BASIC MATHEMATICS

MATHEMATICS FOR FOUNDATION LEVEL 1

FIRST EDITION
PREFACE
Basic Mathematics: Mathematics for Foundation Level 1 is designed to help students
understand the concepts of Basic Mathematics, stimulating mathematical thinking and
problem-solving ability among students. Topics covered in the book improve the basic
understanding of mathematical principles and build a foundation to grasp higher mathematical
concepts students face in the next level. Each chapter includes a variety of activities aimed
at developing students’ conceptual understanding and cognitive skills.
Topics covered in the book include Real Numbers, Exponents & Radicals, Measurements
& Unit Conversions, Polynomials, Equations & Inequalities, Coordinate Geometry and
Trigonometry.
The book has been written as part of the School of Foundation Studies’ Operational Plan.
We thank the faculty of Mathematics-SoFS for their continuous support and direction in
developing this book. We also thank the Management of the University, Director and
HoDs of School of Foundation Studies for their support.
TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE

Chief Coordinators
Soji Binu Mathew - Senior Lecturer
Safa Al Mughairi -Lecturer

Material Contributors
SreeHari V M- Senior Lecturer
Anuradha Nithin - Senior Lecturer
Aziza Al Hadhrami- Lecturer
Nasra Al Hadhrami- Lecturer
Khadija Al Habsy - Lecturer
Atia Al Saqri - Assistant Lecturer

Proofreaders
Anitra Hernandez - Lecturer
Yashmin Mansuria- Lecturer

External Reviewer
Dr. Ibrahim Elmojtaba
Associate Professor, SQU

External Programmer
Dr. Fatma Al-Musalhi
Instructor, SQU
Contents

1 REAL NUMBERS 1
1.1 SETS AND SUBSETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 FRACTIONS, RATIOS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGE . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 SETS AND INTERVALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 EXPONENTS AND RADICALS 19

2.1 EXPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2 RADICALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 RATIONAL EXPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 RATIONALIZING THE DENOMINATOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 MEASUREMENTS AND UNIT CONVERSIONS 31

3.1 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 METRIC PREFIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF METRIC MEASURES . . . . . . 36
3.5 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION WITH METRIC MEASURES . . . 36

4 POLYNOMIALS 39
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.2 ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.3 DIVISION OF A POLYNOMIAL BY A POLYNOMIAL . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.4 REMAINDER THEOREM AND FACTOR THEOREM . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.5 FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

i
 4.6 RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5 EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 58

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO EQUATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2 LINEAR EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.3 MODELING WITH LINEAR EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.4 ABSOLUTE VALUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.5 INEQUALITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.6 MODELING WITH INEQUALITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6 COORDINATE GEOMETRY 76
6.1 COORDINATE PLANE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.2 DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT FORMULAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.3 SYMMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.4 CIRCLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.5 SLOPE OF A LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.6 EQUATION OF A LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

7 TRIGONOMETRY 94
7.1 RADIAN AND DEGREE MEASURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.2 LENGTH OF A CIRCULAR ARC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.3 AREA OF A CIRCLE SECTOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.4 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF RIGHT TRIANGLES . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.5 SPECIAL VALUES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION . . . . . . 100
7.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND QUADRANTS . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.7 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.8 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY OF RIGHT TRIANGLES . . . 104

ii
Chapter 1

REAL NUMBERS

1
1.1 SETS AND SUBSETS

In our daily life, numbers are used to count, measure and calculate different quantities.
For example, numbers can be used to count money, people, to measure height, length,
temperature, and to calculate the speed, age, cost etc. Numbers are also used to compare
and express relationship between different quantities like items bought and their costs.
Do you know about numbers and their types?
Let us discuss the types of numbers that make up the real numbers’ system.
Example: Fill-in the following.

Set Notation Definition Relations with other sets Example

Natural Numbers

Whole Numbers

Integers

Rational Numbers

Irrational Numbers

Real Numbers

REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Natural Numbers N: The set of counting numbers

N = {1, 2, 3, ...}

which contains the following subsets:

• Even numbers: {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, ...}

• Odd numbers : {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...}

• Prime numbers : {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...}

• Composite numbers : {4, 6, 8, 9, 10, ...}

Whole Numbers W: Natural numbers including zero

2
 W = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}

Note: Every natural number is a whole number and that the set N of all natural number
is a subset of whole numbers W. That is, N ⊂ W
Integers Z: Whole numbers together with the negatives of natural numbers

Z = {..., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}

Note: Every whole number is an integer and that the set W of all whole number is a
subset of Integers Z. That is, N ⊂ W ⊂ Z
Rational Numbers Q: Numbers formed by taking the ratios of integers
nm o
Q= ; m, n ∈ Z and n 6= 0
n

Rational can also be written in decimal form as repeated decimals or terminated decimals.
Some elements of Q are:
√ 5 7
− 16, −3, − , 0, , 3.5, 7.8383..., 8
2 6

Note: Every integer is a rational number and that the set Z of all integer is a subset of
rational number Q. That is, N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q
Example:
Answer the following:

i. Are the following statements true or false? Justify your answer.

a. Every whole number is a natural number.

b. Every integer is a rational number.

c. Every rational number is an integer.

ii. Find five rational numbers between 1 and 2

Solution:

i. a. False, because zero is a whole number but not a natural number.

m
b. True, because every integer m can be expressed in the form and so it is a
1
rational number
3
c. False, because is not an integer.
5

3
 ii. Since we want five numbers, we write 1 and 2 as rational numbers with denominator
6 12 7 8 9 10 11
5 + 1, i.e., 1 = and 2 = . Then you can check that , , , and are all
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
7 4 3 5 11
rational numbers between 1 and 2. So, the five numbers are , , , and
6 3 2 3 6

Note: There are infinitely many rational numbers between any two given rational numbers.
√
Irrational Numbers: There are also numbers such as 2, that cannot be expressed as
√
ratio of two integers and the decimal form ( 2 = 1.414213562373...) is neither terminating
nor repeating. Those numbers form the set of irrational numbers. Some examples of
irrational numbers are:

√ √
r
π 17
11, 5.3, , e, 0.53157801,
3 3

Real Numbers R: Set of all rational and irrational numbers. Some examples of real
numbers are:

√ −5 √ 8
R = {..., − 25, −4, , 0, 6, π, , , 4.5, 6.44..., 8, ...}
2 3

Note:

i. Every rational number is a real number and that the set Q of all rational number
is a subset of real number R. That is, N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R

ii. Every irrational number is a real number and that the set of all irrational number
is a subset of real number R

REAL LINE
The real numbers can be represented by points on a line
1 1 √
√ − 1 √ 3√ e
−3.75 −2.63 8 6 3.9999
− 2 2 2 5 π
|| | | | | | | || | | | | | | | | | || ||
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
−3.9 0.3

The center of this line is the number 0 and each real number represents its distance from
0. The positive sign means that the number is to the right of 0 and the negative sign
means that the number is to the left.

4
 Real number system

1.2 PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

Example:
If a = 10, b = 5, then find the following.

i. a + b, b + a

ii. a − b, b − a

iii. a × b, b × a

iv. a ÷ b, b ÷ a

Note: From the above calculations, we can observe the following.

a + b = b + a and a × b = b × a, however a − b 6= b − a and a ÷ b 6= b ÷ a
So we can conclude that, we can add or multiply any two real numbers in any order. This
property is known as Commutative Property.
Example:
If a = 2, b = 4 and c = 6, then find the following.

i. (a + b) + c, a + (b + c)

ii. (a − b) − c, a − (b − c)

5
 iii. (a × b) × c, a × (b × c)

iv. (a ÷ b) ÷ c, a ÷ (b ÷ c)

Note: From the above calculations, we can observe the following.

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a × b) × c = a × (b × c), however
(a − b) − c 6= a − (b − c) and (a ÷ b) ÷ c 6= a ÷ (b ÷ c)
So we can conclude that, we can add or multiply any three real numbers in any order.
This property is known as Associative Property.
Also we can see that a × (b + c) = ab + ac and (a + b) × c = ac + bc
This property is known as Distributive Property.

PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBER

Property Example Description

Commutative Properties
x+y =y+x 2+4=4+2 When we add or mutiply any two
xy = yx 2·4=4·2 numbers, order does not matter.

Associative Properties
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z) (2 + 4) + 5 = 2 + (4 + 5) When we add or mutiply any three
(xy)z = x(yz) (2 · 4) · 5 = 2 · (4 · 5) numbers, order does not matter

Distributive Property
x(y + z) = xy + xz 2 · (4 + 5) = 2 · 4 + 2 · 5 When we mutiply a nmuber by a sum
(y + z)x = xy + xz (2 + 4) · 2 = 2 · 4 + 2 · 5 of two numbers is the same as the sum
of the number mutiply by each term

Note:

• Identity
For any real number a, the number 0 satisfies the relationship:

a+0=0+a=a

and therefore we say that the number 0 is the additive identity in the set of real
numbers.

6
 For any real number a, the number 1 satisfies the relationship:

a×1=1×a=a

and therefore we say that the number 1 is the multiplicative identity in the set of
real numbers.

• Inverse
For every real number a, there is a number (−a) such that

a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0

and we say that (−a) is the additive inverse of a.

1
For every non zero real number a, there is a number such that
a

1 1
a× = ×a=1
a a

1
and we say that is the multiplicative inverse of a.
a

1.3 FRACTIONS, RATIOS, DECIMALS AND

PERCENTAGE

FRACTIONS
A fraction has two parts. The number on the top of the line is called the numerator, and
a
the number below the line is called the denominator. A fraction is written as: ; b 6= 0
b

7
 PROPERTIES OF FRACTIONS

Property Example Description

x w xw 3 7 21
1. · = · = To multiply fractions, multiply
y z yz 5 4 20
numerators and denominators.

x w x z 3 7 3 4 12
2. ÷ = · ÷ = × = To divide fractions, multiply and
y z y w 5 4 5 7 35
flip the divisor.

x w x+w 3 4 7
3. + = + = To add fractions with the same
y y y 5 5 5
denominator, add the numerators.

x w xz + wy 3 7 12 + 35 47
4. + = + = = To add fractions with different
y z yz 5 4 20 20
denominators, find the least common
denominator and add the numerators.

xz x 3·5 3
5. = = Cancel the common factors in
yz y 7·4 5
numerator and denominator.

x w 3 6
6. If = , then xz = yw = , so 3 · 10 = 5 · 6 Cross-multiply.
y z 5 10

RATIOS
A ratio is a comparison of two numbers by division. Ratios use the symbol " : " to
separate the quantities being compared. For example if a gallon of paint contains three
parts black paint and six part white paint then the ratio comparing black paint to the
white paint can be written as 3 to 6. Mathematically we can express this ratio as 3 : 6
Recall that a fraction represents division and the ratio too. So we can express 3 : 6 as
3 1
= So, 3 : 6 = 1 : 2
6 2
Note: If a : b = c : d, then ad = bc and if ad = bc then a : b = c : d Example:
If 2 : x = 3 : 12, find the value of x
Solution:
Since 2 : x = 3 : 12, then 3x = 24. So x = 8

8
DECIMALS
A decimal number can be defined as a number whose whole number part and the fractional
part are separated by a decimal point. The dot in a decimal number is called a decimal
point. To change a decimal to a fraction, use the place value of the last digit.
25 5
For example, 2.5 = =
10 2
To change a fraction to a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator.
7
For example, = 7 ÷ 5 = 1.4
5

PERCENTAGE
A percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often denoted using
the percent sign, %
To write a percentage as a fraction or a decimal, divide the number by 100
75
For example, 75% = = 0.75 or 75 : 100 = 3 : 4
100
To write decimal or fraction as percentage, multiply by 100
For example, we can rewrite 0.25 as a percentage 0.25 × 100 = 25%
3 3
Also, we can rewrite as a percentage × 100 = 60% and 2 : 4 could be written as a
5 5
2
percentage: × 100 = 50%
4

1.4 SETS AND INTERVALS

SETS
A set is a collection of objects, called the elements of the set. Sets are represented by
capital letters like A, B, C, · · · . The elements of a set are represented by small letters
like x, y, z, · · · . If x is an element of A, we say that x belongs to A and write x ∈ A, if
y is not an element of A we say that y does not belong to A and write y ∈
/ A. Sets could
have finite or infinite number of elements. If a set A has finite number of elements, then
the set could be written by listing its elements inside braces.
For instance, the set S that consists of all natural numbers less than 6 can be written as

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

9
Note: The elements in any set should not be repeated.
We could also write S in set-builder notation as

S = {x|x is a natural number and x < 6}

If a set had infinite number of elements, then the set is usually written using the set
builder notation. If a set has no elements then we say that the set is an empty set. The
notation of an empty set is {} or ∅.
If A and B are sets, then their union A ∪ B is the set that consists of all elements that
are in A or B (or in both). The intersection of A and B is the set A ∩ B consisting of
all elements that are in both A and B
In other words, A ∩ B is the common part of A and B. The empty set, denoted by ∅,
is the set that contains no element.
Example:
If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {4, 5, 6}, and C = {6, 7, 8, 9}, find the sets A ∪ B, A ∩ B, and
A∩C
Solution:
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
A ∩ B = {4}
A∩C =∅

INTERVALS
Certain sets of real numbers, is called intervals. The following table shows the different
types of intervals.

10
 Notation Set description Graph

(a, b) {x| a < x < b}

a b

[ a, b] {x| a ≤ x ≤ b}
a b

[ a, b) {x| a ≤ x < b}
a b

(a, b ] {x| a < x ≤ b}

a b

(a, ∞) {x| a < x}

a

[ a, ∞) {x| a ≤ x}
a

(−∞, b) {x| x < b}

b

(−∞, b ] {x| x ≤ b}
b

(−∞, ∞ ) R (set of all real numbers)

Example:

1. Express each interval in terms of inequalities and graph them.

i. [ 3, ∞) ii. ( 3, ∞)
iii. (−∞, 6 ] iv. (−∞, 6 )

2. Graph the following and express the answer in set builder and interval forms.

i. (1, 3) ∩ [2, 7] ii. (1, 3) ∪ [2, 7]

Solutions:
1.

i. x ≥ 3

11
 ii. x > 3
3

iii. x ≤ 6
6

iv. x < 6
6

2. i. (1, 3) ∩ [2, 7] = {x|1 < x < 3 and 2 ≤ x ≤ 7}

= {x|2 ≤ x < 3} = [2, 3)

1 3

2 7

2 3
2. ii. (1, 3) ∪ [2, 7] = {x|1 < x < 3 or 2 ≤ x ≤ 7}
= {x|1 < x ≤ 7} = (1, 7]

1 3

2 7

1 7

12
EXERCISES

1. Give an example of each of the following.

i. A rational number that is not an integer.

ii. A natural number.

iii. An irrational number.

iv. A whole number that is not a natural number.

2. Check whether the following statements are true or false? Justify your answer.

i. All whole numbers are natural numbers.

ii. All irrational numbers are real numbers.

iii. All rational numbers are integers.

iv. Sum of two integers is always an integer.

v. Subtraction of two natural numbers is a natural number.

√
3. Which of the following statement is True for − 3 125

i. Natural Number, Real Number.

ii. Irrational Number, Real Number.

iii. Rational Number, Real Number.

iv. Integer, Irrational Number, Real Number.

√ √ √
 
5π 3
4. From the set S = −41, − , − 225, 0, 23, 27, −4, 3e, 1.3434, 5.2121 · · · ,
7
list all the following:

i. The set of integer numbers of S

ii. The set of rational numbers of S

iii. The set of irrational numbers of S

iv. The set of natural numbers of S

v. The set of whole numbers of S

13
 5. Find six rational numbers between 3 and 4

3 4
6. Find five rational numbers between and
5 5

7. Use commutative property to rewrite the given expressions.

i. 6 + 4 =

ii. −14 × 5 =

iii. 3n =

iv. a + 8 =

8. Use associative property to rewrite the given expressions.

i. (13 × 5) × 2 =

ii. (22 + 7) + 3 =

iii. (4 + 9x) + x =

iv. 5(22y) =

9. Simplify using distributive property.

i. 7(x + 9) =

ii. −8(−7a − 12) =

iii. (y + 10) × p =

iv. 4(x + 3) − 8(x − 7) =

10. State the property used in the following.

i. (9 + 7) + 5 = 9 + (7 + 5)

ii. x + 25 = 25 + x

iii. (8 × 3) × 9 = 8 × (3 × 9)

iv. 5(2 + x) = (2 + x)5

v. (x + y)(a + b) = (x + y)a + (x + y)b

14
11. Fill in the table given below.
Number Additive Inverse Multiplicative Inverse
3
5
8

−5
4
−
5
7
9
8
12. Simplify the following.

10
i.
14

36
ii.
84

3 5
iii. +
8 12

11 2
iv. −
12 9

8 7
v. +
10 10

10 2
vii. −
7 7

8 7
vii. ×
10 10

1 2
viii. ×
7 9

6 6
ix. ÷
9 9

3 4
x. ÷
8 9

15
13. Evaluate the following.

i. 5.03 + 0.19 + 2.5 + 1.002

ii. 77.77 + 7.77 + 78.7

iii. 17.01 − 8.65

iv. 85.5 − 68.67

14. Convert the following fractions into decimal form.

1 15
i. ii.
4 16

23 17
iii. iv.
8 20
15. Express the following fractions as percentages.
1 3
i. ii.
2 20

23 31
iii. iv.
60 25
16. Simplify the following.
i. 40% of 120m ii. 12% of 800g
iii. 2.5% of 6km iv. 7% of 350m

17. Find the value of x in the following.

i. 2 : 5 = 4 : x ii. x : 9 = 3 : 5
iii. x : 6 = 11 : 18 iv. x : 6 = 2 : 3

18. Divide 80 cm into two parts in the ratio 3 : 2

19. Divide RO 26 among three people so that their shares are in the ratio 4: 5: 4

20. The perimeter of a triangle is 24cm and the lengths of the sides are in the ratio
3 : 4: 5. Find the lengths of the 3 sides.

21. Write in interval notation and draw the graph of each inequality.

i. x ≥ 4.

ii. −3 < x < 6

iii. 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

iv. x > 8

16
 v. x < −10

22. Express each interval as an inequality and graph it.

i. (−∞, −8]

ii. [5, ∞)

iii. (−2, ∞)

iv. [−10, ∞)

v. (−∞, 6)

23. Express the set in interval notation and in set builder form.

i. 1 5

ii. 2 7

iii. 5

24. Let A = {2, 5}, B = {5, 7, 9}, C = {x|x is an odd number less than 9}. Find the
following.

i. A ∪ B

ii. A ∪ C

iii. A ∪ B ∪ C

iv. A ∩ B

v. A ∪ (B ∪ C)

25. Graph the set.

i. (−5, 0) ∪ (−2, 7)

ii. (−5, 0) ∩ (−2, 7)

iii. [−3, 6] ∩ [1, 7)

17
iv. [−3, 6] ∪ [1, 7)

v. (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, 5]

vi. (−∞, −3) ∩ (3, 5]

18
Chapter 2

EXPONENTS AND RADICALS

19
2.1 EXPONENTS

An exponent refers to the number of times a number is multiplied by itself. For example,
3 to the power 4 (written as: 34 ) means: 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 81. Note that 34 is not the same
as 3 × 4 = 12

EXPONENTIAL NOTATION
If x is any real number and n is a positive integer, then the nth power of a is

xn = x
| · x {z
· · · · · x}
n times

The number a is called the base, and n is called the exponent.

Example:
Evaluate the following.
 3
2
i.
3

ii. (−2)6

iii. −26

Solution:
 3
2 2 2 2 8
i. = × × =
3 3 3 3 27

ii. (−2)6 = (−2) × (−2) × (−2) × (−2) × (−2) × (−2) = 64

iii. −26 = −(2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) = −64

Note:
A number raised to the power of 1 is itself. For example, y 1 = y and 71 = 7

ZERO AND NEGATIVE EXPONENTS

If x 6= 0 is any real number and n is a positive integer, then

1
x0 = 1 and x−n =
xn

20
Example:
Evaluate the following.
 0
1
i.
2

ii. 2y −3

iii. 3−2

iv. (−3)−2

Solution:

1 0


i. 2
=1

2
ii. 2y −3 =
y3
1
iii. 3−2 =
9
1 1
iv. (−3)−2 = 2
=
(−3) 9

LAWS OF EXPONENTS
Here are some rules for working with exponents. In the table below, a and b are real
numbers and m and n are integers.

21
 LAWS OF EXPONENTS

Law Example Description

1. xn xm = xn+m 23 · 25 = 23+5 = 28 To multiply two powers of the same
base, add the exponents.

xn 25
2. = xn−m = 25−2 = 23 To divide two powers of the
xm 22
same base, subtract the exponents.

3. (xn )m = xnm (23 )5 = 23·5 = 215 To raise a power to a new power,

multiply the exponents.

4. (xy)n = xn y n (2 · 3)5 = 25 · 35 To raise a multiplication to a power,

raise each factor to the power.

 n  5
x xn 2 25
5. = n = 5 To raise a fraction to a power, raise
y y 3 3
both numerator and denominator to
the power.

 −n    −5  5
x y n 2 3
6. = = To raise a fraction to a negative
y x 3 2
power, flip the fraction and change
the sign of the exponent.

x−n yn 2−5 35
7. = = To move a base raised to a power
y −n xn 3−5 25
from numerator to denominator or
the reverse, change the sign of the
exponent.

Example:
1. Simplify the following using laws of exponents.

i. (−2)2 × (−2)4

22
 72
ii.
75

iii. (5−2 )3

iv. (2 × 3)−4

1 2 5 −3
v. (7a−3 b2 c5 ) × 14


abc
 3 −1 3 2  2 2 3 −3
2p q r 2p q s
vi. −2
×
s r2
 3 −2 2  2 −3
mn 2m
vii. ÷
4 n2

Solution:

i. (−2)2 × (−2)4 = (−2)2+4 = (−2)6

72 1
ii. 5
= 72−5 = 7−3 = 3
7 7
1
iii. (5−2 )3 = 5−2×3 = 5−6 =
56
1
iv. (2 × 3)−4 = 2−4 × 3−4 =
24 × 34

v. (7a−3 b2 c5 ) × 1 2 5 −3 1 −3+2 2+5 5−3

14
abc =7× 14
a b c
1 −1 7 2 b7 c 2
= 2
a b c =
2a
2 −3
2p3 q −1 r3 2p2 q 2 s3 4p6 q −2 r6 2−3 p−6 q−6 s−9
 
vi. × = × r−6
s−2 r2 s−4
4p6 r6 s4 r6
= ×
q2 23 p6 q 6 s9

4p6−6 r6+6 s4−9

=
8q 2+6

4p0 r12 s−5

=
8q 8

r12
=
2q 8 s5

23
 −3
2m2 m6 n−4 2−3 m−6
 2 
3 −2
vii. d m 4n ÷ = ÷
n2 16 n−6
6 6
m n
= ÷
16n4 23 m6

m6 8m6
= ×
16n4 n6

m6+6
=
2n4+6

m12
=
2n10

2.2 RADICALS
√ √ √
Numbers like 2, 61/4 , 3 5, ..., n a are called radicals, where n is the order or index of
the radical and a is the radicand.

DEFINITION OF nth ROOT

If n is any positive integer, then the principal nth root of x is defined as follows:

√
n
x=y means yn = x

If n is even, we must have x ≥ 0 and y ≥ 0

Examples:

1. Write each of the following radicals in exponent form.

√
4
i. 16 = 2
√
10
ii. 8x = y
p
iii. x2 + y 2 = w

2. Evaluate each of the following.

√
3
i. −125
√
ii. 16
√
iii. −16

24
 Solutions:

1. i. 24 = 16

ii. y 10 = 8x

iii. x2 + y 2 = w2

2. i. = −5

ii. = 4
√
iii. −16 does not have a real solution; we can’t evaluate the radical of a negative
number if the index is even.

PROPERTIES OF nth ROOTS

Here are some properties of the nth root. In the table below, x and y are real numbers
and m and n are positive integers

PROPERTIES OF nth ROOTS

Property Example:
√ √ √ √ √ √
1. n xy = n x n y 3
−125 · 8 = 3 −125 3 8 = (−5)(2) = −10
r √ r √
x n
x 64 64 8
2. n = √ =√ =
qy y 25 25 5
n

m √n
√ p
3
√ √
6
3. x = nm x 64 = 64 = 2
√ p √
5
4. n xn = x if n is odd 3
(−2)3 = −2, 25 = 2
√ p
5. n xn = |x| if n is even 4
(−2)4 = | − 2| = 2

Note:
We can ’break up’ products and quotients under a radical, but we cannot do the same
√ √ √
thing for sums or differences. For example: n x + y 6= n x + n y
Example:
Simplify each of the following, where x, y, and z are positive.

√
i. 256
√
9
ii. x6
p
iii. 18x6 y 11

25
 √
3
√
3
iv. 9x2 6x2
√ √
v. 5 3 + 48
√
4
√
4
vi. 81x5 − x5
√
vii. 9z 3 + 18

Solution:
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
i. 256 = 2×2×3×3×7= 4×9×7= 4 9 7=6 7
√
9 6 2 √
3
ii. x6 = (x) 9 = (x) 3 = x2
p p √
iii. 18x6 y 11 = 9.(2y).(x3 )2 .(y 5 )2 = 3x3 y 5 2y
p p √
iv. 3
(9x2 ).(6x2 ) = 3 2.(3)3 .x3 .x = 3x 3 2x
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
v. 5 3 + 48 = 5 3 + 3.16 = 5 3 + ( 3. 16) = 5 3 + 4 3 = 9 3
√
4
√
4
p √
4 √ √ √ √
vi. 81x5 − x5 = 4
(3)4 .x4 .x − x4 .x = 3x 4 x − x 4 x = (3x − x) 4 x = 2x 4 x
√ p √
vii. 9z 3 + 18 = 9(z 3 + 2) = 3 z 3 + 2

2.3 RATIONAL EXPONENTS

DEFINITION OF RATIONAL EXPONENTS

For any rational exponent m/n in lowest terms, where m and n are integers and
n > 0, we define:

√
m √
xm/n = n
x or equivalently xm/n = n
xm

If n is even, then we require that x ≥ 0

Example:
Evaluate each of the following.
  12
49
i.
64
 23
−8x9

ii.
125y −6

26
  14
w−2

iii. 1
16v 2
−2
!− 17
x2 y 3
iv. 1
x− 2 y −3
Solution:

7
i.
8
 23
−8x9 4x6 y 4

ii. =
125y −6 25
 14 1
w−2×( 4 )
−1
w−2

w2 1
iii. 1 = 1 1
= 1 = 1 1
16 4 v 2 ×( 4 )
1
16v 2 2v 8 2w 2 v 8
−2
! −1
7 1
! −17
x2 y 3 x2 x 2 y 3
iv. −1 = 2
x 2 y −3 y3
1 2
! −1
x2+( 2 ) y 3−( 3 )
7

=
1
 5 7  −1 7
= x2 y 3
  17
1
= 5 7
x2 y 3 !
1
= 5 1 7
× 17 )
x( 2 × 7 ) y ( 3!
1
= 5 1
x( 14 ) y ( 3 )

2.4 RATIONALIZING THE DENOMINATOR

A fractional expression whose denominator contains no radicals is said to be in standard

form. So if any fractional expression with radical in the denominator, we will remove the
radical by rationalization to make it in standard form.
√
If the denominator is of the form x, to rationalize it, we multiply the numerator and
√
denominator by x.
√ √
1 1 x x
For example: √ = √ × √ =
x x x x
Example:
Rationalize the denominator for each of the following, where x is positive.

4
i. √
y

27
 r
5 2
ii.
x3
1
iii. √
3− x

Solution:
√ √
4 y 4 y
i. √ × √ =
y y y
√5
√
5
√5
2 x2 2x2
√
ii. 5 √
× 5 =
x3 x2 x
√ √ √
1 3+ x 3+ x 3+ x
iii. √ × √ = √ √ =
3− x 3+ x (3 − x)(3 + x) 9−x

28
EXERCISES

1. Answer the following.

7 9 3 −3 7 x 3 −2x





i. Given 3
× 7
= 3
× 7
, find the value of x . . . . . . . . . . ..

ii. (−6)−2 × x = 6−1 , find the value of x . . . . . . . . . . ..

−3 16 −2
iii. − 45


=x= 25
, find the value of x . . . . . . . . . . . .
5(2x+1)
iv. When = 125, the value of x is . . . . . . . . . . ..
25

3
0
v. When m = 23 ÷ 31 , the value of m−2 is . . . . . . . . . . ..

2. Simplify the following expressions.

2−5 m−4 n−5

i. −6 −3 4
2 m n
 5 4 −2  −1 2
4c b a
ii. 5
÷
a 4b2 c2
3(x+2) − 3 × 3x
iii.
3 × 3(x+1)
8pq 4q 2 8pqr2
iv. ÷ 2×
3rs 5r 35q 2 rs
(2m)4 n3 (4mn)2
v. ÷
(6m2 n2 )2 (2m2 n2 )3
 2 −3 3
a−2 b−1 bb
vi. ×
3
bc 3 a−1 c2

3. Write the following expressions in exponential form.

√
3
i. x2
√
6
ii. ab
√
iii. w2 v 3

4. Evaluate the radicals given below.

√
4
i. 81
√
3
ii. −512
√
3
iii. 1000

5. Simplify each of the following. Assume that x, y and z are all positive.

29
 p
i. 8y 3
p
ii. 4
x7 y 20 z 11
p
iii.3
54x6 y 7 z 2
 − 32
8
iv.
343
! 73
3 − 12
q p
v. 1
q− 3 p
 7
 8
5 −9
vi. m− 3 n 4
1
! 32
b3 c− 4 a−1
vii. 1 2 3
b 4 a− 7 c 2
6. Simplify the following.

√ √ √
i. 3 20 − 6 125 + 5 45
√
3
√ √
ii. 40 + 3 3 625 − 4 3 320
p p p
iii. 2x2 18xy 3 + 4y 8x5 y − 3 75x3 y 2
√
iv. 81x5 + 9x3

7. Rationalize the denominator. Assume that x and y are both positive.

i. √3
7x

1
ii. √
4 3
x

12
iii. √
5
3x2

9√
iv. 4+ 5
√
2+ x
v. √
2− x

30
Chapter 3

MEASUREMENTS AND UNIT

CONVERSIONS

31
3.1 MEASUREMENT

Measurement explores procedures for measuring and learning about standard units in the
metric and customary systems, the relationships among units and the approximate nature
of measurement. We will also examine how measurement can illuminate mathematical
concepts such as irrational numbers, properties of circles, area and volume formulas and
discover how other mathematical concepts can inform measurement tasks such as indirect
measurement.

MEASUREMENT FUNDAMENTALS
In order to measure something, we have to

i. select an attribute of the thing to be measured

ii. choose an appropriate unit of measure

iii. determine the number of units.

3.2 UNITS AND CONVERSIONS

These are some of the things that we measure in everyday living:

• time • distance or length • speed

• area • mass • volume

To measure quantities like this, units of measurement are required. The system of units is
called the metric system. Calculations in metric system are easy, because they are based
on powers of 10 just like in our decimal system. The following units are most commonly
used and it is important to remember their symbols (or shortened form). Units in bold
in the following table are standard units of the mentioned quantities.

32
 Quantity Name of Unit Symbol Value

millimeter mm
10 mm = 1cm
centimeter cm
length 100 cm = 1m
meter m
1000 m = 1km
kilometer km

milligram mg
1000mg = 1g
gram g
mass 1000g = 1kg
kilogram kg
1000kg = 1t
ton t

second s
60 s = 1min
minute min
time 60 min = 1h
hour h
24 h = 1day
day day

millimetre2 mm2
centimetre2 cm2 1 cm2 = 100 mm2
Area
metre2 m2 1 m2 = 1000 cm2
kilometre2 km2 1 km2 = 1000 m2

millimetres3 mm3
1 cm3 = 1000 mm3
volume 3 3
centimetre cm
1 m3 = 1000 000 cm3
3
cubic meters m

meters per second m/s

speed
kilometers per hour km/hr

Note:

• To convert small units into large units, you divide (÷)

• To convert large units to small units, you multiply (×)

33
Examples:

1. Convert 4365 g into kg

2. Convert 0.4365 m into cm

3. Convert 0.4365 g into mm

Solutions:

1. To convert grams into kg, we have to divide the grams by 1000

Therefore, 4365 g = 4.365 kg

2. To convert meters into cm, we have to multiply meters by 100

Therefore, 0.4365 m= 43.65 cm

3. To convert meters into mm, we have to multiply meters by 1000

Therefore, 0.4365 m= 436.5 mm

3.3 METRIC PREFIXES

In engineering and in sciences, we use very larger units as well as very smaller units. Here
are the some of the prefixes, the symbols and their values.

34
 Number Prefix Symbol Number Prefix Symbol

101 deka da 10−1 deci d

102 hecto h 10−2 centi c

103 kilo k 10−3 milli m

106 mega M 10−6 micro µ

109 giga G 10−9 nano n

1012 tera T 10−12 pico p

Examples:

1. Convert 250 cm to meters.

2. Convert 2.8 kg to grams.

3. Convert 100 milli amperes (mA) to amperes(A)

4. Convert 456789 mg into

i. centigrams ii. grams iii. kilograms

5. How many cubic decimeters are there in one cubic meter?

Solutions:

1. 100 cm = 1 m,
250 cm = 250 ÷ 100 = 2.5 m

2. 1 kg = 1000 g,
2.8 kg = 2.8 × 1000 = 2800 g

3. 1000 mA = 1 A,
100 mA = 100 ÷ 1000 = 0.1 A

4. i. 456789 mg = 456789 ÷ 10 = 45678.9 cg

ii. 456789 mg = 456789 ÷ 1000 = 456.789 g

iii. 456789 mg = 456789 ÷ 1000000 = 0.456789 kg

35
 5. 10 dm = 1m
103 dm3 = 1 m3
So, 1000 cubic decimeter = 1 cubic meter

3.4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF METRIC

MEASURES

To add or subtract the metric measures, first we convert the various units into the same
equivalent units. Then, we add or subtract just as with the decimal numbers.
Examples:

1. Add 5 kg and 4 g to 4 kg and 3 g

2. Subtract 5 km and 3 m from 6 km and 2 m

Solutions:

1. 5 kg and 4 g = 5.004 kg
4kg and 3g = 4.003 kg
5.004 kg + 4.003 kg = 9.007 kg

2. 5 km and 3 m = 5.003 km
6 km and 2 m = 6.002 km
6.002 km − 5.003 km = 0.999 km

3.5 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION WITH METRIC

MEASURES

To multiply or divide the metric measures, first we convert the various units into the same
equivalent units. Then, we add or subtract just as with the decimal numbers.
Examples:

1. Convert 5 l 2 ml into liters and then multiply by 345

2. Convert 5 kg 2 cg into grams and then divide by 25

36
Solutions:

1. 5 l 2 ml = 5.002 liters

5 l 2 ml into liters × 345 = 5.002 liters × 345 = 1725.69 l

2. 5 kg 2 cg = 5000.02 g

5 kg 2 cg ÷ 25 = 5000.02 g ÷ 25 = 200.0008 g

37
EXERCISES

1. Convert 234567 mg into

i. cg ii. g iii. kg

2. Convert 468924 mm into

i. cm ii. m iii. km

3. Convert 7.3648592 kl into

i.Liter ii.ml

4. How many cubic centimeters are there in one cubic meter?

5. Convert into basic units and add.

i. 4 m 3 cm; 6 m 8 cm ii. 6 kg 7 g; 3 kg 2 g

6. Convert into basic units and subtract.

i. 3 kl 3 ml from 9 kl 5 ml

ii. 4 hours 20 seconds from 8 hours 45 seconds

7. Multiply.

i. 4 m 4 cm 3 mm by 65 ii. 7 liter 2 cl by 17

8. Divide.

i. 17 kg 7 g by 25 ii.16 km 6 m by 32

38
Chapter 4

POLYNOMIALS

39
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIALS

POLYNOMIAL
P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn , an 6= 0 is a polynomial in the variable x,
where a0 , a1 , a2 , · · · , an are real numbers called the coefficients of the polynomial and n
is a positive integer.

STANDARD FORM OF POLYNOMIALS

Usually, we write a polynomial in either ascending powers of x or descending powers of
x. This way of writing them is called the standard form of polynomial.
For Example,
4x3 − 6x2 + 2x − 1, descending order
2 − y + 6y 2 − 2y 3 , ascending order
Note: A polynomial having one term is called a monomial. A polynomial having two
terms is called a binomial. A polynomial having three terms is called a trinomial.
For Example,
2, 3x, 7 x2 are monomials
4 − 2x, 6a2 + 2a, m5 + 3 are binomials
x4 − 3 x + 2, a4 − 3 a + 5 are trinomials

DEGREE OF POLYNOMIAL
The exponent in the term with the highest power is called the degree of the polynomial.
For Example,
x4 − 3x + 2 is a polynomial of degree 4
6a2 + 2a + 1 is a polynomial of degree 2

40
Fill up the following table

Polynomial Terms Type Degree

2x4 − 8x + 2

6a2 + 2a

m5 + 8m4 − 3m + 8

4.2 ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS

1. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

We can add or subtract polynomials by adding or subtracting similar terms.
Examples:

1. Find the sum of (−2x2 − 3x + 1) and (3x2 + 5x − 4)

2. Subtract (x2 + 7x + 2) from (5x3 + 4x2 − 3x)

Solutions:

1. (−2x2 − 3x + 1) + (3x2 + 5x − 4)
= (−2x2 + 3x2 ) + (−3x + 5x) + (1 + (−4))
= x2 + 2x − 3

2. (5x3 + 4x2 − 3x) − (x2 + 7x + 2)

= 5x3 + 4x2 − 3x − x2 − 7x − 2
= 5x3 + (4x2 − x2 ) + (−3x − 7x) + (−2)
= 5x3 + 3x2 − 10x − 2

2. MULTIPLICATION
Examples:

1. If p(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 6 , find 3p(x)

2. Find the product of (2x + 5) and (x2 + 7x − 1)

41
Solutions:

1. 3p(x) = 3(x3 − 3x2 + 6) = 3x3 − 9x2 + 18

2. (2x + 5)(x2 + 7x − 1) = 2x3 + 14x2 − 2x + 5x2 + 35x − 5

= 2x3 + 19x2 + 23x − 5

SPECIAL PRODUCT FORMULAS

There are a couple of special instances where there are easier ways to find the product of
two polynomials than using distributive method of multiplication.

SPECIAL PRODUCT FORMULAS

If x and y are any real numbers or algebraic expressions, then
1. (x + y)(x − y) = x2 − y 2
2. (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2
3. (x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2
4. (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3
5. (x − y)3 = x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3

Example:
Use the special product formulas to find the following.

i. (2u + v)2

ii. (y − 3)3

√ √ √ √
iii. ( y + 2)( y − 2)

iv. (1 − 2y)2

v. (y + 2)3

Solution:

i. (2u + v)2 = (2u)2 + 2(2u)(v) + v 2

= 4u2 + 4uv + v 2

ii. (y − 3)3 = y 3 − 3(y)2 (2) + 3(y)(2)2 − 23

= y 3 − 6y 2 + 12y − 8

42
 √ √ √ √
iii. ( y + 2)( y − 2) = y − 2

iv. (1 − 2y)2 = 1 − 2(1)(2y) + (2y)2

= 1 − 4y + (4y)2

v. (y + 2)3 = y 3 + 3(y)2 (2) + 3(y)(2)2 + (2)3

= y 3 + 6y 2 + 12y + 8

4.3 DIVISION OF A POLYNOMIAL BY A POLYNOMIAL

We can divide a polynomial by another polynomial using different methods like long
division and synthetic division. Here is the long division method.

DIVISION ALGORITHM
If P (x) and D(x) are polynomials, with D(x) 6= 0, then there exist unique
polynomials Q(x) and R(x), where R(x) is either 0 or of degree less than the degree
of D(x), such that

P (x) R(x)
= Q(x) + or P (x) = D(x) · Q(x) + R(x)
D(x) D(x)

where polynomial P (x) is the dividend, D(x) is the divisor, Q(x) is the quotient
and R(x) is the remainder.

A long division polynomial is an algorithm for dividing polynomial by another polynomial

of the same or a lower degree. The long division of polynomials also consists of the divisor,
quotient, dividend, and the remainder as in the long division method of numbers.
Note:
The following are the steps for the long division of polynomials:

1. Arrange the terms in the decreasing order of their indices (if required). Write the
missing terms with zero as their coefficient.

2. For the first term of the quotient, divide the first term of the dividend by the first
term of the divisor.

3. Multiply this term of the quotient by the divisor to get the product.

43
 4. Subtract this product from the dividend, and bring down the next term (if any).
The difference and the brought down term will form the new dividend.

5. Follow this process until you get a remainder, which can be zero or of a lower index
than the divisor.

Examples:

1. Divide 5x2 + 3x + 1 by x + 1

2. Find the quotient and remainder when P (x) = 4x3 + 7x + 9 is divided by

D(x) = 2x + 1

Solution:
1.

! 5x −2 ←− quotient

x+1 5x2 +3x +1

5x2 +5x
−2x +1
−2x −2
3 ←− remainder

Quotient = 5x − 2 and remainder = 3

2.

2
! 2x −x +4

2x + 1 4x3 +0x2 +7x +9

4x3 +2x2

−2x2 +7x +9
−2x2 −x

8x +9
8x +4

Quotient = 2x2 − x + 4 and remainder = 5

44
4.4 REMAINDER THEOREM AND FACTOR THEOREM

We can find the remainder without going through division methods using the theorem
known as remainder theorem. Also we can use the remainder to decide whether the
divisor polynomial is a factor of the given polynomial using factor theorem.

1. REMAINDER THEOREM

REMAINDER THEOREM
 
b
If the polynomial P (x) is divided by ax+b, then the remainder is the value P −
a

Examples:

1. Find the remainder of the above question using remainder theorem and compare
the answers.

2. If p(x) = 4x3 − 3x2 + 2x − 4, find the remainder when p(x) is divided by

i. (x − 1) ii. (x + 2)

Solutions:

1. By the remainder theorem,

remainder = p(−1) = 5(−1)2 + 3(−1) + 1
=5−3+1=3
We can see that the remainder is same in both ways.

2. i. By the remainder theorem,

remainder = p(1) = 4(1)3 − 3(1)2 + 2(1) − 4
= 4 − 3 + 2 − 4 = −1 x + 2 = x − (−2), here a = −2
ii. By the remainder theorem,
remainder = p(−2) = 4(−2)3 − 3(−2)2 + 2(−2) − 4
= −32 − 12 − 4 − 4 = −52

45
2. FACTOR THEOREM

FACTOR THEOREM
b
− is a zero of the polynomial P if and only if ax + b is a factor of P (x)
a

Example:
Use factor theorem to determine

i. If x − 1 is a factor of the polynomial p(x) = x3 + x2 − x + 1

ii. If x + 1 is a factor of the polynomial p(x) = 2x3 + 4x + 6

Solution:

i. p(1) = (1)3 + (1)2 − 1 + 1 = 2 6= 0

Hence x − 1 is not a factor of p(x)

ii. p(−1) = 2(−1)3 + 4(−1) + 6 = 0

Hence x + 1 is a factor of p(x)

4.5 FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS

Factorizing is the reverse process of expanding.

If we expand a(b + c) we obtain ab + ac
If we factorize ab + ac we obtain a(b + c)
There are different methods of factorization. Let us see the common ways of factorization.

1. BY TAKING COMMON FACTORS

The easiest type of factoring occurs when the terms have a common factor.
Example:
Factor each expression given below.

i. 6x2 − 12x

ii. 16x4 y 2 + 12x3 y 3 − 4xy 4

46
 iii. (2x + 4)(x − 3) − 5(x − 3)

Solution:

i. The greatest common factor of the terms 6x2 and −12x is 6x

So we have, 6x2 − 12x = 6x(x − 2)

ii. 16, 12, and −4 have the greatest common factor 4

x4 , x3 and x have the greatest common factor x
y 2 , y 3 and y 4 have the greatest common factor y 2
So we have, 16x4 y 2 + 12x3 y 3 − 4xy 4 = 4xy 2 (4x3 + 3x2 y − y 2 )

iii. The two terms have the common factor x − 3

(2x + 4)(x − 3) − 5(x − 3) = [(2x + 4) − 5](x − 3)
= (2x − 1)(x − 3)

2. FACTORING BY GROUPING

Polynomial with at least four terms can be factored by grouping.

If you have four terms with no GCF(Greater Common Factor), then try factoring by
grouping.

1. Group the first two terms together and then the last two terms together.

2. Factor out a GCF from each separate binomial.

3. Factor out the common binomial.

Example:
Factor the following expressions.

i. 3x3 − x2 + 6x − 2

ii. x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 5

Solution:


i. 3x3 − x2 + 6x − 2 = 3x3 − x2 + (6x − 2)
= x2 (3x − 1) + 2(3x − 1)
= (3x − 1) (x2 + 2)

47


ii. x3 + 2x2 + 5x + 5 = 2x3 + 2x2 + (5x + 5)
= 2x2 (x + 1) + 5x(x + 1)
= (x + 1) (2x + 5) x

3. FACTORING TRINOMIALS

METHOD OF SPLITTING THE MIDDLE TERM

Case 1

To factorize x2 + bx + c
Find 2 integers p and q such that

• pq = c

• p+q =b

• Then the factors are (x + p) and (x + q)

Example:
Factorize the following.

i. x2 + 12x + 35

ii. x2 − 13x + 40

iii. (3a + 2)2 − 2(3a + 2) − 3

Solution:

i. x2 + 12x + 35 = (x + 5)(x + 7)

ii. x2 − 13x + 40 = (x − 8)(x − 5)

iii. (3a + 2)2 − 2(3a + 2) − 3 = (3a + 2 − 3)(3a + 2 + 1)

= (3a − 1)(3a + 3)

48
Case 2

To factorize ax2 + bx + c

• Find 2 integers p and q such that:

• pq = c

• p+q =b

• Replace the middle term with (p + q)x

• Split into two groups.

• Factorize each group separately.

• Factorize again.

Example:
Factorize the following.

i. 6a2 + 17a + 12

ii. 3x2 + 2x − 8

iii. 3x2 − 10x + 8

iv. 6x2 − 5x − 6

Solution:

i. 6a2 + 17a + 12 = 6a2 + (9 + 8)a + 12

= 6a2 + 9a + 8a + 12
= 3a(2a + 3) + 4(2a + 3)
= (2a + 3)(3a + 4)

ii. 3x2 + 2x − 8 = 3x2 + (6 − 4)x − 8

= 3x2 + 6x − 4x − 8
= 3x(x + 2) − 4(x + 2)
= (3x − 4)(x + 2)

49
 iii. 3x2 − 10x + 8 = 3x2 + (−6 − 4)x + 8
= 3x2 − 6x − 4x + 8
= (3x2 − 6x) − (4x − 8)
= 3x(x − 2) − 4(x − 2)
= (x − 2)(3x − 4)

iv. 6x2 − 5x − 6 = 6x2 + (−9 + 4)x − 6

= 6x2 − 9x + 4x − 6
= 3x(2x − 3) + 2(2x − 3)
= (3x + 2)(2x − 3)

4. SPECIAL FACTORING FORMULAS

SPECIAL FACTORING FORMULAS

Formula Name
1. x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y) Difference of squares
2. x2 + 2xy + y 2 = (x + y)2 Perfect square
3. x2 − 2xy + y 2 = (x − y)2 Perfect square
4. x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) Difference of cubes
5. x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 ) Sum of cubes

Example:
Factorize the following.

i. 100 − 9z 2

ii. 50x2 − 18

iii. m2 − (p + n)2

iv. 9a2 + 30a + 25b2

v. 25x2 − 60x + 36

vi. a3 − 125b3

vii. m6 + 27

50
Solution:

i. 100 − 9z 2 = (10 − 3z)(10 + 3z)

ii. 50x2 − 18 = 2(25x2 − 9) = 2(5x − 3)(5x + 3)

iii. m2 − (p + n)2 = (m + p + n)(m − p − n)

iv. 9a2 + 30a + 25b2 = (3a)2 + (2 · 3a · 5b) + (5b)2 = (3a + 5b)2

v. 25x2 − 60x + 36 = (5x)2 − (2 · 5x · 6) + (6)2 = (5x − 6)2

vi. a3 − 125b3 = (a)3 − (5b)3 = (a − 5b) (a)2 + (a) (5b) + (5b)2

 

= (a − 5b)(a2 + 5ab + 25b2 )

3
vii. m6 + 27 = (m2 ) + 33 = (m2 + 3)(m4 − 3m2 + 9)

4.6 RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

A rational expression is a fractional expression in which both the numerator and the
denominator are polynomials. For example:

2x y−2 x3 − x2
x−1 y2 + 4 x2 − 5x + 6

1. SIMPLIFYING RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

To simplify rational expressions, we factor both numerator and denominator and then
cancel the common factors, if any.
Example:
x2 − 4
Simplify the rational expression
x2 − 2x − 8
Solution:
x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x−2
2
= =
x − 2x − 8 (x − 4)(x + 2) x−4

2. MULTIPLYING AND DIVIDING RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

For Multiplication, factorize numerators and denominators and simplify by cancelling. For
division, change the division sign into a multiplication sign, and invert the second fraction.

51
Example :
Simplify the following.

a2 − 1 a2 − 10a + 25
i. ×
a2 − 6a + 5 a2 − 25
x2 − 25 x2 − 10x + 25
ii. ÷
x+5 x+1

Solution:

a2 − 1 a2 − 10a + 25 (a − 1)(a + 1) (a − 5)(a − 5) a+1

i. 2
× 2
= × =
a − 6a + 5 a − 25 (a − 5)(a − 1) (a + 5)(a − 5) a+5
x2 − 25 x2 − 10x + 25 x2 − 25 x+1
ii. ÷ = × 2
x+5 x+1 x+5 x − 10x + 25
(x − 5)(x + 5) x+1
= ×
x+5 (x − 5)2
x+1
=
x−5

3. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

To add/ subtract rational expressions, follow the below steps.

1. Factorize the denominators

2. Find the lowest common denominator (LCD)

3. Express each fraction with this common denominator

4. Simply the numerators

Example:
Simplify the following:

x2 + 2x 2x
i. + .
x2 + 3x + 2 5x − 1
5 3
ii. − .
x2 − x − 6 x2 − 2x − 3

Solution:

x2 + 2x 2x x(x + 2) 2x
i. 2
+ = +
x + 3x + 2 5x − 1 (x + 1)(x + 2) 5x − 1

52
 x 2x
= +
x + 1 5x − 1

x(5x − 1) + 2x(x + 1)
=
(x + 1)(5x − 1)

5x2 − x + 2x2 + 2x
=
(x + 1)(5x − 1)

7x2 + x
=
(x + 1)(5x − 1)
5 3 5 3
ii. − 2 = −
x2 − x − 6 x − 2x − 3 (x − 3)(x + 2) (x − 3)(x + 1)

5x + 5 − 3x − 6
=
(x − 3)(x + 2)(x + 1)

2x − 1
=
(x − 3)(x + 2)(x + 1)

53
EXERCISES

1. Match the following:

i. binomial a. A polynomial with only one term.

ii.standard form b. The number that does not multiply

any power of x.

iii. leading coefficient c. A polynomial with two terms.

iv.monomial d. Written with terms, from largest degree

to smallest degree.

v.degree e. The highest value of the exponent

in a polynomial.

vi.constant term f. The number in front of the variable with

the highest degree of a polynomial.

vii.trinomial g. A polynomial with three terms.

2. Rewrite the polynomial in standard form p(x) = x3 − 6x + 2x5 + 4

3. Find the constant term in the polynomial p(x) = x3 − 6x + 2x5 + 4

4. Find the leading coefficient of each of the following polynomials.

i. g(x) = 2x3 − 8x + 7 ii. f (x) = 3x5 − 6x4 + 4x

5. Find the degree of the polynomial. p(x) = 12x7 − 8x5 + 9x

6. Classify the polynomials by terms.

i. g(x) = 8x3 − 5x + 7

ii. p(x) = 15

iii. h(x) = −6x4 + 4

7. Find the sum, difference, or product.

i. 4(x2 − 3x + 5) − 3(x2 − 2x + 1)

ii. 5(3t − 4) − (t2 + 2) − 2t(t − 3)

iii. 2(2 − 5t) + t2 (t − 1) − (t4 − 1)

54
 3 √ 1
iv. x 2 ( x − )
x
v. (x2 − 4)(x4 + a2 )

vi. (x + 1)(2x2 − x + 1)

8. Multiply the algebraic expressions using a Special Product Formula and simplify.

i. (x2 − a2 )(x2 + a2 )

ii. (1 − 2r)3

iii. (x − 3y)2

iv. (3 + 2y)3
1 1 1 1
v. (x 2 + y 2 )(x 2 − y 2 )

vi. (a + b)2 − (a − b)2

√ √
vii. (4 + m + 1)(4 − m + 1)

viii. (3a + b − 5)(3a + b + 5)

9. Find the remainder and quotient using long division method.

x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5
i.
x−2
2x − 7x2 − 4x + 7
4
ii.
x2 + 2x − 1
3
4m + 6m2 − 4m + 2
iii.
2m + 3
12x + 9x − 11x2 + 18
3
iv.
4x + 2
5
2x − 7x4 − 13
v.
4x2 − 6x + 8

10. Find the remainder when 2x3 + 3x2 − 17x − 30 is divided by

i. x − 1 ii. x + 2 iii. 2x + 3

11. Check if (x + 3) is a factor of f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3.

12. Check if (x − 1) is a factor of f (x) = x3 + 2x2 − 2x − 1.

13. (x + 3) is a factor of f (x) = 3x3 + ax2 + x − 6. Find the value of a.

14. When f (x) = 4x2 + ax − 5 is divided by x + 4 the remainder is 3. Find the value
of a

55
15. Factorize the following:
i. 2x4 − 8x2 ii. 21x2 y 4 + 7x5 y 6 − 21x3 y 2
iii. (a + 3)2 + 4(a + 3) iv. a(a − 2) + 7(a − 2)2
v. 4x2 y 2 − 25 vi. m2 n2 − 4x2
vii. 27p2 − 3q 2 viii. 8x2 − 32y 2
ix. (a − 4)2 − 49 x. (m2 + 3)n2 − 16(m2 + 3)
xi. 8x3 − 125 xii. 64a3 + 125b3
xiii. a6 + 64 xiv. 27 − x3

16. Factorize the trinomials.

i x2 + 18x + 81 ii. 16a2 + 40a + 25
iii. 36x2 − 24xy + 4y 2 iv. 9x2 − 30x + 25
v. 3x2 − 30x + 75 vi. m2 + 13m + 40
vii. b2 − 9b + 8 viii. p2 − 4p − 12
ix. m2 + 6m − 27 x. a2 − 5a − 100
xi. (2x − 5)2 + 6(2x − 5) + 5 xii. (m + 1)2 − 7(m + 1) + 10
xiii. 2x2 + 5x + 3 xiv. 2b2 − 5b + 2
xv. 4a2 + 7a − 2 xvi. 2a2 − 5a − 12

17. Factor the following expression completely.

i. 18x3 + 9x2 + 2x + 1
ii. a4 + a3 + a + 1
iii. 3m4 − m3 + 6m − 2

18. Simplify the following:

x2 − 4 x2 − 5x − 6
i. ii.
x+2 x−6

m2 − 9 a2 + 10a + 25
iii. iv.
m2 − 6m + 9 a2 − 25

a2 12a + 32 (x2 − 5x + 4)(x − 3)

v. vi.
a2 7a + 12 (x2 − 2x − 3)(x − 1)

56
 2 x2 + 2x + 1 (x − 3) x2 + 6x + 8
vii. × viii. × 2
x2 − 1 4 (x + 4) x + 2x − 15

x2 − 25 x2 + 4x + 4 a2 − 9 a − 3
ix. × x. ÷
x+2 x+5 2 4

x2 + 13x + 40 x+1 x+4 x2 + 9x + 20

xi. 2
÷ 2 xii. ÷
x + 9x + 20 x − 16 x2 + 14x + 49 x2 + 10x + 21
19. Simplify the following :

(x + 4) (x − 1) x−4 x+3
i. + ii. + 2
(x − 2) (x + 3) x2 − 2x − 8 x − 9

(x − 3) (x + 2) a 5
iii. + iv. −
(x2 − 6x + 9) (x − 5) (a + 1) 2 (a + 1)

2a 5 (2m − 10) (m2 + 3m)

v. 2
− vi. +
a −1 a+1 (m2 − 10m + 25) (m2 + 6m + 9)

57
Chapter 5

EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

58
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO EQUATION
An equation is a statement that the values of two mathematical expressions are equal
(indicated by the symbol =)
For example, 6 + 4 = 10
An algebraic equation will always contain an unknown, which is called a variable.
Variables are usually represented by a symbol, for example x, y or z. For example,
x + 5 = 10
A solution of an equation is a value of the variable that makes a true statement when
substituted into the equation.
The below table shows the properties which can be used to solve an equation.

PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY

Property Description

1. x = y ⇔ x + z = y + z Equation is unchanged if you add/ subtract same quantity

to both sides.

2. x = y ⇔ zx = zy (z 6= 0) Equation is unchanged if you multiply/ divide same quantity

to both sides.

5.2 LINEAR EQUATIONS

A linear equation in one variable is an equation of the type ax + b = 0 or ax = c, where

a, b, c are constants, a 6= 0 and x is a variable with degree 1
3x − 4 = 0, 2x + 3 = 5 are linear equations in the variable x
Solving a linear equation means to find the value of the variable which makes both sides
of the given equation equal.
Example:
Determine whether the following equations are linear or nonlinear.

i. 4x = 7

ii. 5x2 − 3x = 8

59
 x
iii. + 12 = x
3
√
iv. x + 7 = 9

4
v. +3=8
x

Solution:

i. linear

ii. nonlinear as it contains square of the variable

iii. linear

iv. nonlinear as it contains the square root of the variable

v. nonlinear as the power of the variable is negative

SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS

Example:
Solve the following equations.

i. 3x − 7 = 2x + 5

ii. 3(x − 4) − 2x = −3

Solution :

i. 3x − 2x = 7 + 5
So, x = 12
To check the solution
Substitute x = 12 into the original equation
L.H.S. 3(12) − 7 = 29
R.H.S. 2(12) + 5 = 29
Since LHS = RHS, then x = 12 is a solution to the given equation.

ii. 3x − 12 − 2x = −3
3x − 2x = −3 + 12 So, x = 9

60
5.3 MODELING WITH LINEAR EQUATIONS

Mathematical modeling is the art of translating problems from a real application area into
mathematical equations. To translate a verbal expression into an algebraic expression,
we have to replace certain key words with the algebraic symbols +, −, × and ÷
Note:

1. Key words for addition (+) are increased by, more than, total of, sum, added to

2. Key words for subtraction ( −) are less than, reduced by, decreased by, difference of

3. Key words for multiplication (× ) are of, times, multiplied by

4. Key words for division ( ÷ or / ) are out of, ratio of, quotient of

For Example,
x increased by 2 can be expressed as x + 2
Difference of x and y is x − y
5 times a is 5a
y
Quotient of y and 3 is
3

1. SOLVING WORD PROBLEMS ALGEBRAICALLY

The following step-by-step procedure will help in solving word problems.

1. Represent the unknown quantity with an algebraic symbol such as x

2. Express all other quantities, if there are any, in terms of x

3. Translate the verbal expression into algebraic expressions involving x and form an
equation

4. Solve the equation

Examples:

1. Five times a number added to 23 is 108. Find the number.

61
 2. The sum of two numbers is 40. If the larger number is 4 times the smaller number.
What are these numbers?

3. Sum of three consecutive numbers is 18. What are these numbers?

Solution:

1. Let the number be x

5x + 23 = 108.
5x = 108 − 23 = 85
85
x = = 17
5
The number is 17

2. Let the smaller number be x, and larger number = 4x

Sum of two numbers is given by, x + 4x = 40
5x = 40, x=8
So, the smaller number is 8 and larger number is 4 × 8 = 32

3. Let the consecutive numbers be x, x + 1 and x + 2

Then, x + x + 1 + x + 2 = 18, 3x + 3 = 18

3x = 15, x=5

The numbers are 5, 6, 7

2. SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION GRAPHICALLY

The graph of a linear equation Ax + By = C is always a straight line. Every point on the
line is a solution of the equation.

62
Example:
The graph of y = 2x − 3 is shown below. Check whether the points (0, 3), (3, 3), (2, −3)
and (−1, −5) are a solution to the equation?
y

4 y=2x-3

x
-4 -2 0 2 4

-2

-4

Solution:
Since (0, 3), (3, 3), (−1, −5) are points on the line y = 2x − 3, these points are solutions
and (2, −3) is not a solution as it is not on the line.
Note: To solve a linear equation graphically, note the following steps:

1. Put different x values in the equation and find the corresponding y values

2. Plot the points on an xy plane

3. Draw the line through the points

Example:
Graph the equation: y = −3x
Solution:
For x = −2, 0, 1 find the values of y
y = −3x

x y (x, y)

-2 6 (-2,6)

0 0 (0,0)

1 -3 (1,-3)

63
 y

(−2, 6)• 6

4 y=-3x

•(0, 0) x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2
•(1, −3)
-4

-6

5.4 ABSOLUTE VALUE

DEFINITION OF ABSOLUTE VALUE

If x is a real number, then the absolute value of x is


x if x ≥ 0


|x| =
 −x
 if x < 0

Example:
Evaluate the absolute values of the following numbers.
i. |4| ii. | − 6| iii. |0| iv. |2 − π|
Solution:

i. |4| = 4

ii. | − 6| = 6

iii. |0| = 0

iv. |2 − π| = −(2 − π) = π − 2( Since 2 < π → 2 − π < 0).

64
 PROPERTIES OF ABSOLUTE VALUE

Property Example Description

1. |x| ≥ 0 | − 5| = 5 > 0 The absolute value of a number is always
positive or zero.

2. |x| = | − x| |3| = | − 3| A number and its negative have the same

absolute value.

3. |xy| = |x||y| | − 3 · 4| = | − 3||4| The absolute value of a product is the product

of the absolute values.

x |x| 5 |5|
4. = = The absolute value of a quotient is the quotient
y |y| −4 | − 4|
of the absolute values.

5.5 INEQUALITIES
In mathematics, an inequality is a relation which makes a non-equal comparison between
two quantities. The inequalities and the symbols are given below.

Symbol Words Example

> greater than 7>1

< less than 9 < 13

≥ greater than or equal to x≥1

≤ less than or equal to y≤3

65
RULES FOR INEQUALITIES

RULES FOR INEQUALITIES

Rule Description

1. x ≤ y ⇔ x + z ≤ y + z Inequality remains the same when you add the

same quantity to each side .

2. x ≤ y ⇔ x − z ≤ y − z Inequality remains the same when you subtract

the same quantity to each side.

3. If z > 0, then x ≤ y ⇔ zx ≤ zy Inequality remains the same when you multiply

the same positive quantity to each side.

4. If z < 0, then x ≤ y ⇔ zx ≥ zy Multiplying each side of an inequality by the

same negative quantity reverses the direction

of the inequality.

5. If x > 0 and y > 0, Taking reciprocals of positive number of

1 1
then x ≤ y ⇔ ≤ each side of an inequality reverses the direction
x x
of the inequality.

6. If x ≤ y and z ≤ w, Inequalities can be added.

then x + z ≤ y + w

SOLVING LINEAR INEQUALITIES

To solve a linear inequality, we take the variable on one side of the inequality sign and
the numbers to the other side.
Example:
Solve the following inequalities.

i. 2x ≤ 5x + 21

ii. 9 ≤ 5x − 1 ≤ 24

66
 Solution:

i. 2x − 5x ≤ 21, −3x ≤ 21

   
1 1
− × −3x ≥ 21 × −
3 3
x ≥ −7

ii. 9 + 1 ≤ 5x ≤ 24 + 1
10 ≤ 5x ≤ 25
10 25
≤ 5x ≤
5 5
2 ≤ x ≤ 5

SOLVING QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

A nonlinear inequality is a mathematical statement containing an inequality such as < or

> and the expression does not describe a straight line.
Note: To solve a nonlinear inequality, follow the steps given below.

1. Rewrite the inequality so that there is a zero on the right side

2. Find all linear factors of the expression on the left side

3. To find the critical values, set each linear factor to zero and solve for x

4. Determine the sign of the factor in the intervals formed by the critical values

5. The solution will be those intervals in which the expression has the correct signs
satisfying the inequality

1. SOLVING QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

To solve a quadratic inequality, first factorize the quadratic function into linear factors
using factorization methods and follow the steps 3 to 5 mentioned before.
Example:
Solve the inequality; x2 ≤ 3x − 2
Solution: x2 − 3x + 2 ≤0
(x − 1)(x − 2) ≤0

67
The factors on the left hand side are zero when x is 1 and 2, respectively. So the numbers
1 and 2 will divide the real number line into three intervals as shown below.

(−∞, 1), (1, 2), (2, ∞). Determine the sign of each factor on each interval found. Choose
a number inside each interval and check the sign of the factors (x − 1) and (x − 2) at the
number we chose.

Interval (−∞, 1) (1, 2) (2, ∞)

Sign of (x − 1) - + +

Sign of (x − 2) - - +

Sign of (x − 1)(x − 2) + - +

From the table, it is clear that (x − 1)(x − 2) is negative on the interval (1, 2). The end
points of the interval satisfy the inequality because of ≤. So the solution is [1, 2]

2. SOLVING AN INEQUALITY WITH REPEATED FACTORS

Here we are solving inequalities involving factors with higher powers.

Example:
Solve x(x − 2)2 (x − 5) < 0
Solution:
The factors on the left hand side are zero when x is 0, 2 and 5, respectively. So the
numbers 0, 2 and 5 will divide the real number line into four intervals as shown below.
(−∞, 0), (0, 2), (2, 5), (5, ∞) Determine the sign of each factor on each interval found.
Choose a number inside each interval and check the sign of the factors x, (x − 2)2 and
(x − 5) at the number we chose.

Interval (−∞, 0) (0, 2) (2, 5) (5, ∞)

Sign of x − + + +

Sign of (x − 2)2 + + + +

Sign of (x − 5) − − − +

Sign of x(x − 2)2 (x − 5) + − − +

68
From the table, it is clear that x(x − 2)2 (x − 5) is satisfied on the intervals (0, 2) and
(2, 5). The end points of the interval do not satisfies the inequality because of <. So the
solution set is the union of these two intervals (0, 2) ∪ (2, 5)

3. SOLVING AN INEQUALITY INVOLVING A QUOTIENT

Here we are solving inequalities in fractional form.

Example:
2x + 1
Solve: ≤1
x−1
Solution:
Move all terms to the left hand side and simplify using a common denominator.

2x + 1
−1 ≤ 0
x−1
2x + 1 − x + 1
≤ 0
x−1
x+2
≤ 0
x−1
The factors of the numerator and denominator on the left hand side are zero when x is
−2 and 1, respectively. So the numbers −2 and 1 will divide the real number line into
three intervals as shown below.
(−∞, −2), (−2, 1), (1, ∞)
Determine the sign of each factor on each interval found. Choose a number inside each
interval and check the sign of the factors (x + 2) and (x − 1) at the number we chose.

Interval (−∞, −2) (−2, 1) (1, ∞)

Sign of (x + 2) − + +

Sign of (x − 1) − − +
x+2
Sign of + − +
x−1
x+2
From the table, it is clear that is negative on the interval (−2, 1). Checking the
x−1
end points of the interval, −2 satisfies the inequality but 1 does not (because the quotient
in the inequality is not defined at 1. So the solution is [−2, 1)

69
ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITY

An absolute value inequality is an expression with absolute functions as well as inequality

signs. For example, the expression |x + 1| < 3 is an absolute value inequality containing
a less than symbol.

PROPERTIES OF ABSOLUTE VALUE INEQUALITIES

Inequality Equivalent form Graph

1. |x| < a −a < x < a
−a 0 a

2. |x| ≤ a −a ≤ x ≤ a
−a 0 a

3. |x| > a x < −a or x>a

−a 0 a

4. |x| ≥ a x ≤ −a or x≥a
−a 0 a

Example:
Solve the following inequalities.

i. |x − 1| < 5

ii. |2x − 3| ≥ 1

Solution:

i. The inequality |x − 1| < 5 is equivalent to

−5 < x − 1 < 5
−4 < x < 6

Solution (−4, 6)

70
 ii. The inequality |2x − 3| ≥ 1 is equivalent to

2x − 3 ≤ −1 or 2x − 3 ≥ 1
2x ≤ 2 or 2x ≥ 4
x≤1 or x ≥ 2

Solution is (−∞, 1] ∪ [2, ∞)

5.6 MODELING WITH INEQUALITIES

Modeling with inequalities deals with inequalities to solve real-world problems. For this
we have to translate the worded problems into mathematical inequalities and solve them.
Example:
A book store has two offers.
Offer A: OMR 25 for IELTS Part - 1 and OMR 3.5 per listening CD
Offer B: OMR 35 for IELTS Part - 2 and OMR 3 per listening CD
How many listening CD’s do you have to purchase for offer B to be cost less than offer
A?
Solution:
Let x be the number of listening CD’s to be purchased.
Cost with offer A > Cost with offer B

25 + 3.5x > 35 + 3x
0.5x > 10
x > 20

So if you purchase more than 20 listening CD’s, offer B will be cheaper.

71
EXERCISES

1. Solve the following linear or equivalent to a linear equation.

i. x − 5 = −9
3 1
ii. n − =
8 2
iii. 6z + 5 − 5z − 4 = 3

iv. 4(2h − 3) − 7h = −6 − 7

v. 8(4x + 5) − 5(6x) − x = 53
3
vi. x + 5 = 12 x − 3
2
2
vii. (9x − 12) = 8 + 2x
3
2t + 3 t+5
viii. − = 14
3t + 1 3t + 1
12 − y 4
ix. = −7
y−1 y+1
√ √ x+5
x. 2x + 8 = √
2
√
xi. 4x + 6 = 5
√
3
xii. 8x − 5 + 7 = 10
√ √
xiii. 2x + 6 = x+3

2. Translate into mathematical expression and solve the following.

i. Ahmed and Sara are running a lemonade stand and they charge $45 for each
glass of lemonade. In order to break equally they must make $25. How many
lemonades must they sell to break equally?

ii. Mary inherits $100, 000 and invests it in two certificates of deposit. One
certificate pays 6% and the other pays 4 21 % simple interest annually. If Mary’s
total interest is $5025 per year, how much money is invested at each rate?

iii. When Joseph first starts working at a grocery store, his hourly rate is $10.
For each year he works at the grocery store, his hourly rate increases by $0.50.
Find, Joseph’s hourly rate R in dollars, as a function of t the number of years
he works at the grocery store.

72
 iv. Noor painted her room at a rate of 8 square meters per hour. After 3 hours
of painting, she had 28 square meters left to paint. Let A(t) denote the area
to paint A (measured in square meters) as a function of time t (measured in
hours). Write the function’s formula.

v. A company sells doughnuts. They incur a fixed cost of $25, 000 for rent,
insurance, and other expenses. It costs $0.25 to produce each doughnut. Write
a linear model to represent the cost C of the company as a function of x, the
number of doughnuts produced.

vi. Anna and Emanuel start walks at the same intersection. Anna walks east at
4 miles per hour while Emanuel walks south at 3 miles per hour. They are
communicating with a two-way radio that has a range of 2 miles. How long
after they start walking will they fall out of radio contact?

3. Graph the following equations.

1
i. y = x − 1
3
ii. x + y = 5

iii. 3x + y = −1

iv. 4x + y = −3

v. 2x + y = 2

4. Check whether the following statement is true or false. If false, write the correct
one.

i. |6 − 8| = |6| − |8|

ii. | − 5| × |4| = | − 5 × 4|
| − 14| −14
iii. =
|2| 2
iv. |(−3)3 | = −|33 |

v. If a is negative then |a| = −a

vi. |10 − π| = −(10 − π)

73
5. Solve the following inequalities and express the answers in interval notation.

i. 2x < 9x + 10

ii. 10x ≥ 3x + 49

iii. 9(x − 2) < 2(2x + 6)

iv. 5 − x < −(1 − 4x)

1 1
v. x−4≤ x+1
5 7
vi. −5 ≤ 3 − 2x ≤ −2
1 2 − 5x 2
vii. − ≤ ≤
6 3 9

6. Solve the following nonlinear inequalities. Express the answers in set form and
interval notation.

i. (x − 4)(x − 3) ≥ 0

ii. (x − 1)(x + 5) < 0

iii. (x − 3)(x − 1)(x + 2) ≤ 0

iv. (x − 1)(x + 2)2 (x − 3) > 0

v. 2x(x2 − 16) ≤ 0

vi. 5x3 − 20x < 0

vii. x2 ≥ 25
 
2 3
viii. x ≥ 2 x+9
2
x−5
ix. ≥0
x+2
3x − 1
x. ≤2
x+1
x−5 x−1
xi. <
x+2 x+1

7. Solve the following inequalities.

i. |3x − 4| < 7
x−5
ii. ≥1
7
iii. 9 − |5x − 1| ≥ 3

74
 1 x−5
iv. −2≤3
4 7

8. Modeling with inequalities.

i. A car wash shop has two offers four wheel vehicles.

Plan A: OMR 10 for oil wash and OMR 0.300 per parts check up.
Plan B: OMR 8 for oil wash and OMR 0.400 per parts check up.
How many parts to be checked to become plan A cheaper?

ii. Antony got a new job and will have to move to a new house in New York.
His monthly income will be $2100. To qualify to rent an apartment, Antony’s
monthly income must be at least four times as much as the rent. What is the
highest rent Antony will qualify for?

iii. Ahmed works at a cold store. His monthly pay will be either a fixed amount
OMR 750, or OMR 600 plus 15% of his total sales. How much should his total
sales be for his variable pay option to exceed the fixed amount of OMR 750?

iv. Salam has an air conditioner maintenance company. His monthly expenses
are OMR 2700. If he charges OMR 11 per air conditioner, how many air
conditioner maintenance must he do to earn a profit greater than or equal to
OMR 2, 000 a month?

v. When deep sea fishing, the optimal depth k (in meter) of catching king fish
satisfies the inequality 41|k − 250| − 4100 < 0. Find the range of depth that
offers the best fishing.

75
Chapter 6

COORDINATE GEOMETRY

76
6.1 COORDINATE PLANE

The (x, y) coordinate plane is described by two perpendicular lines, one horizontal called
the x-axis and the other vertical called the y-axis. The intersection of these axes is called
the origin of the coordinate system and is denoted by O. The location of any other point
on the plane (which extends in all directions without limit) can be described by a pair of
coordinates.
Let (a, b) be the rectangular coordinate of a point P where a is the x- coordinate or
abscissa and b is the y- coordinate or ordinate.

y − axis

P (a, b)
•

x − axis
O

The x, y axis divide the plane into four parts, numbered I, II, III and IV

1. The upper right hand quarter is called the first quadrant and is defined as
{(x, y)| x and y > 0}

2. The upper left hand quarter is called the second quadrant and is defined as
{(x, y)| x < 0 and y > 0}

3. The lower left hand quarter is called the third quadrant and is defined as
{(x, y)| x and y < 0}

4. The lower right hand quarter is called the fourth quadrant and is defined as
{(x, y)| x > 0 and y < 0}

The signs of the coordinates in other quadrants are indicated as follows.

77
 y − axis

II (−, +) I (+, +)

x − axis

III (−, −) IV (+, −)

Examples:

1. In which quadrants do the following points belongs to?

A (3, 4), B (−7, −5), C (6, −8) and D (−5, 2)

2. Plot the points (1, 3), (−2, −3), (4, −2) and (−4, 0) in a coordinate plane.

Solutions:

1. A is in Quadrant I, B is in Quadrant III, C is in Quadrant IV and D is in Quadrant

II

2. The points are shown below.

y

4−
(1, 3)
3− •
2−

(−4, 0) 1−
−x •| | | | | | | | x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1−
−2− •
(4, −2)
• −3−
(−2, −3)
−4−

−y

78
6.2 DISTANCE AND MIDPOINT FORMULAS

We are going to find a formula for the distance d(A, B) between two points P (x1 , y1 ) and
Q(x2 , y2 ) in the plane. And also the midpoint of the line through them.

DISTANCE FORMULA
DISTANCE FORMULA
The distance between the points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) in the plane is

p
d(P, Q) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Examples :

1. Find the distance between the points A(−1, −4) and B(3, 5)

2. Which of the points P (0, 4) and Q(10, 9) is closer to the point A(6, 3)?

Solutions:
p
1. distance= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
p √
= (3 − (−1))2 + (5 − (−4))2 = 97

2. By the distance formula we have

p p √
d(A, P ) =(6 − 0)2 + (3 − 4)2 = 62 + (−1)2 = 37.
p p √ √
d(A, Q) = (6 − 10)2 + (3 − 9)2 = (−4)2 + (−6)2 = 16 + 36 = 52

This shows that, d(A, P ) < d(A, q) so P is closer to A

MIDPOINT FORMULA
MIDPOINT FORMULA
The midpoint of the line segment from P (x1 , y1 ) to Q(x2 , y2 ) is

 
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
,
2 2

79
 Examples:

1. Find the midpoint of the line AC where A(-2, -1) and C( 4,3)

2. If M (6, 8) is the midpoint of the line segment AB and if A has coordinates (2, 3),
find the coordinates of B

Solutions:
 
−2 + 4 −1 + 3
1. midpoint of AC= , = (1, 1)
2 2

2. Suppose that B has coordinate (x, y) and A is (2, 3). As M (6, 8) is the midpoint
of the line segment AB
2+x 3+y
Then, 6 = and 8 =
2 2
2+x
6= ⇔ 12 = 2 + x ⇔ x = 10
2
3+y
Likewise, 8 = ⇔ 16 = 3 + y ⇔ y = 13
2
Thus, B (10, 13)

6.3 SYMMETRY

Something is symmetrical when it is the same on both sides. A shape has symmetry
if a central dividing line (a mirror line) can be drawn on it, to show that both sides of the
shape are exactly the same.

80
In mathematical graphs, symmetry states that one shape is identical to the other shape
with respect to the axis or to the origin or both or any line in general. As you see in the
given figure that the part of the graph to the left of the y-axis is the mirror image of the
part to the right of the y-axis. In this situation we say that the graph is symmetric with
respect to the y-axis.
Note: Tests for Symmetry

• A graph will have symmetry about the x-axis if we get an equivalent equation when
all the y’s are replaced with −y

• A graph will have symmetry about the y-axis if we get an equivalent equation when
all the x’s are replaced with −x

• A graph will have symmetry about the origin if we get an equivalent equation when
all the y’s are replaced with −y and all the x’s are replaced with −x

Example:
Test the graph of the following equations for symmetry.

i. y = x4 + x2

ii. y = x3 + 10x

Solution:
i.

x-axis symmetry y-axis symmetry Origin symmetry

Replace y with −y Replace x with −x Replace x with −x and y with −y

(−y) = x4 + x2 y = (−x)4 + (−x)2 (−y) = (−x)4 + (−x)2

y = −x4 − x2 y = x4 + x2 −y = x4 + x2

Not symmetric Symmetric Not symmetric

81
 ii.

x-axis symmetry y-axis symmetry Origin symmetry

Replace y with −y Replace x with −x Replace x with −x and y with −y

(−y) = x3 + 10x y = (−x)3 + 10(−x) (−y) = (−x)3 + 10(−x)

y = −x3 − 10x y = −x3 − 10x −y = −x3 − 10x
y = x3 + 10x

Not symmetric Not symmetric Symmetric

6.4 CIRCLES

A circle is a closed two-dimensional figure in which the set of all the points in the plane is
equidistant from a given point called "center". Every line that passes through the circle
forms the line of reflection symmetry. Also, it has rotational symmetry around the center
for every angle.
y
P (x, y)
•

r
•
C(h, k)

0 x

EQUATION OF A CIRCLE

An equation of the circle with center (h, k) and radius r is

(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

This is called the standard form for the equation of the circle. If the center of the
circle is the origin (0, 0), then the equation is

x2 + y 2 = r 2

82
Examples:

1. Find the center and radius of the following circles.

i. (x + 5)2 + (y − 3)2 = 30

ii. x2 + (y + 4)2 = 4

2. Find the equation of the circle with radius 4 and center (2, −5)

3. Find the equation of the circle that has P (5, −6) , Q(1, 8) as the endpoints of a
diameter

Solutions:

1. i. Comparing this equation with (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

√
(x − (−5))2 + (y − 3)2 = ( 30)2

√
Center (h, k) = (−5, 3) and radius r = 30

ii. Comparing this equation with (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

(x − 0)2 + (y − (−4))2 = 22

Center (h, k) = (0, −4) and radius r = 2

2. By substituting in the general formal (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 , where h = 2, k = −5

and r = 4, we get

(x − 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 42
x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y + 4 + 25 − 16 = 0
x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y + 13 = 0

3. Center is the midpoint of the diameter PQ using the Midpoint Formula the center
is
 
1+5 8−6
, = (3, 1)
2 2

83
 The radius r is the distance from the point P to the center using the Distance
Formula
1 1
q √
r = PQ = (5 − 1)2 + (−6 − 8)2 = 53
2 2

So the equation of the circle is

(x − 3)2 + (y − 1)2 = 53

Note: A general equation of a circle is given by x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, where the

p
center is (−g, −f ) and radius is g 2 + f 2 − c
Example:
Find the center and radius of x2 + y 2 − 4x + 6y = 5
Solution:
First rewrite the equation as:

x2 + y 2 − 4x + 6y − 5 = 0

Comparing this equation with general equation, we get

2g = −4 =⇒ g = −2
2f = 6 =⇒ f = 3 and c = −5
p p √
center (−g, −f ) = (2, −3) and radius g 2 + f 2 − c = (−2)2 + 32 − (−5) = 18

6.5 SLOPE OF A LINE

The slope of a line is the ratio of change in the x-coordinate (rise) to change in the
y-coordinate (run) between any two points on the line.

84
 y

P (x, y)
•

P (x1 , y1 ) Rise
y − y1
•
Run
x − x1
x
0

Slope of line between two points can be calculated using the below formula.

SLOPE OF A LINE
The slope m of a line that passes through the points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) is

rise y2 − y1
m= =
run x2 − x1

Lines can have positive, negative, zero or no slope as mentioned below.

SLOPE OF A LINE

Positive Slope Negative Slope Zero Slope Undefined

y y y y

x x x x
0 0 0 0

Note:

• A horizontal line has a slope equal zero.

• A vertical line has undefined slope.

• Increasing line has a positive slope.

• Decreasing line has a negative slope.

85
Example:
Find the slope of the line that passes through the below points P and Q and interpret it

i. P (4, 3) , Q(4, 7) ii. P (3, 1) , Q(5, 1) iii. P (1, −3) , Q(3, 7).
Solutions:

Points P (4, 3) , Q(4, 7) P (3, 1) , Q(5, 1) P (1, −3) , Q(3, 7)

7−3 4 1−1 0 7 − (−3) 10

Slope m= = m= = =0 m= = =5
4−4 0 5−3 2 3−1 2

Interpretation The slope undefined The slope equal zero The slope equal 5
The line is vertical The line is horizontal The line is increasing

6.6 EQUATION OF A LINE

1. POINT-SLOPE FORM
Now let’s find the equation of the line that passing through a point (x1 , y1 ) and has slope
m.

POINT-SLOPE FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

An equation of the line that passes through the point (x1 , y1 ) and has slope m is

y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

Example:
Find the equation of the line that

i. Passes through (2, −3) with slope −2

ii. Passes through the points (2, −1) and (−4, 3)

Solution:

i. Using the point-slope form with m = −2, x1 = 2, y1 = −3 we obtain the equation

86
 of the line as
y + 3 = −2 (x − 2)
y + 3 = −2x + 4
y + 2x − 1 = 0

3 − (−1) 4 2
ii. The slope of the line is m = = =−
−4 − 2 −6 3
Using the point-slope form with x1 = 2 and y1 = −1, we obtain the equation of the
line as
2
y − (−1) = − (x − 2)
3
2
y + 1 = − (x − 2)
3
3y + 3 = −2x + 4
3y + 2x − 1 = 0

2. SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM
The equation of a line with slope m and y intercept c (the line intersect the y axis at the
point (0, c) ) as shown in the figure below.

• (0, c)

y = mx + c

x
0

The equation of the line is given below:

SLOPE-INTERCEPT FORM OF THE EQUATION OF A LINE

An equation of the line that has slope m and y-intercept c is

y = mx + c.

Examples:

1. Find the equation of the line with slope 2 and y-intercept −5

2. Find the slope and y-intercept of the line x + 2y + 5 = 0

87
 Solutions:

1. Since m = 2 and c = −5, from the slope-intercept form of the equations of a line
we get
y = 2x − 5

2. We first write the equation in the form y = mx + c

1 5
y =− x−
2 2

From the slope-intercept form of the equation of a line, we see that the slope is
1 5
m = − and the y-intercept is c = −
2 2

3. EQUATION OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINES

As any horizontal line has slope equal to zero, we can observe that all the points in the
line have a common y value. So the equation of the line is y = the common y value. As
any vertical line has slope undefined, we can observe that all the points in the line have
a common x value. So the equation of the line is x = the common x value.

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINES

• An equation of the line parallel to y-axis through (a, b) is x = a

• An equation of the line parallel to x-axis through is (a, b) is y = b

Examples:

1. Find the equation of the vertical line through (4, 7)

2. Find the equation of the horizontal line through (−5, 3)

Solutions:

1. The equation of the vertical line through (4, 7) is x = 4

2. The equation of the horizontal line through (−5, 3) is y = −5

88
 4. PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
The figure below shows two parallel lines and we are going to find the relation between
the slopes of these lines.

y
l

D
E l1
B

A C x

For example, consider the lines y = 3x + 2 and 2y = 6x − 8

Slope of first line m1 = 3 and slope of second line m2 = 3
These lines are parallel because they have the same slope (m1 = m2 )

PARALLEL LINES
Two lines are parallel if and only if they have the same slope

The figure below shows two perpendicular lines and we are going to find the relation
between the slopes of these lines.

l1
l •A(1, m )
1

0 x
•B(1, m2 )

1
For Example, consider the lines y = 4x + 7 and y = − x + 3
4

89
 1
Slope of first line m1 = 4 and Slope of second line m2 = −
4
These lines are perpendicular because m1 × m2 = −1

PERPENDICULAR LINES
Two lines with slopes m1 and m2 6= 0 are perpendicular if and only if the product
of their slopes is −1, i.e., m1 m2 = −1

Note:
A horizontal line (slope 0) is perpendicular to a vertical line (undefined slope).
Examples:

1. Find an equation of the line through the point (2, 5) that is parallel to the line
2x − 3y − 12 = 0

2. Find an equation of the line through (3, 0) and is perpendicular to the line
2x − 3y − 12 = 0

Solutions:
2
1. First we write the equation of the given line in slope-intercept form as y = x − 4
3
2
So the line has slope m = and since the required line is parallel to the given line,
3
2
it also has slope m = From the point-slope form of the equation of a line, we get
3

2
y − 5 = (x − 2)
3
3y − 15 = 2x − 4
3y − 2x − 11 = 0

2
2. The slope of the line 2x − 3y − 12 = 0 is
3
3
So the slope of a perpendicular line is the negative reciprocal, that is −
2
Since the required line passes through (3, 0) the point-slope form gives

3
y − 0 = − (x − 3)
2
2y = −3x + 9
2y + 3x − 9 = 0

90
EXERCISES

1. Plot the following points in a coordinate plane (1, 0) , (−3, 0) , 4, − 23 , − 12 , − 32 , (−1, −2)

2. State whether the following statements are true or false.

i. The point (−2, 0) lies on the y-axis

ii. The point (0, −4) lies on the y-axis

iii. The point (−1, 2) lies below the y-axis

iv. The point (2, −3) lies in the third quadrant

3. Determine the quadrant of the following points: (3, −7) , (−4, 2) , (2, 3) −1, 21

4. The point that is 3 units to the right of the y axis and 5 units below the x axis, has
coordinates (.., ..) and it lies in quadrant . . . . . . . . . . ..

5. The point (1, −5) shifted to the left by 2 units and up by 7 units. In which quadrant
does the new point lie?

6. Find the distance between (4, −6) and (7, 6)

√
7. If the distance of a point (2, a) from (1, 1) is 17, find the value of a

8. Which of the points A (6, 7) or B (−5, 8) is closer to the origin?

9. Find a point on the x-axis that is equidistance from the points A (5, −5) and B
(1, 4)

10. Find the midpoint of the line between the points A (1, −2) and B (5, 6)

11. The midpoint of a segment is (−2, 1). If the coordinates of its one end are (−5, 3),
find the coordinates of the other end.

12. Find the center of the circle if (5, 7) and (6, −3) are the end points of the diameter.

13. Fill in the blanks.

i. In origin symmetry, if (x, y) is on the graph then . . . . . . . . . . . is also on the

graph.

91
 ii. If (2, 4) is a point on the graph of an equation with x-axis symmetry, then the
point . . . . . . . . . . . will also be there.

iii. To test for y-axis symmetry, substitute . . . . . . . . . . . in place of . . . . . . . . . . ..

14. Test the symmetry in the following graphs.

i. x2 + y 2 = 9

ii. xy = 6

iii. x2 + y = y 3

iv. y 2 + y = x3 + x2

v. y = x2 + |x|

15. Find an equation of the circle.

i. Center (−1, −4); radius 8

ii. Center at the origin; passes through (4, 7)

iii. Endpoints of a diameter are (−1, 1) and (5, 9)

16. Find the center and radius of the circle.

i. x2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y + 12 = 0

ii. x2 + y 2 + 6y + 2 = 0

iii. 2x2 + 2y 2 − 3x = 0

iv. 3x2 + 3y 2 + 4x + 6x − y = 0

17. Find the equation of the circle concentric with the circle 2x2 + 2y 2 − 8x − 12y − 9 = 0
and passing through the point (5, 4)

18. Find the equation of the circle when the endpoints of the diameter are (−2, −3) and
(−3, 5)

19. Find the equation of the circle whose center is (2, −1)) and which passes through
the point (3, 6)

92
20. Find the slope of the line through P and Q

i. P(−1, 2), Q(0, 0)

ii. P(5, 4), Q(0, 4)

iii. P(10, −2), Q(6, −5)

21. Find an equation of the line that satisfies the given conditions.

i. Slope 3; y-intercept −2

2
ii. Through (−2, 4); slope 3

iii. Through (−2, −11); perpendicular to the line passing through (1, 1) and (5, −1)

iv. Through (−1, 4); slope undefined

v. Through (5, 1); slope 0

vi. Through (1, −6); parallel to the line x + 2y = 6

vii. Through (−1, −2); perpendicular to the line 2x + 5y + 8 = 0

viii. Through (5, 4); parallel to the line passing through (8, 1) and (5, 7)

22. Determine whether the lines are Parallel, Perpendicular or Neither.

i. y = 2x + 3; 2y − 4x − 5 = 0

ii. −3x + 4y = 4; 4x + 3y = 5

iii. 6y − 2x = 5; 2y + 6x = 1

23. Find the value of k, if the lines 3y − 5x + 9 = 0 and 2y − kx − 10 = 0 are parallel.

93
Chapter 7

TRIGONOMETRY

94
7.1 RADIAN AND DEGREE MEASURES

The measure of an angle is the amount of rotation performed to get the terminal side
from the initial side.

The measure of an angle is determined by the amount of rotation from the initial side
to the terminal side. There are two units of measurement of an angle which are most
commonly used, degree measure and radian measure.

DEGREE MEASURE
◦
One way to measure an angle is in terms of degrees. A degree is usually denoted by
(the degree symbol). A measure of one degree (1◦ ) is a measurement of a plane angle in
which one full rotation is 360 degrees.
To measure angles, it is convenient to mark degrees on the circumference of a circle. Thus,
a complete revolution is 360◦ , half a revolution is 180◦ , a quarter of a revolution is 90◦
and so forth.

95
RADIAN MEASURE
If a circle of radius 1 is drawn with the vertex of an angle at its center, then the measure
of this angle in radians (abbreviated rad) is the length of the arc that subtends the angle.

RELATION BETWEEN DEGREE AND RADIAN MEASURES

Since the circle subtends at the centre an angle whose radian measure is 2π and its degree
measure is 360◦ , it follows that

2π radian = 360◦ or π radian = 180◦

180
1 radian = degree
π

π
Also, 1◦ = radian
180

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEGREES AND RADIANS

 ◦
◦ 180 π
180 = π rad 1 rad = 1◦ = rad
π 180

Note:
π
1. To convert degrees to radians, multiply by
180

180
2. To convert radians to degrees, multiply by
π
Examples:

π
1. Express in degree measure.
2

2. Express 45◦ in radian.

Solutions:

π π 180 180
1. rad = × = = 90◦
2 2 π 2
π π
2. 45◦ = 45◦ × = rad
180 4

96
7.2 LENGTH OF A CIRCULAR ARC

A continuous piece of a circle is called an arc. In the figure below, the larger arc PRQ is
the major arc and the smaller arc PSQ is the minor arc.

R • S
O

Q
LENGTH OF A CIRCULAR ARC
In a circle of radius r, the length s of an arc that subtends a central angle of θ
radians is
s = rθ

Examples:

1. Find the length of an arc of a circle with radius 12m that subtend a central angle
of 30◦

2. A central angle θ in a circle of radius 5m is subtended by an arc of length 8m. Find

the measure of in radian.

Solutions:

1. First convert the angle from degree to radian

π π
30◦ = 30◦ × = rad. Then the length of the arc is given by,
180 6
π
s = r θ = 12 × = 2π m
6
s 8
2. angle θ= = rad
r 5

97
7.3 AREA OF A CIRCLE SECTOR

The region enclosed by an arc and the two radii is called sector. If the sector is formed
by the major arc, it is known a major sector and if the sector is formed by the minor arc,
it is known as minor sector.

AREA OF A SECTOR
Area A of a sector with radius r and angle θ radians is

1 2
A= r θ
2

Example:
Find the area of a sector of a circle with central angle 90◦ if the radius of the circle is 20
cm
Solution:
π π
Angle in radian 90◦ = 90◦ × = rad
180 2
1 2 1 π
Area of the sector A= r θ= × (20)2 × = 100π cm2
2 2 2

7.4 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS OF RIGHT TRIANGLES

A right triangle is a triangle with one of the angles is 90◦

hypotenuse opposite

θ
adjacent

We know that trigonometric ratios for acute angles is the ratio of the sides of a right
angled triangle. Let us consider the angle θ as the reference angle, then the hypotenuse
is the side facing the right angle, opposite side is the side facing the reference angle and
adjacent side is the side adjacent to the reference angle.
Note: The opposite and adjacent sides depend on where the reference angle is located.

98
Consider the above right triangle with the reference angle θ, the trigonometric ratios are
sine, cosine, tangent, and their reciprocals cosecant, secant, and cotangent defined as
given below.

TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
opposite adjacent opposite
sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent

csc θ = sec θ = cot θ =
opposite adjacent opposite

Note:

The Pythagorean Theorem

In a right triangle the square of the

B
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the
squares of other two sides. That is, in c
a
triangle ABC in the figure
A C
b
a2 + b 2 = c 2

Examples:

1. Find the six trigonometric ratios of the angle θ of the given triangle.

13 5

θ
12

sec A 3
2. Find the six trigonometric ratios, if =
csc A 4

99
Solution:

1. The trigonometric ratios are as follows.

5 12 5
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ =
13 13 12

13 13 12
csc θ = , sec θ = , cot θ =
5 12 5

1
sec A 3 3 sin A 3
2. = that means cos A = , = .
csc A 4 1 4 cos A 4
sin A
3 opposite
So, tan A = =
4 adjacent
By Pythagorean Theorem, hypotenuse = 5

hypotenuse=5 opposite =3

A
adjacent =4

So the trigonometric ratios are as follows.

3 4 5 5 4
sin A = , cos A = , csc A = , sec A = , cot A =
5 5 3 4 3

7.5 SPECIAL VALUES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTION

There are special trigonometric ratios that can be calculated from certain triangles (which
we call special triangles).

100
 SPECIAL VALUES OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
The following values of the trigonometric functions are obtained from the special
triangles.

θ in degrees sin θ cos θ tan θ csc θ sec θ cot θ

0 0 1 0 - 1 -
√ √ √ √
30◦ 1
2 2
3
3
3
2 2 3
3
3
√ √ √ √
45◦ 2
2
2
2
1 2 2 1
√ √ √ √
60◦ 2
3 1
2
3 2 3
3
2 3
3

90◦ 1 0 - 1 - 0

45◦ 30◦
√ √
2 1 2 3

45◦ 60◦
1 1

Examples:

1. Find the side labeled x in the given right triangle.

10 x

30◦

2. Evaluate tan 60◦ sec 30◦ + tan2 30◦ sec2 45◦

Solutions:
opposite
1. sin 30◦ =
hypotenuse
1 x
= , 2x = 10
2 10
So, x = 5
2
√ √
2

2 1 2 8
2. 3 × √ + √ × 2 =2+ =
3 3 3 3

101
7.6 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND QUADRANTS

The signs of the trigonometric functions depend on the quadrant in which it lies. We
use the below figure to remember what ratios are positive in each quadrant. We can
remember it by using the phrase ’ All Students Take Calculus’.

SIGNS OF THE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Quadrant Positive Functions Negative Functions

I all none
II sin, csc cos, sec, tan, cot
III tan, cot sin, csc, cos, sec
IV cos, sec sin, csc, tan, cot

7.7 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Here, we are going to discuss some relations between different trigonometric functions.
These relations are equations that are true for any angle. These equations are called
trigonometric identities. Trigonometry is known for its many identities. These trigonometric
identities are commonly used for rewriting trigonometrical expressions with the aim to
simplify an expression, or to solve an equation.

102
 FUNDAMENTAL IDENTITIES
Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1 sin θ cos θ
csc θ = sec θ = cot θ = tan θ = cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ cos θ sin θ
Pythagorean Identities
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1 tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

EVEN-ODD PROPERTIES
Sine, cosecant, tangent and cotangent are odd functions; cosine and secant are even
functions.

sin(−θ) = − sin θ cos(−θ) = cos θ tan(−θ) = − tan θ

csc(−θ) = − csc θ sec(−θ) = sec θ cot(−θ) = − cot θ

Note: Proving Trigonometric Identities

Proving trigonometric identities is a process of discovering new identities. Here we are
showing that any trigonometric equation can be an identity. We can use two methods to
prove an identity.
Method 1: Start with one side of the given equation, simplify and apply the above known
identities wherever possible till you reach the other side.
Method 2: Simplify both sides till you get a similar expression on both sides.
Example:

1. Simplify the following trigonometric expressions.

sin2 θ
i. + cos θ
cos θ
ii. (1 + tan2 A) cot2 A

2. Prove the following.

sin x
i. = csc x − cot x
1 + cos x
sin x 1 + cos x
ii. + = 2 csc x
1 + cos x sin x

Solutions:

sin2 θ sin2 θ cos2 θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ 1

1. i. + cos θ = + = = = sec θ
cos θ cos θ cos θ cos θ cos θ

103
 ii. (1 + tan2 A) cot2 A = sec2 A × cot2 A
1 cos2 A 1
= × 2 = = csc2 A
2
cos A sin A sin2 A

sin x sin x 1 − cos x

2. i. LHS = = ×
1 + cos x 1 + cos x 1 − cos x

sin x(1 − cos x) sin x(1 − cos x)

= =
2
1 − cos x sin2 x

1 − cos x
= = csc x − cot x = RHS
sin x

sin x 1 + cos x
ii. + = 2 csc x
1 + cos x sin x

sin x 1 + cos x
LHS = +
1 + cos x sin x

sin x(sin x) (1 + cos x)(1 + cos x)

= +
(1 + cos x)(sin x) (sin x)(1 + cos x)

sin2 x + (1 + cos x)2 sin2 x + 1 + 2 cos x + cos2 x

= =
(1 + cos x)(sin x) (1 + cos x)(sin x)

(sin2 x + cos2 x) + 1 + 2 cos x 1 + 1 + 2 cos x

= =
(1 + cos x)(sin x) (1 + cos x)(sin x)

2 + 2 cos x 2(1 + cos x)

= =
(1 + cos x)(sin x) (1 + cos x)(sin x)

2
= = 2 csc x = RHS
(sin x)

7.8 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRY OF RIGHT

TRIANGLES

The study of trigonometry helps us to solve the sides which are involved in the study
of lengths, heights and angles of the triangles. Trigonometry and its functions have an
enormous number of uses in our daily life. For instance, it is used in geography to measure

104
the distance between landmarks, in astronomy to measure the distance of nearby stars
and also in the satellite navigation system. We will focus on one of the application as
stated below.

ANGLE OF ELEVATION AND DEPRESSION

Trigonometry can be used to solve problems that use an angle of elevation or depression.
If a person stands and looks up at an object, the angle of elevation is the angle between
the horizontal line of sight and the object.

And if a person stands and looks down at an object, the angle of depression is the angle
between the horizontal line of sight and the object.

Note that the angle of elevation and the angle of depression are congruent.

105
Examples:

1. A man stands 50 m away from the base of a building. His angle of elevation to the
top of the building is 70◦ . Calculate an estimate of the height of the building.

2. From the top of a 72 m high vertical cliff, a boat has an angle of depression of 32◦ .
How far is the boat from the base of the cliff?

Solutions:

1.
opposite side height
tan 70◦ = =
adjacent side 50 height

height = tan 70◦ · 50 ≈ 137.4m 70◦

50 m

106
2.

opposite side 72
tan 32◦ = =
adjacent side length
length

32◦
72
length = ≈ 115.2m
tan 32◦ 72 m

107
EXERCISES

1. Find the radian measures corresponding to the following degree measures.

i. 25◦ ii. −47◦ iii. 240◦ iv. 520◦

2. Find the degree measure corresponding to the following radian measures.

11 5π 7π
i. ii. −4 iii. iv.
6 3 6

3. Find the degree measure of the angle subtended at the centre of a circle of radius
100 cm by an arc of length 22 cm

4. In a circle of diameter 40 cm, the length of a chord is 20 cm. Find the length of
minor arc of the chord.

5. If in two circles, arcs of the same length subtend angles 60 and 75 at the centre,
find the ratio of their radii.

6. Find the angle in radian through which a pendulum swings if its length is 75 cm
and the tip describes an arc of length
7π
i. 10 cm ii. 15 cm iii. 21 cm iv.
6

7. A sector is cut from a circle of radius 21 cm. The angle of the sector is 150◦ . Find
the length of its arc and the area.

7 sin θ − 3 cos θ
8. When 7 tan θ = 4, then find the value of
7 sin θ + 3 cos θ
√
9. When 3 tan θ = 3 sin θ, then find the value of sin2 θ − cos2 θ

17 3 − 4 sin2 Q 3 − tan2 Q
10. When sec Q = , then show that =
8 cos2 Q − 3 1 − 3 tan2 Q

108
11. Find cos α in the given triangle.

α
37 35

B C
12

12. Find the six trigonometric ratios of the given triangle.

45◦
1

3
13. When tan β = , find the other five ratios of β
6

14. Evaluate the expression sin 30◦ + cos 30◦

15. Evaluate the expression (cos 45◦ + sin 45◦ )2

16. Find the value of y in the given triangle.

90

60◦ 30◦
y

109
17. Find the value of y in the given triangle.

50

60◦ 30◦
y

18. If A = 30◦ , verify that cos 3A = cos 2A cos A sin 2A sin A

19. Evaluate : tan2 60◦ + 2 csc2 45◦ + 3 sec2 30◦

cos 2A
20. If A = 30◦ , evaluate: 2
cot A + sin 3A

21. If A = 30◦ and B = 45◦ and cot X = sin2 2A + 3 tan2 A − 8 sin B cos B, then find
the value of X

3
22. Determine the value of x, if 2 csc2 30◦ + x sin2 60◦ − tan2 30◦ = 10
4
1 2 ◦ 1
23. Evaluate : sin2 30◦ cos2 45◦ + 4 tan2 30◦ + sin 90 − 2 cos2 90◦ +
2 24
5 sin2 30◦ + cos2 45◦ − 4 tan2 30◦
24. Evaluate :
2 sin 30◦ cos 30◦ + tan 45◦

25. Simplify the following.

cot A − 1
i.
1 + tan(−A)
ii. cos t + tan t · sin t
1 1
iii. +
1 − sin ω 1 + sin ω

2 csc y − 2 sin y cot y

iv.
sec y cos y

26. Prove the following.

sec φ csc φ
i. + = sec2 φ csc2 φ
cos φ sin φ

1 − tan2 θ
ii. = cos2 θ − sin2 θ
1 + tan2 θ

110
 1 + sec B sin2 B
iii. =
sec B 1 − cos B

1 1
iv. − = 2 tan x sec x
1 − sin x 1 + sin x

v. tan2 u − sin2 u = tan2 u sin2 u

vi. 1 = (1 − cos2 z)(1 + cot2 z)

cos θ
vii. = sec θ + tan θ
1 − sin θ

viii. 1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

27. Brain’s Kite if flying above a field at the end of 65 m of string. If the angle of
elevation to the kite measures 70, how high is the kite above Brian’s head?

28. Form an airplane at an altitude of 1200 m, the angle of depression to a building on

the ground measures 28◦ . Find the distance from the plane to the building.

29. From a point on the ground 12ft from the base of the flagpole, the angle of elevation
of the top of the pole measures 53◦ . How tall is the flagpole?

30. From a plane flying due east at 265m above sea level, the angle of depression of two
ships sailing due east measures 35◦ and 25◦ . How far apart are the ships?

31. A man flies a kite and lets out 100 feet of string. The angle of elevation of the string
is 52◦ . How high off the ground is the kite? How far away is the man from the spot
directly under the kite?

32. Form the top of a vertical cliff 40m high, the angle of depression of an object that
is level with the base of the cliff is 34◦ . How far is the object from the base of the
cliff?

33. An airplane takes off 200 m in front of a 60 m building. At what angle of elevation
must the plane take off in order to avoid crashing into the building? Assume that

111
 the plane flies in straight line and the angle of elevation remains constant until the
airplane flies over the building.

34. At 14 foot ladder is used to scale 13 foot wall. At what angle of elevation must the
ladder be situated in order to reach the top of the wall?

35. From the top of a fire tower, a forest ranger sees his partner on the ground at an
angle of depression of 40◦ . If the tower is 45 feet in height, how far is the partner
from the base of the tower, to the nearest tenth of a foot?

36. Find the shadow cast by a 10 foot lamp post when the angle of elevation of the sun
is 58◦ . Find the length to the nearest tenth of a foot.

112
References

1. J. Stewart, L. Redlin, S.Watson. Precalculus: Mathematics for Calculus, Seventh

Edition, International Metric version, 2018.
2. J. Miller, D. Gerken. College Algebra &Trigonometry, First Edition, 2017.
3. NCERT Mathematics Textbook for class XI, 2005.
4. NCERT Mathematics Textbook for class XII, 2005.
5. Swokowski, Cole. Algebra and Trigonometry with Analytic Geometry, Classic Eleventh
Edition, 2005.

113
ANSWERS

114
Chapter 1
3 √
1. i. ii. 3 iii. 2 iv.0
5

2. i. False, 0 ∈ W but 0 ∈
/N

ii. True
3
iii. False, ∈ Q but ∈
/Z
5
iv. True

v. False, 1 − 1 = 0 and 0 ∈
/N

3. iii. Rational and Real Number.

√ √
4. i. {−41, 0, − 225, 3 27, −4}
√ √
ii. {−41, 0, − 225, 3 27, −4, 1.3434.5.2121 · · · }
5π √
iii. {− , 23, 3e}
7
√
iv. { 3 27}
√
3
v. {0, 27}

22 23 24 25 26 27
5. , , , , ,,
7 7 7 7 7 7
19 20 21 22 23
6. , , , ,
30 30 30 30 30

7. i. 6 + 4 = 6 + 4

ii. −14 × 5 = 5 × −14

iii. 3n = n × 3

iv. a + 8 = 8 + a

8. i. 13 × (5 × 2) =

ii. 22 + (7 + 3) =

iii. 4 + (9x + x) =

iv. (5 × 22)y =

9. i. 7x + 63

115
 ii. 56a + 96

iii. yp + 10p

iv. 68 − 4x

10. i. Associative Property

ii. Commutative Property

iii. Associative Property

iv. Commutative Property

v. Distributive Property

Number Additive Inverse Multiplicative Inverse

3 3 5
−
5 5 3
1
8 −8
8
1
11. −5 5 −
5
4 4 5
− −
5 5 4
1
−7 7 −
7
8 8 9
−
9 9 8
5 3 19 25
i. ii. iii. iv.
7 7 24 36

3 8 14 2
12. v. vi. vii. viii.
2 7 25 63

27
ix. 1 x.
32

13. i. 8.722 ii. 164.24 iii. 8.36 iv. 16.83

14. i. 0.25 ii. 0.9375 iii. 2.875 iv. 0.85

15. i. 50% ii. 15% iii. 38.33% iv. 124%

16. i. 48m ii.9.6g iii. 0.15km iv. 24.5m

27 11
17. i. x = 10 ii. x = iii. x = iv. x = 4
5 3

18. 48cm, 32cm

116
19. RO 8, RO 10, RO 8

20. 6 cm, 8 cm, 10 cm

21. i. [4, ∞)
4

ii. (−3, 6)
−3 6

iii. [0, 2]
0 2

iv. (8, ∞)
8

v. (−∞, −10)
−10

22. i. x ≤ −8
−8

ii. x ≥ 5
5

iii. −2 < x
−2

iv. −10 ≤ x
−10

v. x < 6
6

23. i. (1, 5); 1<x<5

ii. [2, 7]; 2≤x≤7

iii. [5, ∞); x≥5

24. i. A ∪ B = {2, 5, 7, 9}

ii. A ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}

117
 iii. A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}

iv. B ∩ C = {5, 7}

v. A ∪ (B ∪ C) = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}

25. i. (−5, 0) ∪ (−2, 7) = (−5, 7)

−5 7

ii. (−5, 0) ∩ (−2, 7) = (−2, 0)

−2 0

iii. [−3, 6] ∩ [1, 7) = [1, 6]

1 6

iv. [−3, 6] ∪ [1, 7) = [−3, 7]

−3 7

v. (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, 5] = (−∞, 5]

vi. (−∞, −3) ∩ (3, 5] = ∅

118
Chapter 2

1. i. x = 4

ii. 6

iii. x = − 54

iv. x = 2
729
v.
64
2
2. i.
mn9
a12
ii. 4 6
bc
2
iii. 3

16p2 r2
iv.
21s2 q 2
2
v. m4 n3
9
a
vi. 7 9
bc
2
3. i. x 3
1
ii. (ab) 6
√
iii. |w|v v

4. i. 3

ii. −8

iii. 10

√
5. i. 2y 2y
√
4
ii. xy 5 z 2 x3 z 3
p
iii. 3x2 y 2 3
2yz 2
49
iv.
4
p
q 7 q3
v. 9
p 14
√
27
m2 m2
vi. √
n9n

119
 √6
b b5
vii. √ 10
c 6 ca 21
√
6. i. −9 5
√
3
ii. 5
√ √ √
iii. (xy x)(14x 2y − 15 3)
√
iv. 3x 9x2 + x
√
3 7x
7. i.
7x
√4
x
ii.
x
√5
4 81x3
iii.
x
√
9(4 − 5)
iv.
11
√
4+4 x+x
v.
4−x

120
Chapter 3

1. i. 23456.7 ii. 234.567 iii.0.234567

2. i. 46892.4 ii. 468.924 iii. 0.468924

3. i. 7364.8592 ii. 7364859.2

4. 1000000

5. i. 10.11 ii. 9.009

6. i. 6.002 l ii. 14425 seconds

7. i. 262.795 ii. 262.795

8. i. 0.68028 ii. 500.1875

121
Chapter 4

i. binomial c. A polynomial with two terms.

ii. standard form d. Written with terms, from largest degree

to smallest degree.

iii. leading coefficient f. The number in front of the variable with

the highest degree of a polynomial.

1. iv. monomial a. A polynomial with only one term.

v. degree e. The highest value of the exponent

in a polynomial.

vi.constant term b. The number that does not multiply

any power of x.

vii. trinomial g. A polynomial with three terms.

2. 2x5 + x3 − 6x + 4

3. 4

4. i. 2 ii. 3

5. 7

6. i. Trinomial ii. Monomial iii. Binomial

7. i. x2 − 6x + 17

ii. −3t2 + 21t − 22

iii. −t4 + t3 − t2 − 10t + 5

iv. x2 − x

v. x6 − 4x4 + a2 x2 − 4a2

vi. 2x3 + x2 + 1

8. i. x4 − a4

ii. 1 − 6r + 12r2 − 8r3

iii. x2 − 6xy + 9y 2

122
 iv. 27 + 54y + 36y 2 + 8y 3

v. x − y

vi. 4ab

vii. 15 − m

viii. 9a2 + 6ab + b2 − 25

9. i. Q(x) = x2 − 2x − 2, R(x) = 1

ii. Q(x) = 2x2 − 4x + 3, R(x) = −14x + 10.

iii. Q(x) = 2m2 − 2, R(x) = 8

17 35 37
iv. Q(x) = 3x2 − x + , R(x) =
4 8 4
1 5 7 19
v. Q(x) = x3 − x2 − x − , R(x) = x + 1
2 2 4 2
9
10. i. R(x) = −42 ii.R(x) = 0 R(x) = −
2

11. (x + 3) is not a factor since f (−3) 6= 0

12. (x − 1) is a factor of f (x), since f (1) = 0

13. a = 13

14. a = 14

15. i. 2x2 (x + 2)(x − 2) ii. 7x2 y 2 (3y 2 + x3 y 4 − 3x)

iii. (a + 3)(a + 7) iv. 2(a − 2)(4a − 7)
v. (2xy − 5)(2xy + 5) vi. (mn + 2x)(mn − 2x)
vii. 3(3p + q)(3p − q) viii. 8(x + 2y)(x − 2y)
ix. (a − 11)(a + 3) x. (m2 + 3)(n + 4)(n − 4)
xi. (2x − 5)(4x2 + 10x + 25) xii. (4a + 5b)(16a2 − 20ab + 25b2 )
xiii. (a2 + 4)(a4 − 4a2 + 16) xiv. (3x)(9 + 3x + x2 )

16. i. (x + 9)2
ii. (4a + 5)2
iii. 4(3x − y)2
iv. (3x − 5)2

123
 v. 3(x − 5)2
vi. (m + 5)(m + 8)
vii. (b − 1)(b − 8)
viii. (p − 6)(p − 2)
ix. (m − 3)(m + 9)
x. 2x(2x − 4)
xi. (m − 4)(m − 1)
xii. (2x + 3)(x + 1)
xiii. (b − 2)(2b − 1)
xiv. (a + 2)(4a − 1)
xv. (a − 4)(2a + 3)

17. i. (9x2 + 1)(2x + 1)

ii. (a3 + 1)(a + 1)
iii. (m3 + 2)(3m − 1)

18. i. x − 2
ii. x + 1
(x + 3)
iii.
(x − 3)
(x + 5)
iv.
(x − 5)
(a − 8)
v.
(a − 3)
(x − 4)
vi.
(x + 1)
x+2
viii.
x+5
ix. (x − 5)(x + 2)
x. 2a + 6
(x + 8)(x − 4)
xi.
(x + 1)
(x + 3)
xii.
(x + 7)(x + 5)
(2x2 + 4x + 14)
19. i.
(x − 2)(x + 3)
(2x − 1)
ii.
(x + 2)(x + 3)
(x2 + 2x − 7)
iii.
(x − 1)(x − 5)

124
 (−4a − 1)
iv.
(a + 1)2
(−3a + 1)
v.
(a − 1)(a + 1)
(6 + m2 − 3m)
vi.
(m − 5)(m + 3)

125
Chapter 5

1. i. x = −4

7
ii. n = 8

iii. z = 2

iv. h = −1

v. x = 13

vi. x = −8

vii. x = 4

viii. t = 9

11
ix) y = 17

x) x = 1

19
xi. x = 4

xii. x = 4

xiii. x = −3

2. i. No of lemonade needed is 56

ii. Mary invested $35, 000 at 6% and the remaining $65, 000 at 4.5%

iii. R(t) = 10 + 0.5t

iv. A(t) = −8t + 52

v. C(x) = 0.25x + 25, 000

vi. They will fall out of radio contact in 0.4 hours, 24 minutes

126
 y

2
y = 13 x − 1
x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2

-4
3. i.
ii.
y

4 x+y=5

x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2

iii.
y

y+3x=-1 4

x
-4 -2 0 2 4

-2

-4

-6

127
 iv.
y

x
-4 -2 0 2 4

-2

-4 y+4x=-3

-6

v.
y

y+2x=2 4

x
-4 -2 0 2 4

-2

-4

-6

4. i. False, |6 − 8| =
6 |6| − |8|

ii. True

iii. True

iv. False, |(−3)3 | =

6 −|33 |

v. True

128
 vi. False, |10 − π| =
6 −(10 − π).

−10


5. i. 7
,∞

ii. [7, ∞)

iii. (−∞, 6)

6


iv. 5
,∞

v. −∞, 175

2
5 
vi. 2
, 4
4
,1

vii. 15 2

6. i. Set form: {x | x ≤ 3 or x ≥ 4}. Interval (−∞, 3] ∪ [4, ∞)

ii. Set form: {x | −5 < x < 1}. Interval (−5, 1)

iii. Set form: {x | x ≤ −2 or 1 ≤ x ≤ 3}. Interval: (−∞, −2] ∪ [1, 3]

iv. Set form: {x | −∞ < x < 1 or x > 3}. Interval: (−∞, 1) ∪ (3, ∞)

v. Set form: {x | x ≤ −4 or 0 ≤ x ≤ 4}. Interval: (−∞, −4] ∪ [0, 4]

vi. Set form: {x | x < −2 or 0 < x < 2}. Interval: (−∞, −2) ∪ (0, 2)

vii. Set form: {x | x ≤ −5 or x ≥ 5}. Interval: (−∞, −5] ∪ [5, ∞)

viii. Set form: {x | x ≤ −3 or x ≥ 6}. Interval: (−∞, −3] ∪ [6, ∞)

ix) Set form: {x | x < −2 or x ≥ 5}. Interval: (−∞, −2) ∪ [5, ∞)

x) Set form: {x | −1 < x ≤ 3}. Interval: (−1, 3]

xi. Set form: {x | −2 < x < −1 or x > − 53 . Interval: (−2, −1) ∪ − 53 , ∞

i. −1, 11


7. 3

ii. (−∞, 2] ∪ [12, ∞)

ii −1, 75
 

iv. [−135, 145]

129
Chapter 6
y

4 −

3 −

2 −

1 −
(−3, 0) (1, 0)
| •| | | •| | | | x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 −
(− 12 , − 32 )• •
(−1, −2) • −2 − (4, − 23 )

−3 −

−4 −

1.

2. i. False

ii. True

iii. False

iv. False

3. IV,II, I, II

4. (3,-5), IV

5. II
√
6. 153

7. a = 5, −3

8. Point A is closer to origin

130
 33


9. C 8
,0

10. M(3, 2)

11. The coordinates of the other end (1, −1)

11


12. 2
,2

13. i. (−x, −y)

ii. (2, −4)

iii. −x, x

14. i. Symmetric w.r.t x-axis, y-axis and origin.

ii. Symmetric w.r.t origin only.

iii. Symmetric w.r.t y-axis only.

iv. Not symmetric w.r.t x-axis, y-axis and origin.

v. Symmetric w.r.t y-axis only.

15. i. (x + 1)2 + (y + 4)2 = 64

ii. x2 + y 2 = 65

iii. (x − 2)2 + (y − 5)2 = 25

16. i. c(−2, 3), r = 1

√
ii. c(0, −3), r = 7

iii. c(1, 0), r = 1

√
101
iv. c − 53 , 61 , r =


6

17. (x − 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 10

18. (x + 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 17

19. (x − 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 50

20. i. −2

ii. 0

131
 3
iii. 4

21. i. y = 3x − 2

ii. 2x − 3y + 16 = 0

iii. 2x − y − 7 = 0

iv. x + 1 = 0

v. y − 1 = 0

vi. x + 2y + 11 = 0

vii. 5x − 2y + 1 = 0

viii. 2x + y − 14 = 0

22. i. The lines are parallel to each other.

ii. The lines are perpendicular each other.

ii The lines are perpendicular each other.

10
23. k = 3

132
Chapter 7

1. i. 0.44 rad ii. −0.83 rad iii. 4.19 rad iv. 9.08 rad

2. i. 39.39◦ ii. −229.18◦ iii. 300◦ iv. 210◦

3. 12.6◦

4. 60◦

5. 5 : 4

2 1 7
6. i. rad ii. rad iii. rad
15 5 25

7. s = 55 cm, A = 577 cm2

1
8.
7
1
9.
3
33
10.
611
35
11. cos α =
37
1 1 √ √
12. sin 45◦ = √ , cos 45◦ = √ , tan 45◦ = 1, csc 45◦ = 2, sec 45◦ = 2, cot 45◦ = 1
2 2
√ √
3 6 45 45
13. sin β = √ , cos β = √ , csc β = , sec β = , cot β = 2
45 45 3 6
√
3+1
14.
2

15. 2

√
16. 90 3

200
17. √
3

18. 0

19. 11

1
20.
8

133
21. 90◦

22. 3

23. 2

5
24. √ = 0.31
6( 3 + 1)
2(1 − sin y cos y)
25. i. cot A ii. sec t iii. 2 sec2 ω
sin y

27. 61.1m

28. 2556

29. 15.9m

30. 189.83

31. 61.57m

32. 59.3m

33. 16.69◦

34. 68.2◦

35. 53.63 feet

36. 6.24 feet

134
Sc
hoolofFoundat
ionSt
udi
es
(AirportHeightsCampus)
P.O. Box620, PC130
Wa yNo: 5001| Bl
ockNo:305
AirportHeights,Musca
t
Sultana t
eofOman

www.
nu.
edu.
om