Module 5: The Scientific Method and

Description
Key Terms and Definitions

Theory

Definition: An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and
predicts behaviors or events.

Example: A theory suggesting that sleep enhances memory could organize various
observations about sleep patterns and memory performance.

Hypothesis

Definition: A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Example: Hypothesis: "People who get less sleep will perform worse on memory tests than
those who get adequate sleep."

Operational Definition

Definition: A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a

research study.

Example: Defining "sleep deprivation" as getting less than 5 hours of sleep per night for the
past week.

Replication

Definition: Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in
different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and
circumstances.

Example: Conducting the same sleep and memory study with a new group of participants to
verify the original results.

Case Study

Definition: A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the
hope of revealing universal principles.

Example: Analyzing the cognitive development of a single child over several years to
understand broader patterns in child development.

Naturalistic Observation
Definition: Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to
manipulate and control the situation.

Example: Watching how chimpanzees use tools in their natural habitat without interfering.

Survey

Definition: A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular

group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Example: Polling a sample of students about their study habits to infer trends across the entire
student body.

Sampling Bias

Definition: A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Example: Conducting a survey on student satisfaction by only including responses from

students in advanced placement classes.

Population

Definition: All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Example: All students at a high school when studying student attitudes about school policy.

Random Sample

Definition: A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal
chance of inclusion.

Example: Randomly selecting students from a school directory to ensure every student has an
equal chance of being included in a survey.

Comparisson Chart

Research Definition Strengths Weaknesses

Method

Case Study An in-depth study of Provides detailed, rich May not be generalizable;
one individual or group. data and insights into individual cases might be
rare or complex cases. atypical.

Naturalistic Observing behavior in Offers insights into real- No control over variables;
Observation natural settings without world behavior; high can’t determine cause-
manipulation. external validity. and-effect relationships.

Survey Collecting data through Can gather data from Results can be affected by
questions from a many people; useful for wording effects and
representative sample generalizing results to a sampling bias; may not
 of a population. larger population. capture nuanced behavior.

Module 6: Correlation and

Experimentation
Correlation

● Definition: A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of
how well either variable predicts the other.
● Example: There is a positive correlation between the number of hours studied and exam
scores. As study hours increase, exam scores tend to improve.

Correlation Coefficient

● Definition: A statistical index of the relationship between two variables, ranging from -
1.0 to +1.0.
● Example: A correlation coefficient of +0.8 indicates a strong positive relationship
between two variables, such as height and weight.

Scatterplot

● Definition: A graph in which each dot represents the values of two variables. The slope
suggests the direction of the relationship, and the amount of scatter indicates the
strength of the correlation.
● Example: A scatterplot of hours of exercise per week versus fitness levels might show a
positive slope, indicating that more exercise correlates with higher fitness levels.

Experiment

● Definition: A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors

(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
(dependent variable).
● Example: Testing whether a new teaching method improves student performance by
comparing test scores between a group taught using the new method and a group
taught using the traditional method.

Experimental Group

● Definition: The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment or independent

variable.
● Example: In a study examining the effects of a new drug, the experimental group would
be given the drug.

Control Group

● Definition: The group in an experiment that is not exposed to the treatment and serves
as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
 ● Example: In the same drug study, the control group would receive a placebo.

Random Assignment

● Definition: Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to

minimize preexisting differences between the groups.
● Example: Randomly assigning participants to either the experimental group or the
control group to ensure that each group is comparable.

Double-Blind Procedure

● Definition: An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the
research staff are unaware of which participants have received the treatment or a
placebo.
● Example: In a clinical trial for a new medication, neither the participants nor the
researchers know who is receiving the actual medication and who is receiving a placebo.

Placebo Effect

● Definition: Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior

caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient
assumes is an active agent.
● Example: A patient experiences relief from symptoms after taking a sugar pill, believing
it to be an actual medication.

Independent Variable

● Definition: The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is
being studied.
● Example: The type of teaching method used (new vs. traditional) in an experiment on
teaching effectiveness.

Confounding Variable

● Definition: A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in
an experiment.
● Example: In an experiment testing the impact of a new study technique on exam
performance, a confounding variable might be the prior knowledge of the participants.

Dependent Variable

● Definition: The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to
manipulations of the independent variable.
● Example: Exam scores in an experiment studying the effect of different study
techniques.

Validity

● Definition: The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is

supposed to.
 ● Example: A well-designed intelligence test should accurately measure a person’s
cognitive abilities, not just their ability to take tests.

Research Basic How What Is Strengths Weaknesses

Method Purpose Conducted Manipulated

Descriptive To observe Do case Nothing Case studies Uncontrolled

and record studies, require only one variables
behavior naturalistic participant; mean cause
observations, naturalistic and effect
or surveys observations cannot be
may be done determined;
when it is not single cases
ethical to may be
manipulate misleading.
variables;
surveys may be
done quickly and
inexpensively.

Correlational To detect Collect data Nothing Works with large Does not
naturally on two or groups of data; specify cause
occurring more may be used and effect.
relationships; variables; no when an
to assess how manipulation experiment
well one would not be
variable ethical or
predicts possible.
another

Experimental To explore Manipulate The Specifies cause Sometimes not

cause and one or more independent and effect; feasible;
effect variables; use variable(s) variables are results may
random controlled. not generalize
assignment to other
contexts; not
ethical to
manipulate
certain
variables.