a Client Perspective.

Kol, A. van. (2012). Zit de emotie in de muziek of in de luisteraar [Is the emotion in the music or in the
hearer]? Accessed on 20 April 2012 from http://arjenvankol.com/artikel-zit-de-emotie-in-de-muziek-of-
in-de-luisteraar.php

Kloppenburg, R. & Heemelaar, M. (1999). Methodiek sociaal pedagogische hulpverlening [Social work
methodology]. Houten: Bohn Stafleu van Loghum.

Lange, R. de. (2000). De Vuurgodin, een sjamanistische reis [The Fire Goddess: A shamanic journey].
Haarlem: Altamira-Becht.

Mighelbrink, F.G.H.M. (2007). Praktijkgericht onderzoek in zorg en welzijn [Practice-oriented research in

healthcare and welfare]. Amsterdam: SWP.

NVvMT. (2009). Muziek en emotie [Music and emotion]. Accessed on 20 April 2012 from www.nvvmt.nl/
index.php/ muziek-en-/21-muziek-en-emotie.html

68
Robson, C. (2011). Real world research. Third edition. West Sussex: Wiley.

Rosmalen, J. van (1999). Het woord aan de verbeelding, Spel en kunstzinnige middelen in het sociaal
agogisch werk [Calling on the imagination: Games and artistic resources for social work]. Houten: Bohn
Stafleu Van Loghum.

Royers, T., & de Ree, L. (2003). De visuele prikkel methode [The visual stimulus method]. In T. Hak &
F. Wester (Eds.). Waarneming, analyse en reflectie. Kwalitatief onderzoek: de praktijk [Observation,
analysis and reflection: Qualitative research in practice]. Utrecht: Kwalon.

Rozeboom, P. & Timmer, M. (2012). Signs of Safety. Accessed on 20 April 2012 from www.signsofsafety.
nl/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Booklet-goodpractice-verhalen-ned.- def-09-09-20111.pdf

Samuels, J. (2004). Breaking the ethnographer’s frames. Reflections on the use of photo elicitation in
understanding Sri Lankan monastic culture. American Behavorial Scientist, 47 (12), 1528-1550.

Stekelenburg, L. van (2008). Waan- zin in werk [Enjoyment and absurdity in work]. Tilburg University:
School of Humanities.

Ten Holter, M.J. (2010). Het woord is aan de zuster; een narratieve analyse van de bijdrage van
verpleegkundigen aan de zorg [Giving nurses a voice: A narrative analysis of nurses’ contributions to
healthcare]. Rotterdam: Eburon.

Vane, S. (2003). Werken met drama. Drama activiteiten voor agogische beroepen [Working with drama:
Drama activities for pedagogical professions]. Soest: Nelissen.

69
Images
Image 1: Purdywurdy. (2006, 2 October). All packed [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from
www.sxc.hu/photo/628985

Image 2: Sconaway. (2005, 27 August). Kids at work [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from
www.sxc.hu/photo/352712

Image 3: Linder6580. (2011, 11 February). Mugs [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from www.
sxc.hu/photo/1337283

Image 4: Holger. (2004, 6 June). Locker at university 2 [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from
www.sxc.hu/photo/144113

Image 5: Vagabond 9. (2006, 2 December). Inspiration Again [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012
from www.sxc.hu/photo/671899

Image 6: Mazwebs. (2011, 10 January). Trumpet [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from www.
sxc.hu/photo/1328974

Image 7: Nkzs. (2008, 20 September). Dark secrets [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from
www.sxc.hu/photo/1077691

Image 8: Satty4u. (2008, 3 December). Pebble Balance [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from
www.sxc.hu/photo/1117007

Image 9: Omernos. (2006, 3 June). Tabliod [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from www.sxc.hu/
photo/539995

Image 10: Mattox. (2008, 5 December). Silent talk [online image]. Downloaded on 6 June 2012 from www.
sxc.hu/photo/1117657

All other images were created by E.C. Bobbink (2012).

70