o Homonym = A word that is spelled and pronounced like another but has a different

meaning (e.g., bat, current)

o Homophone = A word that has the same sound as another word but is spelled
differently and/or has a different meaning (e.g., due - dew)
o Superordinate = A word whose meaning includes the meaning of one or more other
words (e.g., pet – dog/cat)
o Homograph = A word that has the same spelling as another word but has a different
sound and a different meaning (e.g., lead - to go first with followers behind/a type of
metal)
o Hyponym = A word whose meaning is included in another one

EXPOSURE – the distinction between authentic and restricted is whether the exposure comes
from a text that is realistic (authentic exposure) or if it is from a text that is recognisably simplified or
includes an unnaturally high number of examples of a specific target item (restricted exposure).
From a teaching perspective you have to know what approach you need to adapt to the specific
text/material. Exposure is separated into:

o Authentic exposure - exposure to language when it’s being used fairly

naturally
o Restricted exposure – exposure to text specifically designed to be
accessible to learners – and probably draw attention to specific language
points

 Acquisition – language that we pick up subconsiously when we are engaged in

communicating and understanding messages

 Learning – language we consiously study and learn about, for example in a

classroom

OUTPUT – similar distinction between output (simplified or controlled) - maybe because

of a teacher instruction or by the nature of a particular task that makes the load on the
learner less demanding (=restricted output) and freer or more natural interaction which
might have many stresses and pressures (=authentic output).
 Authentic output – Speaking or writing using the full range of language learners have at their
disposal.
 Restricted output – Speaking or writing that requires learners to use less than the full
quantity of language they know. Learners get a chance to practise using language in way that are
controlled or simplified in a way that makes the load on the learner less demanding.

NOTICING - attention drawn to an item of language. Noticing is seeing or having one’s

attention drawn to the meaning, form or use of language items
 o procedure aims- what students will do during the class
o achievement aims- stating what the teacher hopes the students will
achieve during the class
 The Common European Framework (CEF)
Published by the Council of Europe, had a lot of influence over syllabus design in Europe. It
describes a possible course content in terms of what learners need to do with the language
to communicate in the real world, a radical departure from many syllabuses that describes
what people need to know. It organises the content into a defined level system. It provides a
common basis for disscussion and reform in language teaching, course design, testing and
materials writing. From the students’ perspective- it is more possible that the level of
qualifictions they achieved will be understood in another country.
 Timetabling:
In school management: The preparation of an overview master plan of which classes are with
which teachers in which rooms at which times.
For the teacher: refers to the decisions about how to interpret a syllabus into a series of
lessons (work plan, a scheme of work)

 Vocabulary usually feres to single words (e.g., dog, green, wash), and sometimes to
very tightly linked two- or three-word combinations (e.g., stock market, compact
disc, sky blue, go off)

 The concept of lexis is wider and bigger, because it refers to “internal database” of
words and complete ready-made fixed/semi-fixed/ typical combinations of words
that we can recall and use quite quickly without having to construct new phrases and
sentences word by word

 Lexis include:

-traditional single-word vocab items

-common “going-together patterns” of words (e.g., blonde hair, traffic jam) = collocations = lexical
items

-longer combinations of words that are typically used together as if they were a single item (e.g.,
someone you can talk to, on-the-spot decisions, I’d rather not say). = chunks/ multiword
items = lexical items

o Lexical item is a single word, part of the word or a chain of words that forms the
basic elements of a language’s lexicon (= vocabulary)
o Productive control of the words – using words to express yourself, in speech or in
writing
o -Receptive control of words – understanding words when you hear them or read
them

 How remembering works? putting into storage (brain)-> keeping in storage

(processing) -> retrieving (bringing back) -> using

 Lexical items list - one, that provides more info like: spelling, pronunciation
(transcription), grammar (noun, verb), translation, collocations, example sentence,
idea (icon)

 Labelling - grouping words into thematic sets, using pictures of places

  Word or topic webs – memory map/ mind map, using diagrams to show connections
between words, student should create them personally

o Word page – collocations and chunks, words that go together

 Intentional learning - Being an intentional learner means investing in the skills and
leadership training that will create your future. Intentional Learning happens when you set out to
learn something specific. You might Google for advice on how to solve a problem or cook a recipe.
You might enroll in a training course to learn how to paint or speak another language.
 Incidental learning - Incidental learning refers to any learning that is unplanned or
unintended. It develops while engaging in a task or activity. Incidental learning always happens in
the context of another activity or experience. For example, playing a video game in another language

 Categorical clustering (chunking), which is based on making associations among items in

order to organize them into semantic categories;
 Interactive images, also based on the principle of linking the items to be remembered,
but this time into a mental ‘picture,’ in which each of the items constitutes an element;
 Pegword system, which consists in making associations between each of the new items
and an existing item in memory, together with a number (e.g. “One is a bun. Two is a
shoe, etc.” (Anderson 1998:319)).
 Keyword system, in which images are created that link the sound and meaning of a
foreign word and the sound and meaning of a familiar word, in a foreign or native
language (e.g. “ogień – fajerka – fire.” Arabski 1996:124).
 Method of loci, based on a visualization of a familiar place with distinctive landmarks;
the items to be remembered are associated, in an individual’s mind, with specific
landmarks.
 What is grammar?

- not only rules, patterns, and structures, but also collocations, polite or unpolite forms etc.

- a living resource that allows us to be understood, not just a database full of rules

- understanding grammar means applying its rules in fluent speech and writing and not being able to
recite a rule we don’t know how to apply in real-life scenarios.

 A deductive approach (rule-driven) starts with the presentation of a rule

and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied.
 An inductive approach (rule-discovery) starts with some examples from
which a rule is inferred. Guided discovery.
 DRILL: Provide intensive oral practice of selected sentences, giving a learners chance to
practice the language without worrying too much about meaning.
 Substitution drills – repetition can be a little mindless; the following drills demands a little
more thought; these drills are based on the principle of substitution
 Transformation drills – based on the students making their own sentence based on a model
and information given by the teacher; eg. The student transforms a sentence of one kind into
another form
 True sentences – the most useful drill may be where the student is giving real information in
their answer – there is communication as well as language practice
 Total Physical Response (TPR):
 o A whole methodology that has proven to be very successful, especially at low levels.

o Initially learners are given restricted exposure to a large number of instructions.

Gestures and demonstrations quickly help learners to understand the meaning, and
learners then do what they are asked to.

o Learners are not required to use language themselves until they want to and feel
ready.

 Task-Based Learning (TBL):

o Lessons are centered round a task; the task will usually be ‘real world’ rather that
‘language focused’;

o The lesson will start with the task itself and may include other stages such as
listening ore preparing a report.

o Authentic exposure -> activities that promote ‘noticing