UNIT #1

Introduction to fundamental concepts of chemistry

SUBTOPICS
• Atomic mass
• Empirical formula
• Molecular formula
• Concept of mole
• Construction of mole ratios as conversion factors in stoichiometry calculations
• Avogadro’s number
• Important assumptions of stoichiometric calculations
• Stoichiometry
• Limiting reactant
• Percentage yield
Atom
The smallest particle of an element which takes part in the chemical reaction is called an atom.
Atom is made up of more than 100 sub-atomic particles e.g.
Electron, Proton, Neutron (fundamental sub-atomic), Hypron, Neutrino, Anti- Neutrino, Mesons,
Hyperons
J. Berzelius determined the atomic masses of the elements and developed the system of giving
symbols.
Examples:
May exist independently Monoatomic gases (He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe)
May not exist O, N, F, Cl, H,
independently
1-Atoms can be looked at by using
(A) light microscope (B) mass spectrometer
(C) electron microscope (D) ultra microscope
2- Which of the following is not a subatomic particle?
(A) Hypron (B) Magnetron (C) Neutrino (D) Antineutrino
3. Which of the following is not a molecule?
(A) H (B) N2 (C) C6H12O6 (D) CH4
4- O3 is an example of a
(A) compound molecule (B) homo-nuclear triatomic molecule
(C) hetro-nuclear triatomic molecule (D) an imaginary molecule
5. Atomic masses of elements were determined by
(A) John Dalton (B) Democritus (C) Avogadro's (D) J. Berzelius

Term Definition Represent Unit Examples/formulae

ation
Isotopic mass Mass of an isotope of an element amu Cl-35, Cl-37
Relative Mass of an atom of an element Ar amu On C-12 scale the relative
atomic mass as compared to the mass of an mass of carbon is 12.0000
atom of carbon taken as 12. amu and hydrogen is 1.0078.
C-12 standard scale because RAM=Mass of one atom of an
 i)It is highly stable isotope. element / (1/12) mass of one atom
ii)Its mass is exactly in whole of C-12
H=1.66x10-24
numbers i.e. 12.0000 C=1.99x10-23
iii) It can be handled easily.
Molecular Sum of the atomic masses of the amu CO2 (44 amu)
Mass atoms in a molecule.
Relative The ratio of the average mass of Mr amu
molecular mass one molecule of an element or
compound to one twelfth of the
mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Formula mass Mass of one formula unit of an amu NaCl (58.5)
ionic compound. Or sum of
masses of the ions
Molar Mass Mass of one mole of chemical g/mol
entity(atoms,ion,molecules,form
ula unit)
Average Average of the isotopes of an amu Chlorine 35.5
atomic mass element
Mole The atomic mass, ionic mass, Mol mol No.of moles=m/M
formula mass and molecular 1 mole of Na =23.0g of
mass of a substance expressed in sodium (one-gram atom of
grams Na)
1 mole of H2O = 18.0g of
water (one-gram molecule of
H2O)
1 mole of NaCl= 58.5g of
sodium chloride (one-gram
formula of NaCl)
−2
1 mole of SO = 96g of
4
sulphate ion (one gram
formula unit of mass of
−2
SO )
4
Avogadro’s The number of particles (atoms, NA N=n× NA
Number molecules, ions or formula units) 23g Na=1mol= NA atoms
present in one mole. Its value is 17g OH- =1mol= NA ions
6.023×1023. 18g H2O=1mol= NA
molecules
58.5g NaCl=1mol= NA
formula unit.
Molar Volume Volume occupied by one mole Vm Dm3/ n=V/Vm
of a gas at STP. Its value is mol 22.414 dm3 of H2 gas at
 22.414 dm3/mol. S.T.P = 2g = 6.02  1023
molecules.
22.414 dm3 of NH3 gas at
S.T.P = 17g = 6.02  1023
molecules.
Atomic mass It is 1/12th of the mass of one (amu) 1 amu=1.661×10-27 kg or
unit carbon atom. 1.661×10-24 g or 1.661×10-21
mg
1 amu=1/NA
Numerically amu is same as
the mass expressed in grams.
The unit used to express the relative atomic mass is
(A) Gram (B) Microgram (C) amu (D) All of these
12
Dalton (D): Recently amu has been changed by Dalton. Thus, C has mass of 12 D or 12amu.
And another unit called unified atomic mass(u) is also used.
1 amu=1u=1D
Element Relative atomic mass(amu)
Hydrogen 1.0078
Carbon 12.0000
Oxygen 15.9994
Neon 20.1797
Chlorine 35.453
Copper 63.546
Uranium 238.0289
Relative atomic are extremely small and difficult to measure by any balance.
MOLE
Determination of Mole
There are three main methods to determine number of moles of a substance.
• When mass of substance is given in grams:
Number of moles of substance = Mass of substance (g)
Molar Mass (g.mol-1)
• When volume of a gas is given.
Number of moles of gas = Volume of the gas in dm3 at STP
Molar volume at STP(22.414dm3)
Avogadro’s number
Number of particles (atomic, ions, molecules or formula units) = No.of moles ×NA
Number of moles = Number of particles of the given substance
6.022 x 1023
Q Avogadro’s number equals the number of
(A) Molecules per gram (B) ions per gram
(C) Atoms per gram atoms (D) Formula units per grams
Q 36g of pure carbon is equivalent to
(A) 3 moles of carbon (B) 3 x 6.02 x 1023 atom of carbon
(C) 1.806 x 1024 carbon atoms (D) All of these
Q. The number of Al+3 ions in AlCl3 is 2.007 x 1023. The number of Cl- ions are
(A) 6.02x1023 (B) 3.01x1023 (C) 2.007x1023 (D) 1.5x1024
Q. When 0.5 moles of Al2(SO4)3 are dissolved in in water, total number of particles
produced is
(A) 1.2x1023 (B) 3.0x1023 (C) 2.5x1023 (D) 1.5x1024
Q. The mass of one molecule of O2 is
(A) 32 (B) 32/NA (C) NA/32 (D) 3.2
𝑉
n = Vm Volume Volume V = n x Vm
e

𝑚 Mass
𝑛 = MOLE Mass m=nxM
𝑀

𝑁
n= Particles Particles
𝑁𝐴 N = n x NA

MASS SPECTROMETER:

An instrument which is used to measure the exact masses of different isotopes of element
together with their relative abundances is called mass spectrometer.
Types of mass
spectrometers
Aston’s mass It was designed to identify isotopes of an element on the basis of
spectrometer atomic masses.
Dempster’s mass It was designed to identify isotopes of an element which are in the
spectrometer solid state.
Parts of modern mass i)Vaporization chamber ii) Ionization chamber iii) Electric field
spectrometer (acceleration) iv) Magnetic field (Deflection) v) Ion
collector/detector/electrometer (detection) vi) Recorder vii)
Amplifier
The first five parts are present in Dempster’s mass spectrometer
while last two parts are present in modern spectrometers.

Instrumentation of Dempster’s mass spectrometer

It has following five main parts.
Stages Function
Vapourization In this chamber the sample of the element is vapourized and the vapour
Chamber pressure is reduced to 10-7 to 10-6 torr.
In this chamber sample of the element is ionized either by electron beam.
Ionization Ions have unpaired electron.
Chamber e- + X(g) X+(g) + e- + e-
e- + X2(g) X2+(g) + e- + e-
 Electric field is applied to accelerate the positive ions. The applied
Electric field potential difference is of 500-2000 volts. Positive ions are strongly
attracted towards negative plate and get accelerated.
On passing through magnetic field, deflection of positive ions takes place
Magnetic field according to their mass/charge ratio. The lighter the particle greater the
deflection.
m/e= H2 r2/2E
Ion collector receives positive ions according to their mass/charge ratio
related to isotopes.
Electrometer or ion The strength of current measured by ion collector gives the relative
collector abundance of ions of a definite m/e value. The magnitude of the electrical
pulse depends on the number of ions in the beam focused on the detector.
The greater the number of the ions falling on the detector, stronger the
electrical pulse produced i.e., signal produced is proportional to the
number of ions reaching the detector.
The same experiment is performed with C-12 isotopes and the current
strength is compared.

Other techniques for the separation of isotopes are based on properties

i) Gaseous diffusion ii) Thermal diffusion iii) Distillation iv) Ultra centrifuge v) Electromagnetic
separation iv) Laser separation
Mass Spectrum (mass spectrograph)
The plot of data which shows the relative abundance of isotopes along ordinate (y-axis) and m/e
along abscissa (x-axis).
Greater the abundance of the isotopes, stronger will be the peak and vice vers
Q. Separation of ions through magnetic field depends on
(A) m/e (B) e/m (C) e/z (D) z/e
Q. The atomic weight of an element can best be determined by
(A) x-ray analysis (B) mass spectrometry (C) spring balance (D) physical balance
Q. Which ion would be deflected most by the field in a spectrometer?
14 +2 12 +2 23
(A) N (B) C (C) Na+ (D) 4
He+2
The mass spectrum of neon
The three peaks in the mass spectrum show that neon contains three isotopes with relative
isotopic masses 20, 21 and 22, respectively.
Abundance of isotopes
The relative heights of the peaks the give a direct measure of the relative abundances of the
isotopes.

Average Atomic Mass:

i) Neon
20 21 22
Isotopes Ne Ne Ne
10 10 10
Relative abundance 90.92% 0.26% 8.82%
20 ×90.92+21 ×0.26+22 × 8.82
Average atomic mass of Neon = = 20.18amu
100

The mass spectrum of chlorine

Chlorine
35 37
Isotopes Cl Cl
17 17
Relative abundance 75% 25%
(i) Relative isotopic mass Cl = 35 amu
(ii) Relative isotopic mass Cl = 37 amu
(iii) Average atomic mass =
Relative isotopic mass x RA of 35Cl+Relative isotopic mass x RA of 37Cl
17 17
100
 (iv) Average atomic mass of C1 = 35 x75 + 37 x 25
100
Average atomic mass of C1 = 26.25 + 9.25 = 35.5amu
Isotopy
Study of isotopes is isotopy. The phenomenon of isotopy was first discovered by Soddy. Total
isotopes are 280 (naturally occurring), 40 (radioactive),300(unstable radioactive isotopes
produced by radioactive disintegration). The elements with even atomic number usually have
larger number of isotopes whose masses are multiple of 4 16O,24Mg,28Si,40Ca,56Fe are
comparatively more abundant and form 50% of earth crust. Out of 280, 154 have even atomic no
& mass no. Odd atomic No. elements never possess more than two stable isotopes.
Element Isotopes Abundance (%) Element Isotopes
1 2 3
H 3 H(99.985), H(0.015), H Ni 5
12 13 14
C 3 C(98.893), C(1.107) , C Ca 6
16
O 3 O(99.795),17O(0.037), 18O(0.204) Pd 6
14 15
N 2 N(99.634), N(0.366) Cd 9
32 33 34 36
S 4 S(95.0), S(0.76), S(4.22), S(0.014) Sn(tin) 11
35 37
Cl 2 Cl(75.53), Cl(24.47) As(Arsenic),F,I, 01
Au
79 81
Br 2 Br(50.54), Br(49.49)
20
Ne 3 Ne(90.92),21Ne(0.26), 22Ne(8.82),
10
B 2 B(20.02),11B(79.99)
Ag 16(naturally 107Ag (51.84),109Ag(48.16)
occurring)

SIMILARITIES&DISSIMILARITIES IN ISITOPES OF ELEMENTS

SIMILARITIES DISSIMILARITIES
Atomic Number Mass number
No.of protons No.of neutrons
No.of electrons Physical properties
Electronic Configuration Half life
Position in the Periodic Table Rate of reaction
Chemical Properties

Q. In the periodic table isotopes are arranged

(A) in order of increasing masses (B) given no place
(C) kept at the same positions (D) none of these
Q. The monoisotopic element is
(A) Uranium (B) Arsenic (C) Tin (D) Oxygen
COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
The sequence of combustion analysis is show in the following diagram. Sample of compound
containing C, H&O
By combustion analysis only those organic compounds can be analyzed which simply contain
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
From the masses, percentages are calculated by using the following formulae: -
%age of carbon = Mass of CO2 obtained in experiment X 12 X 100
Mass of organic compound × 44
%age of hydrogen = Mass of H2O obtained in experiment X 2.0 X 100
Mass of organic compound ×18.0
%age of oxygen = 100 – (% of carbon + % of hydrogen)

Q. The %age of C and H in a compound containing C, H and O only is 60.26% and 11.11 % respectively,
so the %age of oxygen is
(A) 19.62% (B) 20% (C) 60.26% (D) none of these
Example
A sample of liquid consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen was subjected to combustion
analysis. 0.5439 g of the compound gave 1.039 g of CO2, 0.6369 g of H2O. Determine the
empirical formula of the compound.
Solution
No. of gram Empirical
Element % Atoms Atomic ratio Formula

1.039g 12.00 52.108 4.34 C2H6O

X X100 =2
C 0.5439g 44.00 12 2.17
= 52.108 = 4.34
0.6369g 2.016 13.115 13.01
X X100 =6
H 0.5439g 18 1.008 2.17
= 13.115 = 13.01
34.77 2.17
= 2.17 =1
O 100 – (52.108 + 13.115) = 16.00 2.17
34.77

Difference between empirical and molecular formula

Empirical formula Molecular formula
A formula which represents the simplest A formula which represents actual
1 whole number ratio of atoms of element 1 number of atoms of each element in a
in a compound is called empirical molecular compound is called molecular
formula. formula.
 It is obtained from %age composition of It is obtained by multiplying ‘n’ with
2 elements i.e. chemical analysis 2 empirical formula i.e from empirical
formula

This term is used for both molecular and This term is used only for molecular
3 ionic compounds 3 compounds

Examples: NaCl, CH2O, CH are Examples: C6H12O6 and C6H6 are

4 empirical formula of sodium chloride, 4 molecular formulae of glucose and
glucose and benzene respectively. benzene respectively.
NOTE:
The term empirical formula is used for ionic compound and giant covalent structures
(sand SiO2, graphite and diamond C). It is also used for covalent compounds as CH2O for
glucose and acetic acid.
Relationship between empirical and molecular formula
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula where n=Molecular mass/empirical formula mass
Q. 127g of Cu reacts with 32 g of Oxygen, the formula of product is (At. Mass of Cu is 63.5)
(A) Cu2O (B) CuO (C) Cu2O3 (D) CuO2

STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry, which tells us the quantitative relationship between
reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation.
Chemical equation
Chemical equation in the statement that describes a chemical reaction in term of symbols and
chemical formulas.
Limitation of balanced chemical equations
They do not tell about the
Conditions (temperature and pressure
Rate of reaction
Physical state of reactants and products
Mechanism of reaction
Feasibility of reaction
Conditions for stoichiometric calculations
i) All the reactants must be completely converted into the products.
ii) No side reaction.
iii) The law of conservation of mass and the law of definite proportions must be obeyed while
doing the calculations.
Q. Stoichiometric calculation cannot be applied to reversible reaction because
(A) Product again changes to reactant (B) Less product is formed
(C) Reaction go only to one side (D) Products do not disappear
The following types of relationship can be studied with help of a balanced chemical equation at
S.T.P
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g) ∆H = -482 kj/mol
2 moles 1 moles 2 moles
4g 32g 36g
44.828dm3 22.414dm3 44.828dm3
 Relationship Definition Example
Mass-mass relationship If we are given the mass of
one substance, we can
calculate the mass of the
other substance.
Mass-mole relationship or If we are given the mass of
mole-mass relationship one substance, we can
calculate the mole of other
substance and vice versa.
Mass-volume relationship If we are given the mass of
one substance, we can
calculate the volume of the
other substance and vice
versa.

Mole-mole relationship If we are given the mole of

one substance, we can
calculate the mole of the
other substance and vice
versa.
Volume-Volume Equal volumes of gases 2NH3 → N2+ 3H2
relationship contain equal number of 2 mol 1 mol 3mol
3
moles(if measured under If 20 cm of ammonia is
same condition).This means decomposed then 10 cm3 of
the ratio of gas volumes in a nitrogen and 30 cm3 of
reaction must be same as hydrogen will be formed.
the ratio of the number of Example. What volume of
moles in the equation. oxygen is needed to react
with 40 cm3 of methane and
what volume of CO2 is
formed if all gas volumes are
measured under the same
conditions?(ANS. 80,40)

Q. NH3 burns in O2 according to the following reaction:

4NH3(g) + 3O2 (g) ------- 2N2(g) + 6H2O(g). It shows that
(A) 1 mole of NH3 will produce ½ mole of N2
(B) 1 mole of NH3 will produce 6 moles of H2O
(C) for the complete reaction 2 moles of NH3 and 20g of O2 are required
(D) for the complete reaction 2 moles of NH3 and 40 g of O2 are required
Q. What is the maximum mass(g) of ethyl ethanoate that can be obtained from 0.1 mole of
Ethanol.
(A) 1.0
(B) 88
 (C) 8.8
(D) 4.4
Q. The reaction between marble and HCl gives CO2.What mass of marble would be required to
produce 11 g of CO2?
(A) 50
(B) 100
(C) 25
(D) 12.5
Q. A cook is making a small cake. It needs 500 cm3(at STP) of CO2 to make the cake rise. The
cook decides to add baking powder which generates CO2 on decomposition. What mass of
NaHCO3 he will add?
(A) 5.0
(B) 3.5
(C) 2.5
(D) 1.5
Q. When 0.1 kg of CaCO3 is decomposed, then volume(dm3) of CO2 produced at STP is
(A) 10
(B) 11
(C) 22.4
(D) 14.4
(Ans: 22.414 dm3)
Q. What volume of O2 is required for the complete combustion of 5cm3 of CH4 and 5 cm3 of C2H6?

(A) 15
(B) 22
(C) 25
(D) 27.5
(Ans: 27.5dm3)
Q. What volume of oxygen is needed to react with 40 cm3 of methane and what volume of CO2
is formed if all gas volumes are measured under the same conditions respectively?
(A) 10,20
(B) 20,40
(C) 80,40
(D) 40,80

(ANS. 80,40)
Limiting reactant
Limiting reactant is a reactant that controls the amount of the products formed in a chemical
reaction due to being less than the required amount. It can also be defined as follows:
• It is a reactant that produces least number of moles of product.
• It is consumed earlier in the reaction.
Identification of limiting reactant
• To identify a limiting reactant, the following three steps are performed.
• Calculate the number of moles from the given amount of reactants.
 • Calculate the number of moles of product formed from the given moles of each
reactant.
• Identify the reactant as limiting reactant which produces least moles of the
product.
Q. If 8 g of hydrogen reacts with 32 g of oxygen to form water the mass of water produced
is,
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
(A) 9g (B) 18g (C) 36g (D) none of these
Q. In the above reaction the amount of product is controlled by

(A) H2 (B) O2 (C) H2O (D) none of these

Term Definition
Yield Amount of product obtained from a chemical reaction.
Reaction between organic compounds do not give 100% yield of products.
Theoretical yield The quantity of product calculated from the balanced chemical equation
(stoichiometrically)
Actual The quantity of product that is actually produced in a chemical reaction. The
yield(Experimental actual yield may be lesser than the theoretical yield due to following reasons,
Yield) i) Side reactions may produce by-products
ii)Reactions are reversible
iii)Mechanical loss takes place due to filtration, distillation, and separation by
separating funnel, washing ,drying and crystallization etc
Percent yield Actual yeild
Percent yield =  100
Theoratical yeild
Question. In an industry Copper metal was prepared by the reaction,
Zn+ CuSO4 →ZnSO4+Cu
1.274g CuSO4when reacted with excess of Zn a yield of 0.392g Cu was
obtained. Calculate the % yield.
Solution.
Zn+ CuSO4 →ZnSO4+Cu
159.6 g 63.5g
1.274g Xg
X=63.5×1.274
159.6
=0.5072 g
% yield=0.392×100
0.5072
=77.3%