Notes for Bitumen and Asphalt Technology

ECB115C

R. Berkers
June 2018
If any copyright infringements should have occurred, please inform the author so that
the error can be rectified.
Copyright ©: R.Berkers
2
Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction to production and types of bituminous products .............. 9

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 9

1.2 Oil ......................................................................................................... 10

1.2.1 Oil classification ............................................................................. 10

1.2.2 Oil sources ..................................................................................... 11

1.2.3 South African oil refineries ............................................................. 12

1.2.4 Distillation process ......................................................................... 14

1.3 Bitumen Composition ........................................................................... 17

1.3.1 Asphaltenes ................................................................................... 19

1.3.2 Resins ............................................................................................ 20

1.3.3 Aromatics ....................................................................................... 20

1.3.4 Saturates........................................................................................ 20

1.4 Penetration grade bitumen ................................................................... 21

1.5 Cutback bitumen ................................................................................... 23

1.6 Bituminous Emulsions .......................................................................... 25

1.6.1 Anionic emulsions .......................................................................... 25

1.6.2 Cationic emulsions ......................................................................... 26

Chapter 2: Modified bituminous products ............................................................ 27

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 27

2.2 Polymer modifiers ................................................................................. 28

3
 2.2.1 What are polymer modifiers? ......................................................... 28

2.2.2 Homogeneous v/s non-homogeneous ........................................... 32

2.2.2.1 Homogeneous binders ................................................................... 33

2.2.2.2 Non-homogeneous or Heterogeneous binders .............................. 34

2.2.3 Elastomer v/s plastomer................................................................. 34

2.2.3.1 Elastomers ..................................................................................... 35

2.2.3.2 Plastomers ..................................................................................... 35

2.2.4 Why are polymer modifiers used? .................................................. 35

2.2.5 Classification of polymer modified binders ..................................... 37

2.2.6 Types of polymer modifiers ............................................................ 43

2.2.6.1 Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS) ................................................. 43

2.2.6.2 Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber (SBR) .................................................. 47

2.2.6.3 Ethylene-Vinyl-Acetate (EVA) ........................................................ 49

2.3 Rubber Crumb modified binder ............................................................. 53

Chapter 3: Application of bitumen in the Construction Industry .......................... 56

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 56

3.2 Bitumen applications ............................................................................ 56

3.2.1 Surfacing seals .............................................................................. 56

3.2.2 Slurry seals .................................................................................... 59

3.2.3 Soil Stabilization ............................................................................. 60

3.2.3.1 Bitumen mixed in with aggregate ................................................... 60

4
 3.2.3.2 Emulsion mixed in with soil ............................................................ 61

3.2.4 Prime coat ...................................................................................... 62

3.2.5 Tack coat ....................................................................................... 64

3.2.6 Fog spray ....................................................................................... 65

3.2.7 Dust palliatives ............................................................................... 66

3.2.8 Repair of cracks ............................................................................. 67

3.2.9 Pothole repair ................................................................................. 68

Chapter 4: Asphalt .............................................................................................. 72

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 72

4.2 Asphalt.................................................................................................. 76

4.2.1 Production of asphalt ..................................................................... 78

4.3 Hot Mix Asphalt .................................................................................... 81

4.3.1 Continuously graded asphalt mix ................................................... 81

4.3.2 Gap graded asphalt mix ................................................................. 84

4.3.3 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) .......................................................... 86

4.3.4 Foamed Asphalt ............................................................................. 88

4.4 Warm Mix Asphalt ................................................................................ 90

4.5 Cold Mix Asphalt ................................................................................... 91

4.6 Density of Asphalt ...................................................................................... 92

4.6.1 Relative density of asphalt ............................................................. 92

4.6.2 Bulk relative density (BRD) ............................................................ 94

5
Chapter 5: References ..................................................................................... 98

6
To the optimist, the glass is half full. To the pessimist, the glass is half-
empty. To the engineer, the glass is twice as big as it needs to be.

7
 Preface

These are the notes for the subject ECB115C which is the subject Bitumen and

Asphalt Technology offered in the Higher Certificate in Construction Engineering

(Elective 1: Construction Materials Testing).

Emphasis is put on the testing part, and you will have intensive training in the testing

of soil. The outcome of this course should be that you feel confident to supervise the

soil section of a materials testing laboratory.

To reach this goal the higher certificate includes additional subjects like mathematics,

communication skills and management. Thus your employer should be able to appoint

you in a supervisory capacity.

It is also important to note that units of the Système International (S.I.) have been used

throughout these as this is the unit system used internationally. This means that units

like the meter and the kilogram are used.

But that said, to conform to industry it is also sometimes necessary to make use of

units which seem not, or are not part of the S.I. system.

For example, the student will observe that as the unit for compressive strength for

concrete the MPa is used, instead of N/mm² (i.e. force per surface unit). Both are still

part of the S.I. system of units.

I hope that you will enjoy this course and that this course will enable you to be easily

appointed in the construction industry.

8
 Chapter 1: Introduction to production and types of
bituminous products

1.1 Introduction

When oil is heated via the process of distillation, in which products like petrol and
diesel are obtained, one of the products that is left at the end is bitumen. This is a
black substance that is normally solid at room temperature.

Bitumen is a product that is mainly used in the road industry. It is a versatile product
which is used in various designs of products used in the road industry. Bitumen can
be used as a glue (binder), as a waterproofing agent (roofs), in liquids used in the road
industry etc.

Note when reading American books about bitumen that American English uses other
terminology for the words that are used in South African English (British English):

Table 1: South African versus American terms

South African term American term Description
Bitumen Asphalt cement Looks like thick black liquid
but is solid at room
temperature, result from
distillation of oil
Bituminous Asphaltic Adjective used for all things
relating to bitumen.
Asphalt Asphalt concrete Aggregate and bitumen
mixed together, normally
used as top layer on a road.

To understand bitumen we first have to understand where bitumen comes from and
how it is manufactured.

9
1.2 Oil
1.2.1 Oil classification

Bitumen is the by-product of the distillation process of crude oil. Crude oil is a black
liquid that is mostly obtained from crude oil deposits that are present under the ground.
The oil was formed from organic matter, like plankton and algae that was deposited
on the floor of oceans and lakes about 540 million years ago. Through the ages and
with help of high temperatures and high pressures this organic matter was transformed
into oil. Pipes are drilled into the ground until an oil pocket is reached. The oil is than
brought to the surface by pumping the oil out of these pockets.

The terms mostly used to classify crude oil are “light”, “medium” or “heavy” crudes (1,
2). Here is referred to the fractions that are concentrated on in the distillation process
of the crude oil. Light crude naphtha is the fraction that is distilled out at temperatures
between 20 – 70°C, medium naphtha is distilled out between 70 – 120°C and heavy
naphtha is distilled out at temperatures between 90 - 170°C.

Table 2: Distillation Temperatures for various types of oil

Type of oil Distillation Temperature
Light 20 - 70ºC

Medium 70 - 120ºC

Heavy 120 -170ºC

The terms “light” and “heavy” don’t refer to the weight of the crude oil molecules.

The lighter crude oils are usually found in the deeper structures in the earth and vice
versa, the heavier crude oils are found nearer to the surface.

In addition to the practically infinite mixtures of hydrocarbon components (components

that are made of hydrogen (H) and carbon (C)) that form crude oil, sulfur (S), nitrogen
(N) and oxygen (O) are usually present in small but often important quantities. Sulfur
is the third most abundant atomic constituent of crude oils. It is present in the medium

10
and heavy fractions of crude oils. In the low and medium fractions sulfur is associated
only with carbon and hydrogen, while in the heavier fractions it is frequently
incorporated in the large polycyclic molecules (a compound that has two or more rings
in the molecules), which also contain nitrogen and oxygen. The total sulfur in crude
oils varies from below 0,5 % (by weight), as in some Pennsylvania oils, to about 2 %
for average Middle Eastern crude oil and up to 5 % or more in heavy Mexican or
Mississippi oils.
These crudes with low sulphur content (< 1 % wt) are known as "sweet" crudes while
crudes with a high sulphur content (> 1 % wt) are known as "sour" crudes.

1.2.2 Oil sources

South Africa has no crude oil reserves, which results in the fact that about every litre
of crude has to be imported(3). The Singapore market determines the crude oil prices
for the countries east of the Suez Canal. The Middle East, the East, Eastern and
Southern Africa, the Indian Ocean islands and Australia, fall in the same crude oil
market area.

South Africa is situated at the southern tip of the Africa continent and since the Suez
Canal opened early in the 1900's this has been by far the most preferred crude trading
route to South Africa.

The transport distance from the crude oil source and crude oil market effects the price
of the crude oil available to South African refineries.

The crude oils from the Middle East are therefore generally more affordable compared
to crude oil from sources located elsewhere and are therefore the primary crude oils
used for the production of bitumen in South Africa.

The region where the crude oil comes from normally determines the name of the crude
oil used. “Arabian Light”, “Arabian Medium”, “Arabian Heavy”, “Dubai”, “Kuwait” and
“Iranian Heavy” are of the crude oils used in the production of South African bitumen.

11
Figure 1: Crude oil production regions

(4)

1.2.3 South African oil refineries

There are four crude oil refineries in South Africa that are strategically situated close
to the main metropolitan areas.

The four refineries are:

1. Caltex Refinery (CHEVRON/CALREF) in Cape Town.

2. Engen Refinery (PETRONAS/ENREF) in Durban, with Engen as shareholder.
3. National Petroleum Refinery in South Africa (NATREF) in Sasolburg, with Sasol
and Total as the two shareholders.
4. South African Petroleum Refinery (SAPREF) in Durban, with Shell and BP as
shareholder.

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All the refineries, apart from NATREF, are situated along the coast where they have
easy access to crude oil, which is delivered directly from ocean tankers. In the case of
NATREF, which is situated near Sasolburg, approximately 100 km from South Africa's
largest metropolitan area in the Gauteng Province, crude oil is stored in Durban and
supplied via a pipeline system to the only inland crude-oil refinery in South Africa.

13
1.2.4 Distillation process

In South Africa the distillation method that is mostly used to separate oil into fractions
(parts) is the atmospheric distillation process.

Figure 2: Atmospheric distillation process

Gases
Oil storage
tanks
110ºC
Light naphtha

Bubble Cap
150ºC
Heavy naphtha

Collection 180ºC
Kerosene
Tray

260ºC
Light fuel oils

300ºC
Heavy fuel oils

Furnace
400ºC 350ºC
Long Residue

When using the atmospheric distillation process oil is heated to about 400ºC and led
into a distillation column. At this temperature the oil is already a mixture of liquids and
vapour. The vapours rise up through the column (up to 45 meters high) and are
condensed to a liquid with help of a water- or air-cooled condenser at different
temperature stages.

14
In this way the temperature decreases as the vapours go higher up into the distillation
column and liquids are allowed to condense at different boiling temperatures.
Remember that the vapour turns back again into a liquid at its boiling temperature.
A part of the oil can only turn into a gas at a temperature higher than 350ºC which is
not preferable as oil that is heated higher than 350º will break up into components
which are not wanted in this process. This is called thermal cracking.

This part is called the long residue and is led away at the bottom of the distillation
column to another distillation process which is called vacuum distillation.

Vacuum distillation makes use of the concept that the boiling point of a liquid
decreases when the pressure on the liquid decreases. This can be easily seen if the
boiling point of water is noted at sea level and in Johannesburg, which is about 1600
meters above sea level. The air pressure is less in Johannesburg than at sea level (air
pressure decreases when height above sea level increases) and the boiling point of
water will be lower in Johannesburg than at sea level.

The primary advantage of vacuum distillation is that it allows for distilling heavier
material at lower temperatures than those that would be required at atmospheric
pressure, thus avoiding thermal cracking of the components.

When the long residue is vacuum distilled the bitumen products we want are part of
the distilled end products.
In this high vacuum distillation unit (HVU) the long residue is separated in heavy gas-
oil, heavy distillates and a residue, the short residue, which normally has a high
viscosity, and depending on its properties can be used as bitumen feedstock. Viscosity
of a material is defined as the resistance of that material to flow.

15
 From
atmospheric
distillation 50/70 penetration
column grade bitumen by
blending
Vacuum
distillation
unit
Blowing
unit
Figure 3: Vacuum distillation process

Long residue Short residue 35/50 p enetration

grade bitumen by

16
blowing

70/100 pen; 150/200

penetration grade bitumen by
vacuum distillation

Solvents Cutback bitumen

The maximum distillation conditions are determined by the degree of vacuum and the
maximum allowable temperature. By varying the conditions between this minimum and
maximum, the penetration (how hard or soft the bitumen will be) of the short residue
can be varied. Bitumens of the different required penetration levels can then be
obtained by blending those residues in the right proportion or by direct distilling to
grade at the appropriate conditions. Bitumens produced this way are termed straight-
run bitumens.

When the short residue has too high a penetration at the maximum distillation
conditions, the residue can be subjected to a high temperature (275°C+) oxidation,
using air, the so-called blowing process.

To produce penetration grade bitumens suitable for road construction, bitumens

manufactured from some crudes required a limited amount of air blowing. The
penetration of bitumen decreases (it gets harder) when it is blown. In this way 35/50
pen bitumen is produced.

Vacuum distillation produces softer grade bitumens, in this case 70/100 pen and
150/200 pen bitumen.
When blending 35/50 pen and 70/100 pen bitumen, 50/70 pen bitumen is produced.
The above mentioned bitumen types will be discussed later in the chapter.

1.3 Bitumen Composition (5)

Figure 4: Bitumen pouring from storage tin

(6)

17
Bitumen consists mostly of hydrogen and carbon. The rest of bitumen mainly consists
of oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. Percentage wise bitumen is chemically made up of
the following:

Carbon: 82 – 88%
Hydrogen: 8 – 11%
Sulphur: 0 – 6%
Oxygen: 0 -1,5%
Nitrogen: 0 – 1%

There are some trace elements present which normally have no influence on the
performance of the bitumen.

Because of the large amount of carbon and hydrogen present in bitumen, oxidation of
the bitumen is happening on a large scale. Carbon and hydrogen form a compound
which is called a hydrocarbon.

Hydrocarbons like to react with oxygen which results in the bitumen getting harder.
This is called oxidation.

If bitumen gets harder it normally cannot perform the function for which it is used for.
Thus the use of bitumen usually involves adding substances to the bitumen which
make the performance of bitumen more suitable for the function it is used for. This
practice will be discussed later in this chapter.

The chemical components of bitumen can be divided into groups of components

which, for our purpose, have the same characteristics. As such bitumen can be divided
into maltenes, which are soluble in n-heptane (a solvent), and asphaltenes, which are
insoluble in n-heptane.

The maltenes can be divided into three other groups, based on the characteristics of
these groups. These groups are called saturates, aromatics and resins.

18
The four component groups can be remembered by using the word SARA:

Saturates
Aromatics
Resins
Asphaltenes

Figure 5: Major molecular chemical groups in bitumen according to solubility

Bitumen

N-heptane

Soluble Insoluble

Maltenes
Asphaltenes

N-heptane Toluene Toluene/ Methanol

Saturates Aromatics Resins

1.3.1 Asphaltenes

Asphaltenes are the n-heptane insoluble black solids which are mostly made up of
carbon but also contain some nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen. They have a fairly high
molecular weight and a high viscosity (resistance to flow).

Because of this asphaltenes give bitumen its thickness. Increasing the asphaltenes
content of bitumen produces a harder bitumen with a lower penetration, a higher
softening point and thus a higher viscosity.

19
Increasing the asphaltenes content therefore makes bitumen more difficult to pour.
Asphaltenes make up 5 to 25% of the bitumen.

1.3.2 Resins

Resins are very polar in nature, which means that the molecules in the resins are
positively charged at one end of the molecule chain and negatively charged at the
other end of the molecule chain. On account of this resins are strongly adhesive.

They contain, like asphaltenes, mostly carbon and hydrogen, but larger amounts of
nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen than asphaltenes.

Resins tend to inhibit the oxidation of bitumen, but when oxidation of bitumen occurs
it is the resins which, by taking on oxygen, are converted to asphaltenes and in so
doing change the thickness, and thus the stiffness, of the bitumen.

1.3.3 Aromatics

These are the compounds that give bitumen its fluidity, as they are part of the oils in
bitumen. As such they are a major part of the medium in which the asphaltenes are
dispersed (peptized).

Aromatics constitute 40 to 65% of the total bitumen.

1.3.4 Saturates

Saturates are non-polar viscous oils of which the molecular weight is similar to that of
aromatics. The components include both waxy and non-waxy saturates. This fraction
forms 5 to 20 % of the bitumen.

An increase in saturates tends to soften the bitumen.

Bitumen can be represented on a molecular level as depicted in the following picture

(7):

20
Figure 6: molecular representation of bitumen

If we look at the above it can be seen that these groups can influence the behaviour
of bitumen.

If the saturates content is increased the bitumen tends to soften, an increase in

resins hardens the bitumen, an increase in asphaltenes makes the bitumen
more brittle, and an increase of aromatics increases the fluidity of the bitumen.

1.4 Penetration grade bitumen

When oil is distilled in an atmospheric distillation column the short residue has to be
distilled in a vacuum distillation column. In this column fractions can be obtained at
lower temperatures under vacuum. If the vacuum would not be applied, the fractions
would break into other parts that are not preferred because of the higher temperatures.

With vacuum distillation 70/100 pen and 150/200 pen bitumen are produced.

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The naming of penetration grade works as follows:

Figure 7: Nomenclature for penetration grade bitumen

70/100 pen bitumen

Minimum penetration Maximum penetration

To indicate penetration grade bitumen, the abbreviation “pen bitumen” is used.

Penetration refers to a test that can be done on bitumen to determine how far a
standard needle will penetrate within 5 seconds at 25ºC into a cup of bitumen. The
depth the needle penetrates into the bitumen gives an indication how hard the bitumen
is. The further the needle penetrates into the bitumen in 5 seconds the softer it will be.

The number is the distance, in 0.1 mm, the needle penetrates in 5 seconds.

In the case of the 70/100 pen bitumen, the specification states that this group of
penetration grade bitumen will have a needle penetrating a distance of between 80
dmm and 100 dmm in 5 seconds, or in other words, the needle will penetrate between
8 and 10 mm in the 5 seconds the needle is applied to the surface of the bitumen
sample (at 25ºC).

With help of this system, four penetration grade bitumens are specified:

Table 3: Industrial penetration grade bitumen products

Grade Manufacturing process Soft/Hard
35/50 pen bitumen blowing Hardest
50/70 pen bitumen blending
70/100 pen bitumen vacuum distillation
150/200 pen bitumen vacuum distillation Softest

When 70/100 pen bitumen or 150/200 pen bitumen is blown, air is blown through the
bitumen in a blowing unit. The bitumen oxidizes which has as a result that the bitumen

22
becomes harder. The bitumen is blown until a penetration between 35 to 50 units is
reached. In this way 35/50 pen bitumen is produced.

50/70 pen bitumen is produced by blending one of the softer bitumens, 70/100 pen or
150/200 pen bitumen, with 35/50 pen bitumen until a penetration is reached between
50 and 70 units. Because of availability and hardness 70/100 pen bitumen is normally
used in the blending process to manufacture 50/70 pen bitumen.

35/50 pen and 50/70 pen bitumen are used in the manufacturing of asphalt (bitumen
and stone mixed) and modified binders.

70/100 pen bitumen is normally used for seals (stone glued with bitumen on a road
surface) and emulsions (bitumen dissolved in water).

150/200 pen bitumen can be used as a base for modified binder and foamed bitumen
(bitumen through which air is blown). 150/200 Pen bitumen it is not used a lot in the
industry because of the softness of this bitumen.

1.5 Cutback bitumen

When penetration grade bitumen is mixed with a solvent, the resulting bituminous
product is called cutback bitumen. This type of bitumen is normally used for
applications for which penetration grade bitumen is too hard or to viscous.

Paraffin is mainly used as the cutter in South Africa, but care should be taken to ensure
that the paraffin and bituminous binders used are compatible. The paraffin used for
cutting back should be derived from crude oil and not coal.

Cutback bitumens are named according to the type of solvent being used in the mixing
process with penetration grade bitumen. The purpose of the solvent is to make the
bitumen softer after which it will evaporate into the air.

23
Some solvents evaporate quickly and some solvents evaporate slower. According to
the evaporation rate the cutback bitumen is called Rapid Curing (RC), Medium curing
(MC) or Slow Curing (SC).

The number indicates the viscosity which the cutback bitumen needs to have
according to specification.

Figure 8: Nomenclature for cutback bitumen

MC 3000

Medium Curing Specified viscosity

Except for RC250, rapid curing cutback bitumens are not used a lot in South Africa.
Medium curing bitumens are the cutback bitumens most frequently used in South
Africa. Slow curing bitumens are almost never used in South Africa.

When trying to interpret the number, a good rule of thumb is to see the number as
multiples of the viscosity of water. Thus MC30 is a medium curing cutback bitumen
that has a viscosity of 30 times the viscosity of water. Hence a MC30 cutback bitumen
is about 30 times thicker than water.

The cutback bitumens commercially available in South Africa are:

• MC10 – lowest viscosity(thinnest, most fluid)

• MC30
• MC3000 – highest viscosity(thickest, least fluid)
• RC250

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1.6 Bituminous Emulsions

Bituminous Emulsions are solutions where bitumen is dissolved in water with help of
a soap (emulsifier). A bituminous emulsion where water is dissolved in bitumen is
called an inverted bituminous emulsion.

The type of soap determines what charge the particles in the emulsion will have. The
bitumen particle which is dissolved into the water is coated by the soap which has a
positive or negative charge. As a result the bitumen particle will be seen as a particle
which has the same charge as the soap. The charge is important for the application
the emulsion is going to be used for.

Alongside a non-ionic emulsion, where the bitumen particles have no charge, two
other types of bituminous emulsion are used:

1.6.1 Anionic emulsions

Anionic emulsions are emulsions where bitumen is dissolved into water with help of a
negatively charged soap. The bitumen particles in the emulsion become negatively
charged in the water on account of a negatively charged film that is wrapped around
the bitumen particle. As such an anionic emulsion is a negatively charged emulsion.

Figure 9: representation of anionic emulsion

(-)
(-)
(-) Negatively charged
film
(-) (-)

(-) Bitumen particle

(-) (-)
water

25
1.6.2 Cationic emulsions

Cationic emulsions are emulsions where bitumen is dissolved into water with help of
a positively charged soap. The bitumen particles in the emulsion become positively
charged in the water on account of a positively charged film that is wrapped around
the bitumen particle. As such a cationic emulsion is a positively charged emulsion.

Figure 10: representation of cationic emulsion

(+)
(+)
(+) Positively charged
film
(+) (+)

(+) Bitumen particle

(+) (+)
water

Emulsion is classified as a stable grade if it can be successfully mixed with cement

into a smooth paste. Spray-grade emulsion will however form lumps when mixed with
cement.

26
 Chapter 2: Modified bituminous products

2.1 Introduction (8)

Traffic on South African roads is increasing every year. Coupled with the large problem
of overloading and the decreasing maintenance budget for roads the need of bitumens
with improved properties can be seen. Conventional bituminous materials are not able
to keep up with the increased loading forces that are applied to the bitumen.

The introduction of modifiers to penetration grade bitumen can improve the following
properties (9):

1) Adhesion: Bitumen is extensively used to glue stone to a road surface and to

provide a bond between the aggregates in asphalt. For this purpose the
bitumen must stick to the aggregate. The adhesion of bitumen to most
aggregates normally is not a problem if water is not present. Aggregates like
water more than bitumen and water can cause problems with the bitumen
coating the aggregate as water tends to drive the bitumen from the surface of
the aggregate. If the bond between the aggregate and the bitumen is not strong
enough a process called “stripping” of the aggregate will occur.

2) Durability: If a bituminous surface must keep in a good condition during the life
it was designed for, it is important that the bitumen does not harden during the
stages that it is manufactured, stored and used for its application. As such
bitumen needs to be resistant against reaction with oxygen (oxidation), UV
radiation and changes in temperature.

3) Elasticity: When bitumen is used to glue stone to a road surface, it tends to

stretch when a vehicle drives over the stone. The bitumen needs to regain its
original length to keep the stone in place on the road surface. If a conventional
bitumen is not modified it will never regain its original length.

27
 4) Deformation resistance: Bitumen is a very viscous fluid which will harden
when the temperature decreases. As such bitumen can take on any shape it is
placed in. Normally it is not preferred for the bitumen to lose this shape because
of external influences.

5) Flexibility at low temperatures: Bitumen hardens under low temperatures, it

even can become like glass if the temperatures are low enough. If bitumen is
used in regions where the temperatures are low it needs to be modified to
counter act the influence of low temperatures.

6) High viscosity at high temperatures: Bitumen becomes more fluid, i.e.

viscosity lowers, when subjected to high temperatures. Certain regions in South
Africa are so hot, that conventional bitumen will become liquid and run of the
road. Certain modifiers can improve the susceptibility of bitumen to high
temperatures.

2.2 Polymer modifiers

2.2.1 What are polymer modifiers?

A copolymer or polymer is a long chain molecule that is formed from a single or various
monomers that repeat themselves. A monomer is a single simple, usually small, low-
weight molecule.

As an example, as shown in figure 11 below, the monomers Styrene and Butadiene

can form the polymer Styrene-Butadiene.

28
Figure 11: Styrene and Butadiene monomers forming Styrene-Butadiene
polymer (13)

C C
C C CH2 Styrene
or C6H5CH=CH2
C C Monomer
C

+
H2C C Butadiene
or
C CH2 CH2=CH-CH=CH2
Monomer

[( H2C
C
C
CH2) m
CH CH ]n
Styrene-Butadiene
Polymer
C
C C
C C
C

As mentioned above, a copolymer is a molecule that is made up of a chain of two or

more repeating monomers.

The arrangement of these monomers can be in various ways. A copolymer can be

classified based on the way these monomers are arranged along the copolymer chain.

29
According to monomer configuration, the following copolymers can be classified (as
shown in figure 12, each round ball represents a monomer molecule):

1) Statistical Copolymer
2) Alternating Copolymer
3) Block Copolymer
4) Graft Copolymer

Figure 12: Various configurations of copolymers (18)

Statistical Copolymer

Two or more different repeating monomers are

distributed randomly in the copolymer chain

Alternating Copolymer

The copolymer chain is made up of two or

more alternating monomers.
= Monomer A
Block Copolymer = Monomer B

The copolymer chain is made up long

sequences of monomers.

Graft Copolymer

The copolymer chain is made of one chain of a

monomer with branches of another monomer.

30
Block copolymers are used extensively in the modified bitumen industry. If the
copolymer consists of two blocks it is named a diblock while a copolymer that consists
of three blocks is called a triblock.

If four or more blocks are apparent in the copolymer we talk of a multiblock copolymer
(30).

In the bitumen industry when copolymer chains are blended into a mixture, a variety
of configurations of the copolymer chains are possible.

When taking the configuration of polymer chains relative to each other in consideration
copolymers can be classified as follows (as shown in figure 13, each round ball
represents a monomer molecule):

1) Linear: a single continuing chain of repeating monomers

2) Radial: various linear copolymer chains are interconnected
3) Branched: side chains of repeating monomers are connected to the main chain
of monomers.
4) Cross linked: the chains in the copolymer are interconnected.

31
Figure 13: Various configurations of copolymer chains (19)

Linear chain

Radial chain

Branched chain

Cross linked chain

2.2.2 Homogeneous v/s non-homogeneous

When modifiers are added to a binder the resulting mixture can be either
homogeneously or non-homogeneously.

32
Figure 14: Representation of a homogeneous and non-homogeneous mixture

Homogeneous mixture:

+
Non-Homogeneous mixture:

+
2.2.2.1 Homogeneous binders

When a binder is a homogeneous binder it means that the modifier is mixed into the
binder evenly.

In the resulting mixture no distinction can be made between the modifier and the binder
as the materials are mixed in such a way that they look like one, single material. In
other words, the two phases of the modifier and the binder cannot be distinguished
separately in the mixture and the material will have one, single phase.

If the homogenous binder should be divided into two half portions, both portions will
have the same amount of modifier mixed in and the two half portions will have the
same characteristics.

33
2.2.2.2 Non-homogeneous or Heterogeneous binders

When a binder is a non-homogeneous binder it means that the modifier is only partially
mixed into the binder.

It is possible that the modifier not necessarily is mixed evenly throughout the binder.
The modifier can be distinguished from the binder in which it is mixed. The modifier
phase can usually be seen as separate from the binder phase.

If the non-homogeneous binder should be divided into two half portion, both portions
will not necessary have exactly the same characteristics as one half can have a larger
modifier content than the other half.

2.2.3 Elastomer v/s plastomer

The modifier can be either an elastomer or a plastomer.

Figure 15: Representation of an elastomer and a plastomer

Elastomer:
Load No Load

L L+ΔL L

Plastomer:
Load No Load

L L+ΔL L+ΔL

34
2.2.3.1 Elastomers

Elastomers are polymer modifiers that have a “rubber” back bone that gives flexibility
to the binder when it is deformed (38).

When a load (i.e. the load as a result of tires) is applied to a binder in which an
elastomer is mixed, and the binder shape is deformed, the shape of the binder will
tend to move back to its original shape after the load has been removed.

2.2.3.2 Plastomers

Plastomers are polymer modifiers that will deform in a plastic or viscous manner at
high temperatures and will become stiff and hard at low temperatures (38).

As such, after a load has been applied to the plastomer which results in a change in
dimensions of the plastomer, a permanent deformation will be visible after the load
has been removed.

2.2.4 Why are polymer modifiers used?

Problems with road pavement surfaces have arisen in South Africa on account of an
increase in vehicles and an increase in overloaded trucks on the road. The introduction
of super single tyres is also not helping the cause.

Conventional asphalt mixes and seals are not able to withstand the forces being
applied on them by the increased number of vehicles on the road.

The forces exerted on the asphalt or seal will usually result in one or a combination of
the following failures:

• Cracking of the asphalt surface

• Stripping of aggregate from the pavement
• Rutting/Deformation of the pavement.

35
Because the asphalt or seal cannot withstand these forces something has to be added
to increase the load bearing capacity of the asphalt or seal.

One material that is extensively used in the road pavement industry is the addition of
a polymer modifier.

The introduction of modifiers to penetration grade bitumen can improve the following
properties (14):

1) Binder-Aggregate Adhesion: Bitumen is extensively used to glue stone to a

road surface (Tack coat) and to provide a bond between the aggregates in
asphalt. For this purpose the bitumen must stick to the aggregate. The adhesion
of bitumen to most aggregates is usually not a problem if water is not present.
Aggregates like water more than bitumen and water can cause problems with
the bitumen coating the aggregate as water tends to drive the bitumen from the
surface of the aggregate. If the bond between the aggregate and the bitumen
is not strong enough a process called “stripping” of the aggregate will occur,
and the bond between the aggregate and the binder will be broken (aggregate
loss, loose stones)

2) Durability: If a bituminous surface must keep in a good condition during the life
it was designed for, it is important that the bitumen does not harden during the
stages that it is manufactured, stored and used for its application. As such
bitumen needs to be resistant against reaction with oxygen (oxidation), UV
radiation and changes in temperature.

3) Elasticity: When bitumen is used to glue stone to a road surface, it tends to

stretch when a vehicle drives over the stone. The bitumen needs to regain its
original length to keep the stone in place on the road surface. If conventional
bitumen is not modified it will never regain its original length.

4) Deformation resistance: Bitumen is a very viscous fluid which will harden

when the temperature decreases. As such bitumen can take on any shape it is

36
 placed in. Normally it is not preferred for the bitumen to lose this shape because
of external influences.

5) Flexibility at low temperatures: Bitumen hardens under low temperatures, it

even can become like glass if the temperatures are low enough. If bitumen is
used in regions where the temperatures are low it needs to be modified to
counter act the influence of low temperatures.

6) High viscosity at high temperatures: Bitumen becomes more fluid, i.e.

viscosity lowers, when subjected to high temperatures. Certain regions in South
Africa are so hot, that conventional bitumen will become liquid and run of the
road. Certain modifiers can improve the susceptibility of bitumen to high
temperatures.

Other benefits of adding modifiers to binders are (15):

1) Improved consistency
2) Improved stiffness and cohesion
3) Improved flexibility, resilience and toughness
4) Improved resistance to in-service ageing.

2.2.5 Classification of polymer modified binders (15)

Polymer modification can be done in various ways. A lot of polymer modifiers as well
as end products are available on the market but at the end they all can be grouped
into various groups according to their characteristics and end uses.

With this in mind a classification system for modifiers has been devised which does
not prescribe the type and amount of modifier to be introduced to the end product but
rather concentrates on the end use of the product and the temperature at which it has
to be used.

The following abbreviation codes are used in conjunction with the modified binder
classification system:
37
The type of application in which the modifiers are going to be used:

• S = Seal
• A = Asphalt
• C = Crack Sealant

The type of binder system:

• C = applied at colder temperatures, which indicates that an

emulsion is used in conjunction with the modifier.
• “No letter” = applied at hot temperatures

The predominant type of binder to be used:

• E = Elastomer
• P = Plastomer
• R = Rubber
• H = Hydrocarbon

The number (1 or 2) indicates the softening point of the binder. This means that
according to the classification system, a binder that has a “1” at the end has a lower
softening point than a binder that has a “2” at the end. This is not necessarily an
indication of the performance of the modifier.

Cutters (solvents) can be introduced to the binder to change the properties of a binder.
If the end use application does not permit the introduction of a cutter, the letter “t” will
be added at the end of the classification.

38
Table 4: Modified binder classification system (15)
Modified binder Type of Type of binder
Type of modifier
class application system
S-E1 elastomer seal hot applied

S-E2 elastomer seal hot applied

S-R1 rubber seal hot applied

SC-E1(a) elastomer seal emulsion

SC-E2(a) elastomer seal emulsion

A-E1 elastomer hot mix asphalt hot applied

A-E2 elastomer hot mix asphalt hot applied

A-P2(b) plastomer hot mix asphalt hot applied

A-H1 hydrocarbon hot mix asphalt hot applied

A-H2(b) hydrocarbon hot mix asphalt hot applied

A-R1 rubber hot mix asphalt hot applied

AC-E1 elastomer microsurfacing emulsion

AC-E2 elastomer microsurfacing emulsion

C-E1 elastomer crack sealant hot applied

CC-E1 elastomer crack sealant emulsion

C-R1 rubber crack sealant hot applied

Notes:
(a) These emulsions have the option of being made with or without cutters depending

on their application
(b) Some of the modifiers in these generic classification classes are also capable of

imparting fuel resistant properties

39
For example:

The binder classification is AC-E1(t):

A = the binder is going to be used in an asphalt mix, in this case as microsurfacing

C = the microsurfacing is going to be applied cold, i.e. an emulsion is used in the mix

E = the predominant modifier is an elastomer

1 = the binder has a lower viscosity than AC-E2 (if available)

(t) = it is not allowed to use a cutter

40
Table 5: Modifiers used in the Industry (15, 16, 21, 23, 24, and 38)

Type of Industrial Name Effect/Use

modifier

Elastomers:

Natural Latex Natural Rubber Increased resistance to cracking at

low temperatures; increased binder
stiffness; provide high adhesion
properties when used in tack
coats(15)

Synthetic Latex Styrene-Butadiene- Increased strength of mix at high

Styrene(SBS); service temperatures; improved
adhesive properties of mix;
improved fatigue resistance;
improved rutting resistance;
improved low temperature flexibility;
improved resistance to bleeding.
Used:
• On surfaces where high
resistance to permanent
deformation is needed on
account of extreme tyre loading
and tyre pressures,
• On surfaces where there is a high
probability of cracks,
• On surfaces which will be applied
in regions with high and low
temperature extremes (38).

Styrene-Butadiene Improved resistance to abrasion(23);

Rubber(SBR); improved adhesion of the binder
with the aggregate in sealing
applications; improved elasticity
and flexibility to the binder; reduced
deformation resistance; enhanced
fatigue properties(15)
Used:
• On lightly cracked surfaces,
• In cold applied bitumen
emulsions,
• In structurally weak pavements,
• When lower spray temperatures
than rubber crumbed bitumen are
required (16).

41
Reclaimed Tyre Crumbed Rubber Lower temperature susceptibility;
Rubber increased resistance to plastic
deformation; improved resistance to
age hardening;
used:
• for resealing projects,
• on heavily cracked surfaces,
• on surfaces where high flexibility
is needed on account of high
deflections of the pavement,
• Surfaces where asphalt mixes
with high binder content are
needed,
• Where the lifetime of the binder
needs to be extended (38).

Plastomers: Ethyl-Vinyl-Acetate(EVA) Improved rutting resistance (24);

improved workability in cold weather
(10); Provide high shear resistance to

aggregate loss in seals; Improved

deformation resistance in dense-
graded asphalt (16).
Used:
• In asphalt mixes where improved
workability and higher resistance
to permanent deformation is
needed,
• In seals where improved
adhesion between binder and
aggregate is needed,
• In surfaces where increased
resistance to fuel is needed,
• Pavements which require
improved rut resistance . (38)

42
2.2.6 Types of polymer modifiers

2.2.6.1 Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS)

Figure 16: SBS, Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene

(20)

Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS) is available in solid form as pellets, crumbs or

powder. SBS is classified as an elastomer.

SBS is a triblock copolymer in which chains consisting of blocks of styrene and blocks
of butadiene are present.

In this case the chain is build-up of a block of styrene monomers, connected to a block
of butadiene monomers which is then followed by a block of styrene monomers. Thus
the ends of the chain terminate in styrene blocks.

43
These styrene blocks tend to cluster together in spherical or cylindrical regions
(domains). Thus the copolymer will be classified as either radial or linear.

It is in these domains that the polymer chains are cross-linked. If it is known that the
polystyrene part is around 23% (32) to 30% (16) of the copolymer SBS can be
represented by the following schematic:

Figure 17: Schematic representation of a Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene Block

Copolymer (19)

Poly
Styrene
Poly
Poly Styrene
Butadiene Poly
Butadiene Poly
Butadiene
Poly Poly
Styrene Styrene

A radial copolymer will usually result in a higher viscosity range for the copolymer than
a linear copolymer (24).

44
Two different monomers are present in SBS copolymer which results in two different
phases with different glass transition temperatures (Tg, the temperature where a
material transits from a hard, brittle state to a liquid, molten rubber-like state). The Tg
of polystyrene is around +100ºC while the Tg of polybutadiene is around -90ºC (31). As
a result SBS exhibits at room temperature strong and rigid properties on account of
the polystyrene phase while the polybutadiene phase will supply soft and elastomeric
properties.

If SBS is heated above the glass transition temperature of polystyrene (+100ºC) the
cross-links will separate and the copolymer network will lose its strength and hardness.
The polybutadiene phase will take over and SBS will start to become liquid and flow
(melt). As the SBS cools down in the bitumen, the domain cross-links of polystyrene
form again and long elastic networks of SBS copolymer are formed throughout the
bitumen.

Enough SBS must be added to the bitumen to form a continuous polymer network
throughout the binder. If lower than 4% SBS is added to the binder not enough
copolymer will be available to form a continuous network throughout the binder which
will result in a modified binder that is not able to perform as it should. The binder will
not have optimum elastic properties. If this binder is used in an asphalt mix the mix will
not be stiff enough to withstand high bearing loads and will not recover from
deformation on account of these loads as it should (3).

SBS is used in pavements where a large extend of permanent deformation (rutting) is

expected, usually because of high loads and high tyre pressures. SBS is also a good
modifier when used in pavement layers where there is a high probability of cracks (9).

If pavements are built in areas where there are high and low temperature extremes
the use of SBS can also be advantageous (16).

It is recommended to use a SBS content of 4% to 6% of the amount of binder to be

used (15).

45
Advantages:

• Reduced permanent deformation (rutting) of the asphalt layer because of higher

stiffness of the asphalt mix.
• A reduction in fatigue cracking of the asphalt layer.
• A reduction in thermal cracking of the asphalt layer.
• At higher temperatures the binder used in the asphalt will exhibit higher
viscosity properties. This will result in higher stiffness, increased resistance to
flow, reduced bleeding and reduced flushing of the binder (23).
• At lower temperatures the SBS modifier will provide improved flexibility to the
asphalt mix.
• The addition of SBS will result in lower application temperatures of the asphalt
mix than the addition of Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber or Bitumen Rubber.
• A possible advantage of using SBS as a modifier in an asphalt wearing course
is that, as a result of higher stiffness of the asphalt wearing course, either the
thickness of the asphalt layer (34) or the thickness of the base course can be
reduced which will result in a potential savings on total pavement costs, energy
and natural resources (33).

Disadvantages:

• The asphalt mix is more difficult to produce and become less workable on site
on account of an increase in stiffness (because of higher viscosity) as more
SBS is added to the binder (36).
• Modification is restrained as there is a tendency of highly modified hard binders
to segregate in unstirred storage, making the binder unusable (36).
• Aggregate must be precoated to ensure adhesion with the modified binder (15).

• The addition of SBS restricts the evaporation of entrapped moisture in the

asphalt mix (15).
• Adding of SBS modifier will result in an increase in binder costs (15).

46
2.2.6.2 Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber (SBR)

Figure 18: SBR, Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber

Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber (SBR) is a copolymer of styrene and butadiene. SBR is

supplied as a liquid in the form of an anionic emulsion which can be used in hot as
well as in cold applications.

SBR is an elastomer which is formed in the same way as SBS with the only difference
being that SBR is a diblock copolymer where one end of the copolymer chain is the
styrene monomer while the other end is the butadiene monomer (see figure 11).

Because of this SBR has no styrene domains which act as cross-links and are the
styrene-butadiene chains mixed randomly together.

The difference in strength on account of the polystyrene domains present in SBS can
be seen from the tensile strength values of SBS and SBR, which are 18 MPa for radial
SBS compared to 0,5 MPa for SBR. The butadiene monomer amount present in the

47
copolymers is about the same for both copolymers which results in almost equal %
elongations at break, 800% for SBS compared to 900% for SBR (28).

SBR is generally used for cold applied binders in seals, for crack sealing and in
microsurfacing (15). SBR is generally added in quantities of 2 to 5% of binder content.

Advantages:

• SBR modified bitumen exhibits elastic properties ideal for treating lightly
cracked surfaces (29).
• SBR modified bitumen has been used extensively in southern Africa both as
cold applied bitumen emulsion and hot applied binder.
• SBR modified bitumen is useful where the pavement is structurally weak. In
some areas, good natural gravel is scarce and crushed stone is very expensive.
Asphalts where SBR is used as the modifier in the bitumen used for the asphalt
have been successfully used with sub-standard natural gravel base courses for
new roads in residential and township areas.
• The spray temperature of SBR modified bitumen is lower than rubber bitumen
and it can be sprayed with normal spray equipment.
• Modification with SBR results in a reduction of the risk of bleeding of road
surfaces in regions where the pavement temperature is high (15).

• SBR modified product have a lower application temperature than SBS and BR
modified products.
• The addition of SBR to the binder improves the adhesion between the binder
and the aggregate in seal applications, which results in reduced stone loss.

Disadvantages:

• The addition of SBR will increase the binder costs (15).

• SBR modifier has a limited storage life at application temperature (15).

• The addition of SBR can restrict the evaporation of entrapped moisture in a mix
(15).

• SBR modified products are difficult to hand spray (15).

48
2.2.6.3 Ethylene-Vinyl-Acetate (EVA)

Figure 18: EVA, Ethylene-Vinyl-Acetate

Ethylene-Vinyl-Acetate (EVA) is a copolymer of the two monomers Ethylene and Vinyl-

Acetate. EVA has decreased elastic properties as the copolymer is not cross-linked.
EVA is therefore classified as a plastomer.

The polyethylene provides the stiffness (crystalline) properties of the polymer while
the Vinyl-Acetate provides the rubbery properties of the polymer.

Various grades of EVA polymers are available. EVA polymers can contain different
ratios of ethylene to vinyl acetate and can have different molecule weights, i.e. different
polymer lengths. Typical vinyl acetate levels are 18% and 33% (25).

Contrary as is the case with thermoplastic elastomers, EVA has a tendency to

influence the penetration of bitumen more than the softening point (40).

49
As EVA is a plastomer it will act like a hard plastic and stiffen an asphalt mix if added
as a modifier to the binder used in the asphalt mix. Because of this EVA is an excellent
binder modifier when an improved resistance to permanent deformation of an asphalt
surface in the form of rutting is needed (24).

As such it can be put to good use on intersections and against steep hills (28).

EVA is also used in sealing application as it provides an improved shear resistance of

the binder against aggregate loss (25).

Some grades of EVA can be added to a binder to increase the resistance to damage
to an asphalt surface caused by the spillage of fuel (24). EVA is generally added in
quantities of 2 to 5% of binder content.

Advantages:

• EVA copolymers are easily dispersed in bitumen and have a good compatibility
with the bitumen (40).
• EVA is thermally stable at normal mixing and handling temperatures (42). As
EVA is more heat stable EVA modified binders have better storage stability than
SBS and SBR modified binders (24).
• EVA provides high shear resistance against aggregate loss when used in
bitumen for seal work (28).
• The addition of EVA to a binder used for tack coat will increase the “tack” of the
binder (41).
• EVA will exhibit minimal viscosity changes compared to SBS and SBR (41).

50
Disadvantages:

• When EVA modified binder is stored statically, separation of the bitumen and
copolymer may occur. The product should be stirred before use (40).

• Because of the rise in temperature of EVA when added to heated bitumen, the
binder will initially have a reduced stiffness and, when used for seals, the loss
of aggregate (stripping) can occur if the binder is not cooled down enough when
the road is opened up for traffic (42).
• The addition of EVA to a binder will not improve the elastic recovery of the
binder (41).

2.2.6.4 Characteristics of polymer modifiers

Figure 19: Comparison between softening points of various polymer modifiers

(15)
Softening point (ºC)

SBS

EVA
SBR

Polymer Content (%)

51
Figure 20: Comparison between viscosities of various polymer modifiers (15)

SBR
Viscosity

SBS
EVA

Polymer Content (%)

52
2.3 Rubber Crumb modified binder

Figure 21: Rubber Crumbs

The rubber crumbs used in the modification of binder will not modify a binder in the
same way as the above mentioned polymers, SBS, SBR and EVA.

Rubber crumb modified binder can be seen as a thermoset elastomer. Thermosetting

elastomers gain their strength from an irreversible cross-linking process that occurs
when the compound is subjected to pressure and heat.

During this process, or “cure”, special chemical agents within the compound react to
the heat and pressure to vulcanize the molecules together.

53
Once cured, thermoset compounds obtain the necessary physical properties needed
to function in fluid sealing applications. Reheating thermoset compounds will not cause
them to melt as thermoplastics do (49).

The rubber used in rubber crumb modified binder is obtained from old tyres that have
been shredded. The crumbs used are smaller than 1,18mm (i.e. 100% of the crumbs
go through the 1,18mm sieve).

20% rubber crumbs are blended in a high speed blender together with either 50/70
pen bitumen, 70/100 pen bitumen, or a blend of the two, with 2% extender oil.

The mix is than circulated in a storage tank and heated to 190ºC to 210ºC to allow for
the rubber crumbs to be digested into the penetration grade bitumen (46).

A maximum of 4% (by mass) of Calcium Carbonate or Talc may be added to the mix
as to prevent the rubber crumbs from sticking together.

Special care is required to prevent the rubber crumbs from digesting 100% in the
bitumen as the properties that the rubber crumbs give to the binder will be lost should
the rubber crumbs become totally digested in the bitumen (15).

When the blended binder cools down the partially digested rubber crumbs will form a
network of rubber throughout the binder which is filled with penetration grade bitumen.
The rubber network will have as a result improved cohesion, elasticity, stiffness and
flexibility of the binder. The strength of the binder will also improve dramatically.

Bitumen Rubber is used in asphalt pavements that because of heavy loads are prone
to permanent deformation. Bitumen Rubber is also used as binder for stress absorbing
membrane interlayers (SAMI’s) (15).

Other applications where the improved properties of bitumen rubber are used is for
reseals and overlays over heavily cracked surfaces, and in asphalt mixes where high
binder content is needed (28).

54
Advantages:
• The increased viscosity at higher temperatures reduces the risk of bleeding (15).
• Maintenance costs of the pavement are reduces on account of a reduction in
cracking of the pavement (47).
• Bitumen rubber is ideal for sealing cracks which are wider than 3 mm (15).
• The addition of rubber crumbs improves the resistance of the binder to age
hardening (21).
• Hot mix asphalt produced with bitumen rubber modified binder exhibits an
improved skid resistance of the surface (48).
• The use of bitumen rubber modified binder in an asphalt mix can reduce the
noise levels of the asphalt mix surface with as much as 5 dB (48).

Disadvantages:
• High initial surfacing costs (48).
• The application of bitumen rubber modified products need specialised
equipment (15).
• Bitumen rubber modified binder is difficult to hand spray (15).

• Bitumen rubber modified binder has a limited storage life when kept at
application temperature (15).
• Bitumen rubber modified binder does restrict the evaporation of entrapped
moisture from the modified product (15).
• Problems are experienced with early adhesion between the binder and
aggregate as a result of cold temperatures and/or moisture (15).
• When using bitumen rubber modified binder aggregate must be precoated (15).

55
 Chapter 3: Application of bitumen in the Construction
Industry

3.1 Introduction

Bitumen is one of the most versatile and expensive construction materials available.
It is used in a lot of construction applications and can seriously enhance the properties
of a construction material.

Below are a few of the applications utilised in the road construction industry where
bitumen plays an important part in the application.

3.2 Bitumen applications

3.2.1 Surfacing seals (50)

A surfacing seal is a layer of bituminous binder sprayed on a road surface (base

course, soil layer or existing road surface layer), which is then covered with an
aggregate (stone or sand) layer.

The bitumen layer is sprayed with the help of a truck that has a tank on the back in
which the bitumen is heated and stirred. At the end of the truck is a bar which has
nozzles at the bottom through which the bitumen is sprayed with help from a pump.

Directly after the truck is a stone spreader which dispenses the specified amount of
stone on top of the bitumen layer.

After the stone spreader pneumatic rollers and flat wheel rollers move over the surface
to settle the stone in its place.

56
Figure 22: Step1 of the sealing process, spraying of bitumen

Figure 23: Step 2 of the sealing process, spreading of stone

57
Figure 24: Step 3 of the sealing process, flattening of stone

The functions of a surfacing seal are:

1) Protect the underlying layers by providing a waterproof cover on top of the

underlying layer.
2) Prevent erosion by vehicle tires of the underlying layers.
3) Providing a rough surface that will prevent aquaplaning of vehicles.
4) Provide adequate skid resistance for vehicle tires.

58
Figure 25: Examples of different types of seals:

Stone
Tack coat (bitumen)
Single Seal Prime coat
Existing layer

2nd layer of stone

Penetration coat
1st layer of stone
Double Seal Tack coat (bitumen)
Prime coat
Existing layer

Fine Slurry
Fog Spray
Cape Seal Stone
Tack coat (bitumen)
Prime coat
Existing layer

2nd layer of stone

Penetration coat
Inverted 1st layer of stone
Tack coat (bitumen)
Double Seal Prime coat
Existing layer

FI

3.2.2 Slurry seals

A slurry is a homogeneous mixture of small aggregate (normally smaller than 6.7mm

(7.1 mm)), a modified cationic or anionic emulsion, water and a filler like lime or
cement.

Figure 26: Construction of a slurry seal

Fine Slurry
Slurry Seal Prime coat
Existing layer

59
The functions of a slurry seal are:

1) To provide a smoother texture to an existing surface that has to be resealed.

2) To provide maintenance in the form of corrective or preventative treatment to a
road surface.
3) To provide a new surface for a road or airfield.

Figure 27: Application of slurry seal

(2)

3.2.3 Soil Stabilization

3.2.3.1 Bitumen mixed in with aggregate

Bitumen Treated Base (BTB) is base course material in which bitumen is mixed to give
the aggregate more cohesion. Other ways in which bitumen can be added to base
course material are LAMBs (Large Aggregate Mixes for Bases) and ETBs (Emulsion
Treated Base).

60
Another application where BTB or ETB is used is when it is necessary to backfill a hole
that was dug while repairing potholes.

3.2.3.2 Emulsion mixed in with soil

As we learned earlier bitumen is mixed with water to form anionic (negatively charged)
or cationic (positively charged) emulsions. One of the big advantages of emulsions is
that they can be used to make soil more stable.

It can happen that compaction of soil cannot be achieved on site while the reasons for
this are not apparent. One of the possibilities why compaction of soil cannot be
achieved can be that on a molecular level the soil particles have obtained a positive
or negative charge.

If aggregate particles are charged they tend to repel each other which will lead to
compaction problems. Remember this happens on a molecular level and will not be
observed easily under normal circumstances.

To see if soil particles have obtained a charge specialized test must be done.

In South Africa aggregates that are used a lot are granite and quartzite, which are
negatively charged, while dolomite and limestone are positively charged.

If the aggregate is negatively charged (alkaline aggregates), use a cationic emulsion.

The positively charged bitumen particles in the cationic emulsion will go and lie
between the negatively charged aggregate particles after which the distance between
the various particles will decrease which leads to better compaction. The particles also
act as a glue between the negatively charged aggregate particles.

61
Figure 28: Interaction between negatively charged stone and positively charged
bitumen particles
(+)
(+)
(+)

(-) (+) (-)

(+) (+)
Negatively charged Positively charged Negatively charged

aggregate bitumen particle aggregate

(+)
(+) (+)

If the aggregate is positively charged, the use of an anionic emulsion can increase the
compaction of these aggregates.

3.2.4 Prime coat

When asphalt is placed the underlying layer has a tendency to “suck” the bitumen out
of the asphalt. The same happens with the bitumen that is used for a stone seal.

This happens because the underlying layer has been allowed to dry out over time
before the top layer is placed on top of it.

To prevent the dry underlying layer from obtaining bitumen from the top layer, the
underlying layer has to be primed with a prime coat.

The best product to use was tar but as this product has been banned bitumen in the
form of cutback bitumens and emulsions are nowadays used to prime underlying
layers.

The purpose of the prime coat is primarily to form a film over the underlying layer to
seal the layer of and thus prevent the dry layer from obtaining bitumen from the top
overlaying layer. While the prime coat does not have to penetrate the underlying layer
most engineers and technicians on site will look at the amount of penetration to see if
the prime coat is applied well. Different streams of thought are going around in the

62
road building industry whether the prime coat must penetrate the underlying layer or
just seal the underlying layer off from the overlaying layer. To be safe a compromise
of the two streams of thought must be accepted. At the end the bitumen from the
overlaying layer must not penetrate the underlying layer thus this layer must be sealed
off. But penetration of the prime coat is needed as the prime coat must not slip from
the underlying layer when the asphalt is applied.

As tar is not being used anymore the product normally used is MC30,a cutback
bitumen, as this product works well as a sealing membrane, penetrates deeply in the
underlying layer because of its low viscosity (i.e. thinner), dries out quickly and can be
used on all types of base course material.

The option of other newly developed products like E-Prime (Eco-Prime) should also
be considered as these products were developed specifically for this purpose.

Figure 29: Penetration of prime into the base course layer

63
3.2.5 Tack coat

A Tack coat is a type of sticky bitumen that is sprayed on the underlying layer, whether
it is a newly built base course more than two weeks old, a dirty surface or an old
asphalt surface to be overlaid, to ensure that the top layer, normally asphalt, sticks to
the underlying layer.

This is done to prevent the newly paved asphalt from sliding on the underlying layer
during paving and compaction.

Such sliding may cause tension cracks to develop in the new asphalt, either
immediately or over time.

In case of stone seals the tack coat is normally a bitumen emulsion that sticks the
stone to the underlying layer after the water has evaporated from the emulsion.

Emulsion normally has a brownish color when sprayed.

The brownish color indicates that the water in which the bitumen particles are
dissolved (emulsified) has not evaporated yet as a result of the temperature of the
pavement surface and/or the heat from the sun.

The process of water evaporation from emulsion is called “breaking of the emulsion”.

At the point at which an emulsion has broken the color of the emulsion has changed
from brown to black and only the bitumen is left.

64
Figure 30: Breaking of bitumen emulsion (Brown = not broken, black = broken)
(53)

3.2.6 Fog spray

Fog spray is emulsion used when the asphalt or seal surface needs to be repaired
because of brittleness and cracks developing in the dry surface.

This is normally done as part of a “holding action”, where the fogs pray is applied to
the surface to keep the surface in a reasonable condition until the surface can be
repaired as part of long term maintenance (normally until money is made available).

The emulsion used for this purpose usually has a bitumen content of 30%, 60% or
65%, either cationic or anionic emulsion.

65
Product names used in the industry include (COLAS, TOSAS, Spraypave etc.):

Cationic Spray Grade 60%: CRS60/KRS60

Cationic Spray Grade 65%: CRS65/KRS65
Cationic Spray Grade 60%: FS60 (same specification as KRS60, but can be diluted
50% with water, while maintaining a rapid brake rate)
Anionic Stable Grade 60%: SS60

When emulsion is used as a fog spray typically a spray rate of around 1 l/m2 is used.

Figure 31: Fog spray (54)

3.2.7 Dust palliatives

Dust and loose fine material can be a large problem on gravel roads. Gravel roads are
roads on which no asphaltic or concrete top layer is applied.

66
Because the upper soil layer is nor protected by asphalt or concrete, erosion by vehicle
tires will take place on a large scale.

Bituminous products can be applied to the soil at the top of the surface layer to bind
the soil together in strong protective shell.

This can be done by spraying bitumen emulsion on the surface of the soil layer or use
bituminous products that are specially developed for this purpose.

These types of products are called dust palliatives and can prolong the life of a gravel
road substantially.

3.2.8 Repair of cracks

Cracks that appear in a road surface can be repaired by filling the crack with a very
durable mixture of bitumen and rubber.

Figure 32: Repair of road cracks (55)

67
When the crack has been filled with this crack sealer or any other type of crack sealer,
it is advisable to protect the crack by overlying the crack with a bitumen saturated
geotextiles material.

3.2.9 Pothole repair

The repair of potholes is a very labor intensive process if done correctly. The hole in
the surface of the road must be sawed out in a square or rectangular shape. After the
top layer has been removed the underlying layers must be investigated. If it can be
seen that the underlying layer is loose, the material must be removed until the material
looks sturdy and bound again.

The hole must then be filled up, preferably with a bitumen or emulsion treated soil
material. The fill material can also be treated with cement if necessary. After this
material has been compacted the surface of the material must be treated with a prime
or tack coat. Normally not enough time is available to treat the surface of the soil with
a prime coat and only a tack coat will be applied.

The rest of the hole can then be filled up either with hot mix asphalt or with cold mix
asphalt which is specially developed for this purpose, which will be compacted in place
by a small vibratory roller.

The following shows the repair of a pothole where it was not necessary to remove the
underlying layer:

68
Figure 33: Step 1, saw the hole in a square or rectangular shape

Figure 34: Step 2, remove the material left behind in the hole (the specialized
cold mix asphalt is mixed on site if necessary)

69
Figure 35: Step 3, the hole is rubbed with bitumen emulsion

Figure 36: Step 4, the hole is filled with the cold mix asphalt

70
Figure 37: Step 5, the asphalt is compacted with a metal tamper or small roller

Figure 38: The final product

71
 Chapter 4: Asphalt

4.1 Introduction

The first indications of constructed roads date from about 4000 BC and consist of
stone-paved streets at Ur in modern-day Iraq and timber roads preserved in a swamp
in Glastonbury, England (61).

At about 2000 BC the Minoans on the island of Crete built a 50-kilometre road from
Gortyna on the south coast over the mountains at an elevation of about 1300 meters
to Knossos on the north coast.

Constructed of layers of stone, the roadway took account of the necessity of drainage
by a crown throughout its length and even gutters along certain sections.

The pavement, which was about 3.6 meters wide, consisted of sandstone bound by a
clay-gypsum mortar. The surface of the central portion consisted of two rows of basalt
slabs 50 millimeters thick. The centre of the roadway seems to have been used for
foot traffic and the edges for animals and carts.

It is the oldest existing paved road.

72
Figure 39: The Knossos road, oldest existing paved road (62)

In Babylon about 615 BC the Chaldeans connected the city’s temples to the royal
palaces with the Processional Way, a major road in which burned bricks and carefully
shaped stones were laid in bituminous mortar.

Other ancient road building techniques include streets constructed with burned bricks
cemented with bitumen between 3250 and 2750 BC by the Indus civilization in Sindh,
Baluchistan, Pakistan and the Punjab, India.

The Carthaginians are generally credited with being the first to construct and maintain
a road system (about 600 BC) (58, 59).

73
After the Romans defeated the Carthaginians, they took over the system of military
roads implemented by Carthaginians. It is estimated that the Romans built about
87,000 km of roads within their empire.

The pavement layer system introduced by the Romans consisted of up to 4 layers of

graded stone and pavement blocks (60).

Figure 40: Roman pavement structure (60)

Road building techniques stagnated until around the year 1775 when Pierre Marie
Jerome Trésaguet developed an entirely new type of relatively light road surface,
based on the theory that the underlying natural formation, rather than the pavement,
should support the load.

His standard cross section (shown in figure 41, top) was 6 meters wide and consisted
of a 20 centimeters thick course of uniform foundation stones laid edgewise on the
natural formation and covered by a 5 centimeters thick layer of walnut-sized broken
stone. This second layer was topped with a 2.5 centimeters thick layer of smaller
gravel or broken stone. In order to maintain surface levels, Trésaguet’s pavement was
placed in an excavated trench—a technique that made drainage a difficult problem.

74
Around 1780 Thomas Telford build roads on relatively flat grades (no more than 1 in
30) in order to reduce the number of horses needed to haul cargo (shown in figure 41,
middle). Further, the pavement section was about 350 to 450 mm in depth and
generally specified in three layers. The bottom layer was comprised of large stones
(100 mm) wide and 75 to 180 mm in depth). It is this specific layer which makes the
Telford design unique. On top of this were placed two layers of stones of 65 mm
maximum size (about 150 to 250 mm total thickness) followed by a wearing course of
gravel about 40 mm thick.

Around 1800 John Macadam used a sloped subgrade surface (shown in figure 41,
bottom) to improve drainage (unlike Telford who used a flat subgrade surface) on
which he placed angular aggregate (hand-broken, maximum size 75 mm) in two layers
for a total depth of about 200 mm (58, 64). On top of this, the wearing course was placed
(about 50 mm thick with a maximum aggregate size of 25 mm).

Macadam realized that the layers of broken stone would eventually become “bound”
together by fines generated by traffic.

Figure 41: road structure according to Trésaguet, Telford and McAdam (63)

75
The first tar macadam was constructed outside of Nottingham in 1848. The pavement
was built like a traditional macadam construction but coal tar was used as a binder.
As the tar was used without any specifications the tar macadam roads failed within a
few years of construction. This resulted in tar being discredited.

The first asphalt as placed in Paris in 1858. The pavement consisted of a 40 – 50 mm

thick wearing course composed of bitumen and sand. Below this was a 40 mm thick
binder course composed of broken stone and bitumen. This was placed on a concrete
layer, which was between 100 and 150 mm thick.

From this time onwards asphalt developed to the product as it is used now.

4.2 Asphalt

Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler, used for constructing and
maintaining all kind of pavements, parking areas but also play- and sport areas (65).

Figure 42: Asphalt (66)

The aggregate consists of hard material which is generally derived from the crushing
of solid rock or boulders.

76
Aggregates constitute approximately 95% of the mass and 85% of the volume of
continuously (dense) graded asphalt mixes.

Thus the structural and functional performance of an asphalt mix in the pavement layer
is largely influenced by the physical properties and characteristics of the aggregate
blend.

Aggregate materials for asphalt mix designs are mainly divided into three sizes (coarse
aggregates, fine aggregates, and fillers), and are conventionally defined as follows:

1) Coarse aggregates (crushed rock, crushed blast-furnace slag, etc.) – materials

retained on the 5 mm (4.75 mm) sieve;
2) Fine aggregates (crusher sand, clean natural sand, mine sand, selected river
gravel or a mixture of these.) – materials passing the 5 mm (4.75 mm) sieve but
are retained on the 0.075 mm sieve;
3) Filler – materials passing the 0.075 mm sieve

Three different kinds of fillers are usually encountered in asphalt manufacture, namely:

1) Bag house filler, which is extracted by the dust filtering unit of the mixing plant.
A proportion of this filler is usually returned to the asphalt mix.
2) Active or hydraulic fillers such as cement or hydrated lime. Although they are
not hydraulically active in asphalt, their high calcium content makes them ionic
adhesion promoters. Lime stone may perhaps also be added.
3) Non-active fillers are usually commercial fillers such as fly ash and milled blast
furnace slag. Natural dust or rock-flour is also used as a filler in asphalt.

In an asphalt mix, the filler generally serves the following purposes:

1) Acts as an extender for binder to stiffen the mastic and the mix, thereby improving
stability.
2) Acts as a void-filling material which can be used to adjust gradings and
volumetric properties.

77
 3) Some fillers e.g. lime are used to improve the bond between the binder and the
aggregate.
4) Specific fillers such as fly ash can be used to improve mix compactability

Small increases in the amount of filler in grading can literally absorb much of the binder
resulting in a dry unstable mix, and small decreases, i.e., too little filler will result in too
rich (or wet) mixes.

4.2.1 Production of asphalt

Besides stone seals, bitumen is mostly used in asphalt mixes. When aggregates,
bitumen (including modified bitumens) and filler are mixed together at temperatures
as high as 230ºC asphalt is produced (52).

Asphalt is normally produced in a batch plant. Here the correct quantities of aggregate
are weighed of after which they will be inserted in a heated drum mixer where the
aggregate is heated and mixed with bitumen, with asphalt as a result.

Below is a simplified graphical representation of the asphalt mixing process:

Figure 43: Asphalt mixing process (from left to right)

Storage

Heated mixing drum

Aggregate bins

Conveyer belt Conveyer belt

The asphalt is loaded onto trucks from the storage bins after which it is transported to
the site.

78
On site it is loaded from the truck in an asphalt paver which spreads the asphalt evenly
on the road.

Figure 44: Asphalt laid by asphalt paver (56)

A combination of pneumatic rollers and flat wheel rollers will compact the asphalt to
correct density behind the asphalt paver.

79
Figure 45: Rollers compacting an asphalt layer (67)

Asphalt can be used for different applications. The bearing capacity of asphalt can be
varied by changing the grading of the aggregate in the asphalt and/or by varying the
type of bitumen and/or modifier used in the asphalt mix.

Various types of asphalt are available in the industry. These types can be divided into
three types:

• Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA)

• Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
• Cold Mix Asphalt

80
4.3 Hot Mix Asphalt

Hot mix asphalt is a mixture of aggregate, binder and filler which is generally produced
at mixing temperatures between 140°C and 160°C.

Depending on the application the hot mix asphalt is going to be used for some of the
following types of hot mix asphalt are available:

• Continuously graded asphalt

• Gap graded asphalt
• Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)
• Foamed asphalt

4.3.1 Continuously graded asphalt mix

In continuously graded mixes, maximum density is obtained by the so-called

telescopic effect where the smaller particles fit into the voids of the larger particles to
obtain a condition approaching zero voids

Figure 46: Stone size and distribution in continuously graded asphalt (68)

81
Because of the fact that very close aggregate-to-aggregate contact is achieved in
continuously graded asphalt, the load bearing capacity, or resistance to plastic
deformation, is given by the stone skeleton.

At low temperatures, because of higher shear resistance of the binder, the mix will
become very stiff and resistant to deformation.

At high temperatures the interlocking action of the aggregate will determine the
deformation resistance of the asphalt.

Because of the fact that the voids in the aggregate are designed to be at a minimum,
air trapped in the mix and voids formed by poor aggregate distribution will increase the
possibility of the mix being permeable to air and water, with associated effects.

Three types of continuously graded asphalt mixes are produced:

1) Coarse Continuously Graded Asphalt mix, where the maximum stone size
present in the mix is 19.0mm.
2) Medium Continuously Graded Asphalt mix, where the maximum stone size
present is 9.5mm.
3) Fine Continuously Graded Asphalt mix, where the maximum stone size
present in the mix is 6.7mm.

Figure 47 and Table 6 depict the aggregate grading specified for a continuously
graded asphalt mix:

82
Figure 47: Graphic representation of the grading specifications for coarse,
medium and fine graded continuously grade asphalt

GRADING: Continuously Graded Asphalt mix

100

90

80

70

% THROUGH SIEVE
60

50

40

30
Co nt. Grad ed
20 (Co ars e) Lo wer Limit
Co nt. Grad ed
(Co ars e) Up p er Limit
10
Co nt. Grad ed
(M ed ium) Lo wer Limit
0 Co nt. Grad ed

19
0.3

0.6

6.7

9.5
0.075

0.15

1.18

2.36

4.75

13.2

26.5
(M ed ium) Up p er Limit
Co nt. Grad ed (Fine)
Lo wer Limit
SIEVE SIZE (mm) Co nt. Grad ed (Fine)
Up p er Limit

Table 6: Grading specifications for coarse, medium and fine graded

continuously grade asphalt
Asphalt Cont. Cont. Cont. Cont. Cont. Cont.
Mix Graded Graded Graded Graded Graded Graded
Stone Coarse Coarse Medium Medium Fine Fine
Specificati Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper
on Limit Limit Limit Limit Limit Limit
26.5 100 100
19 85 100
13.2 71 84 100 100
9.5 62 76 82 100 100 100
6.7 52 68 68 87 82 94
4.75 42 60 54 75 64 88
2.36 30 48 35 50 45 60
1.18 22 38 27 42 35 54
0.6 16 28 18 32 24 40
0.3 12 20 11 23 16 28
0.15 8 15 7 16 10 20
0.075 4 10 4 10 4 12

Continuously graded asphalt is suitable for all pavement layers and for all traffic
conditions.

83
4.3.2 Gap graded asphalt mix

If one looks at the grading curve of the aggregate sizes present in a gap graded asphalt
mix it can be seen that certain aggregate sizes have been left out of the mix (Figure
48 and Table 7 below).

Gap-graded asphalt consists of coarse aggregate of a fairly uniform size blended with
fine aggregate and filler.

The load bearing capacity of this type of mix is not as dependent on the aggregate
interlock principle, but to a much larger extent depends on the stiffness of the binder.
It can therefore be argued that the resistance to deformation of gap-graded mixes is
expected to be much lower than that of continuously graded mixes, unless a very hard
binder is used.

The main advantage of gap-graded mixes, however, lies in the fact that due to the use
of high percentages natural sand, which is not supposed to be continuously graded in
itself, a much higher percentage of voids is formed in the mineral aggregate. This
enables the mix to contain more binder than continuously graded mixes, which makes
it more durable and less permeable.

The relatively low stone content and associated lower internal stiffness also allows the
rolling in of chips to provide a better non-slip surface than can be obtained with
continuously graded mixes.

When choosing the sand for gap graded mixes one should, however, be careful not to
use a sand with too much fine material or clay size fractions as this will make the mix
too stiff and could lead to cracking and accelerated aging.

Figure 48 and Table 7 below depict the aggregate grading specified for a gap graded
asphalt mix.

84
Figure 48: Graphic representation of the grading specifications for gap graded
asphalt

GRADING: Gap Graded Asphalt mix

100

90

80

70

% THROUGH SIEVE
60

50

40

30
Ga p Gra de d (High)
20 Lo we r Lim it
Ga p Gra de d (High)
Uppe r Lim it
10
Ga p Gra de d ( Int.)
Lo we r Lim it
0 Ga p Gra de d ( Int.)
Uppe r Lim it

19
0.3

0.6

6.7

9.5
0.075

0.15

1.18

2.36

4.75

13.2

26.5
Ga p Gra de d (Lo w)
Lo we r Lim it
SIEVE SIZE (mm) Ga p Gra de d (Lo w)
Uppe r Lim it

Table 7: Grading specifications for gap graded asphalt

Asphalt Gap Gap Gap Gap Gap Gap
Mix Graded Graded Graded Graded Graded Graded
Intermedi Intermedi
Stone High High ate ate Low Low
Specificati Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper
on Limit Limit Limit Limit Limit Limit
26.5
19 100 100 100 100 100 100
13.2 75 100 75 100 75 100
9.5 65 85 70 90 70 90
6.7 58 71 65 80 67 83
4.75 50 60 60 70 65 75
2.36 45 55 53 63 60 70
1.18 45 55 53 63 60 70
0.6 36 52 45 63 55 70
0.3 25 45 35 55 45 65
0.15 12 32 15 35 20 40
0.075 5 12 5 12 5 12

Gap graded asphalt is used as a layer to even out surface roughness prior to
resurfacing. It can be placed in very thin layers and has improved workability.

85
Because of the missing aggregate size(s) gap graded asphalt is used as a wearing
course where the skid resistance needs to be improved. Precoated aggregate can
then be rolled in the asphalt mix as the missing aggregate makes room for the
precoated stones.

4.3.3 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA)

Stone mastic asphalt was developed for use as a surfacing that has high durability
and has excellent resistance to permanent deformation. As such this type of asphalt
is used in situations where the surface is subjected to high volumes of traffic. Stone
mastic asphalt has a very good wet weather skid resistance and noise is reduced on
this type of asphalt.

Figure 49: Aggregate size and distribution of Stone Mastic Asphalt compared to
Continuously Graded (Dense) Asphalt (69)

Stone mastic asphalt is basically a gap graded asphalt, which has an increased
amount of coarse aggregate, mineral dust and bituminous binder (6.5%). In this type
of asphalt cellulose fibers are added for extra strength (0.3 to 0.5%).

The coarse aggregate (aggregate larger than 2mm) forms a self-supporting skeleton
inside the mix. This self-supporting skeleton is achieved when there is contact
between the particles larger than 2 mm throughout the whole SMA layer and that this
contact is firm enough to carry the traffic load. The particles in this skeleton are kept

86
in place by the mastic, which consists of the smaller than 2mm aggregate and the
binder.

Another function of the mastic is to fill as much voids as possible without resulting in
the particles of the coarser aggregate lose their stone to stone contact.

Too much mastic will separate the coarse aggregate and create an unstable mix. Too
little mastic will give an unacceptable high voids content and thus reduce mix durability
and resistance to cracking.

Figure 50 and Table 8 below depict the aggregate grading specified for a stone mastic
asphalt mix

Figure 50: Graphic representation of the grading specifications for Stone Mastic
Asphalt

GRADING: Stone Mastic Asphalt mix

100

90

80

70
% THROUGH SIEVE

60

50

40

30
S .M .A. (13.2m m )
20 Lo we r Lim it
S .M .A. (13.2m m )
Uppe r Lim it
10
S .M .A. (9.5m m )
Lo we r Lim it
0 S .M .A. (9.5m m )
Uppe r Lim it
19
0.3

0.6

6.7

9.5
0.075

0.15

1.18

2.36

4.75

13.2

26.5

S .M .A. (6.7m m )
Lo we r Lim it
SIEVE SIZE (mm) S .M .A. (6.7m m )
Uppe r Lim it

87
Table 8: Grading specifications for Stone Mastic Asphalt
Asphalt
S.M.A. S.M.A. S.M.A. S.M.A. S.M.A. S.M.A.
Mix
13.2mm 13.2mm 9.5mm 9.5mm 6.7mm 6.7mm
Stone Max Max Max Max Max Max
Specificati Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper
on Limit Limit Limit Limit Limit Limit
26.5
19
13.2 100 100
9.5 67 90 100 100
6.7 41 65 50 80 100 100
4.75 30 50 30 55 80 100
2.36 21 32 22 32 34 44
1.18 17 27 17 27 24 34
0.6 14 24 14 23 18 30
0.3 11 23 11 22 13 25
0.15 9 17 9 19 9 19
0.075 7 12 7 12 7 12

4.3.4 Foamed Asphalt

The term ‘foamed asphalt’ refers to a mixture of pavement construction aggregates

and foamed bitumen.

The foamed bitumen, or expanded bitumen, is produced by a process in which water

is injected into the hot bitumen, resulting in spontaneous foaming. The physical
properties of the bitumen are temporarily altered when the injected water, on contact
with the hot bitumen, is turned into vapor which is trapped in thousands of tiny bitumen
bubbles.

However the foam dissipates in less than a minute and the bitumen resumes its
original properties. In order to produce foamed asphalt, the bitumen has to be
incorporated into the aggregates while still in its foamed state (70).

In order to mix bitumen with road-building aggregates, you first need to considerably
reduce the viscosity of the cold hard binder. Traditionally, this was done by heating the
bitumen and mixing it with heated aggregates to produce hotmix asphalt.

88
Other methods of reducing the bitumen viscosity include dissolving the bitumen in
solvents and emulsification.

In the foam state the bitumen has a very large surface area and extremely low viscosity
making it ideal for mixing with aggregates.

Advantages of foamed asphalt:

1) The foamed bitumen increases the shear strength and reduces the moisture
susceptibility of granular materials. The strength characteristics of foamed asphalt
approaches that of cemented materials, but foamed asphalt is flexible and fatigue
resistant.
2) Foam treatment can be used with a wider range of aggregate types than other of
cold mix processes.
3) Lower binder and transportation costs because foamed asphalt requires less
binder and water than other types of cold mixing.
4) Saving in time because foamed asphalt can be compacted immediately and can
carry traffic almost immediately after compaction is completed.
5) Energy conservation because only the bitumen needs to be heated while the
aggregates are mixed in cold and damp (no need for drying).
6) Environmental side-effects of the evaporation of volatiles from the mix is avoided
since curing does not result in the release of volatiles.
7) Foamed asphalt can be stockpiled with no binder runoff or leeching. Since foamed
asphalt remains workable for much extended periods the usual time constraints
for achieving compaction, shaping and finishing the layer are avoided.
8) Foamed asphalt layers can be constructed even in adverse weather conditions,
such as cold or light rain, without affecting the workability or the quality of the
finished layer (71).

89
4.4 Warm Mix Asphalt

While HMA is generally manufactured at temperatures between 140°C and 160°C,

WMA has been typically produced at temperatures between 120°C and 140°C in
South African trials. But temperatures as low as 100°C have been recorded (72).

The grading of WMA is based on continuously graded asphalt but WMA technology
resolves around altering the consistency of the bituminous binders to make them more
fluid at lower temperatures.

This enables mixing, paving and compaction at lower temperatures.

Advantages of Warm Mix Asphalt are as follows:

1) Lower mixing temperatures for WMA reduce fuel consumption, thus conserving
non-renewable fossil fuel.
2) Lower mixing temperatures reduce greenhouse emissions.
3) Lower fuel consumption leads to saving costs.
4) WMA processes are well suited to the use of mixes containing higher percentages
of reclaimed asphalt (RA) than HMA, thus reducing the burden on waste disposal
sites, reducing the need for non-renewable aggregate and bitumen resources,
which in turn reduces costs.
5) The softer binder resulting from the lower WMA production temperature could
rejuvenate the aged binder in the RA added (op to 40%) and improve the mix’s
overall fatigue properties.
6) Lower production and paving temperatures reduce emissions of aerosols, fumes
and dust, resulting in improved conditions for both workers and neighbouring
communities.
7) The lower emissions from WMA production opens the door to locating asphalt
plants closer to urban road networks, reducing haulage distance, fuel usage, the
impact of haulage on our road networks, and cost.

90
8) Maintaining a low viscosity at lower temperatures allows the mix to flow freely
through storage, transfer and placement equipment and makes it easier to work
by hand. The improved workability improves mix cohesion and aids compaction.
9) Because of WMA’s lower mixing and compaction temperatures, there is less
difference between the WMA and the ambient and road temperatures. So WMA
takes longer to cool from mixing to compaction temperature than HMA, providing
a longer compaction window. This allows a longer period for compaction to take
place, improves density, and the asphalt can be stored for longer, hauled longer
distances and used in colder temperatures.
10) WMA’s lower mixing temperatures cause less aging of the binder during mixing
and paving than HMA. This is expected to improve flexibility and resistance to
fatigue and thermal cracking in the asphalt.

4.5 Cold Mix Asphalt

Cold mixes are produced without heating the aggregate. This is only possible, due to
the use of a specific bitumen emulsion which breaks either during compaction or
during mixing.

After breaking, the emulsion coats the aggregate and over time, increases its
strengths.

Cold mixes are particularly recommendable for lightly trafficked roads, but this type of
mix is usually used to repair pot holes and is prepacked in manageable bags (between
20 and 40 kg).

91
4.6 Density of Asphalt

When working with asphalt designs it is important to determine certain characteristics

of the aggregate used in the design mix.

Different types of densities of asphalt are used when designing an asphalt mix.

The following will explain the differences between some of the density variants used
for asphalt:

4.6.1 Relative density of asphalt

The relative density of a material is measured by means of a reference material. Relative

density is a nondimensional number which gives density of any substance in relation to
another and is expressed as follows:

Density of material
Relative density =
Density of reference material

Civil engineers use relative density normally as the density of a certain material at a
certain temperature expressed as a ratio to the density of water (reference material)
at that same temperature (normally a temperature of 25º C is used).

When designing an asphalt mix it is very important to use the volumetric properties of
the aggregate in your calculations, and these properties are controlled by the mass of
the quantities of aggregate used. As such we need to know the relative density of the
aggregate used and the following formula is than used:

mass
Volume =
relative density

92
An asphalt mix consist of the following:
a) aggregate
b) binder
c) water
d) air
e) additives

The above mentioned is mixed together according to an asphalt mix which was
designed by an expert to allow for specifications as supplied by the client.

It would be nice if the design could be calculated only by using the relative density of
the aggregate as shown above but as we all know aggregate is not perfect but has a
rough surface which has cracks and holes in it.

If a designer specifies the amount of binder to be used while only the volume of the
aggregate is used in his calculations and no compensation is made for these cracks
or holes in the surface of the aggregate, it can be seen that not enough effective binder
will be used in the asphalt mix. Some of the binder will be used for filling these cracks
and holes.

In further studies you will see that one of the most important properties of an asphalt
mix is the voids in the mix. Software is available that can calculate these voids in the
asphalt mix.

If, as mentioned above, some of the binder is used to fill cracks and holes in the
aggregate used in the asphalt mix, some of the voids between the aggregate will not
be filled with binder as allowed for in the software calculations.

In this way more voids will be present in the asphalt mix and there is a change that the
mix will collapse in on itself (rutting, i.e. wheel tracking is one of the results of this).

93
Figure 51: aggregate with cracks and binder

Void filled
with binder

Crack
Void not filled
with binder

Aggregate Binder film on

aggregate

4.6.2 Bulk relative density (BRD)

When talking about bulk relative density the assumption is made that there are no
cracks or holes in the surface of the aggregate which can be filled with binder.

If this density is used in design calculations there will be less binder available to fill the
voids in the design asphalt mix, and the end result will be that there are more voids in
the asphalt mix than originally designed for.

This can have very negative consequences for the asphalt mix that is placed on the
road.

Figure 52: aggregate with cracks and binder, but no voids

Crack
No void

Binder film
Aggregat
on aggregate

94
Here the total volume used for density is equal to the sum of the volume of the
aggregate, the volume of the voids filled with binder and the volume of the voids not
filled with binder.

Thus:

mass of ovendried aggregate

BRD =
(vol. aggregate)+(vol. voids filledwithbinder)+(vol. voidsnotfilledwithbinder)

4.6.3 Apparent relative density of asphalt

When using apparent relative density it is assumed that all the holes and cracks are
filled with binder.

When using apparent relative density in design calculations for an asphalt mix some
of the calculated binder will not be used to wholly fill the holes and cracks.

The actual voids in the asphalt mix will thus be less than calculated, which will also
have negative effects on the performance of the mix.

Figure 53: aggregate with cracks and binder, but voids are filled with binder

Crack
Void filled
with binder

Aggregat
Binder film on
aggregate

95
Here we can say:

mass of oven dried aggregate

ARD =
(vol. aggregate)

4.6.4 Effective relative density of asphalt

Aggregate always will have cracks and holes in the surface.

These cracks and holes will never be totally empty of binder or totally filled up with
binder.

The situation will be a status quo between the two, i.e. the cracks and holes will be
partially filled with binder.

The density that makes use of this principle is called the effective relative density.

Figure 54: aggregate with cracks and binder, but voids are partially filled with
binder

Void filled
with binder

Crack
Void not filled
with binder

Aggregat
Binder film on
aggregate

When this type of density is used it can be seen that the design calculations will reflect
the true amount of voids in a designed asphalt mix.

96
Thus:

mass of oven dried aggregate

ERD =
(vol. aggregate) + (vol. voids not filled with binder)

Effective relative density is used to calculate the Maximum Theoretical Relative

Density (TMRD) of an asphalt mix.

97
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