Experiment 1 |- A Vernier Calliper has two scales; one main scale and a Vernier scale. 2- Vernier scale slides along the main scale. 3- Main scale has two fixed jaws; A and C, projected at right angle to scale. 4- Sliding Vernier scale has jaw B and D, projecting at right angle to it and also with main scale and metallic strip. (N) 5- Zero coincides of main scale and Vernier scale. If jaws are made to touch each other. 6- Jaws and metalic strip is designed to measure distance/ diameter of an object. 7- Knob P is used to slide Vernier scale on the main scale. 8- Screw S is used to fix the Vernier scale at a desired position.Least count of common scale is 1mm, Least count of _ Vernier vernier caliper ~~ constant so accuracy is less. > KO fe) ) you know? Least = Difference in count — magnitude of 0 Vernier scale allow to reduce least oa one MSD and count, which one VSD enable to measure more accurately. _ # 2Y 22 2s Smallest distance that can be measured using the instrument. > Vernier Constant = 1 MSD N > Vernier Constant (V_) = 1 main scale - 1 vernier scale ion = de > N here used is number of vernier scale division. »> Zero error = When jaw A and B touch each other. > Zero of vernier scale should coincide with main scale zero, If it is not so, then it has zero error.Positive Zero Error Negative Zero Error 1- Zero of Vernier scale shifted to 1- Zero of Vernier scale right of main scale zero shifted to left of main Due to manufacturing effect or scale zero. rough handling. 2- Reading will be less than 2- Reading taken will be more actual reading. than actual reading. 3- Here 5th Vernier is 3- Here 5th Vernier scale is coinciding with a main scale coinciding with a main scale reading. reading. 4- Zero error = +5 x L.C 4- Zero error =-5xLC = +0.05 cm =- 0,05 cm 5- True reading = 5- True reading = observed reading - (+ zero error) observed reading - (- zero error)Experiment 2 > Use of screw gauge to measure diameter of a given wire, measure thickness of a given sheet. > With Vernier caliper, we can measure length accurately up to 0.4mm > More accurate up to 0.01mm or 0.005mm can be made by using screw gauge. > Screw gauge is of higher precision than vernier caliper. > The distance advanced by the screw when it makes its one complete rotation is the sepa ration between two consecutive threads, is called pitch. > LS = Linear Scale/ Smallest division 1mm ©» CS = Circular Scale/ Rotatable/ 100 division > When A and B touch each other then zero mark on both LS and CS coincides. > If it doesn’t coincide, then said to have zero error in screw. > If reading on circular scale across the linear scale is more than zero - Positive Zero Error > If reading on circular scale across the linear scale is less than zero - Negative Zero Error U - FRAME Fig. 1: View of a screw gaugeThe mark on the The division of linear scale which lies circular scale which close to the left edge coincides with of circular scale is, main scale is the, Linear Scale Reading Circular Scale Reading How to take the Reading Pitch No. of divisions on circular scale Linear distance Rotation moved by screw given to it Least Count = If one division of circular scale rotated, then linear distance moved is called, Least Measurable Distance ‘Wire Fig. 2: Measuring thickness with a screw guageA Precautions: > Ratchet arrangement in screw gauge must be utilised to avoid undue pressure on the wire as this may change the diameter. > Move the screw in one direction else the screw may develop “play”. > Screw should move freely without friction. Reading should be taken at least at four different points along the length of the wire. > View all the reading keeping the eye perpendicular to the scale to avoid error due to parallax. Screw Gauge or Due to repeated Spherometer use, threads of nut and screw may get worn out. To prevent this, ~E Gap develops screw should be . beween moved in only two threads one direction. is called ‘play’ Error developed is called Backlash ErrorExperiment 3 A, (W’) n ——_ Fig. : Graph between A? and n for a simple pendulum > When a simple pendulum executes SHM, the restoring force F is given by, Ft) = -Kx() > Where, x(t) is the displacement at time t and K=™8/L > When, w is the angular frequency and @ is a constant, Ao is the minimum displacement in each oscillation, which is called amplitude. > Total energy remains constant in an ideal pendulum, because it's amplitude remains constant. > But in real pendulum, the amplitude never remains constant. It decreases with time due to several factors. > Like air drag some play at the point of suspension, imperfection in the rigidity of string and suspension etc.»> Therefore, amplitude Ag falls with time at each succesive oscillation. > Where Apo is the initial amplitude and \ is a costant which depends on damping and the mass of bob, total energy of the pendulum at time t is then given by, > Thus energy falls with time, because some of the energy is being lost to the surroundings. > The frequency of a damped oscillator does not depend much on the amplitude, therefore instead of measuring time, we can also measure number of oscillations ‘n’ at the end of the oscillation. eee 7 T = time period E, = E) en > En energy of oscillator at the end of n oscillation. Precautions: ©» Experiment should be performed in a section of laboratory where air flow is minimum. > Pendulum must swing for at least a couple of oscillations before recording its amplitude, this will ensure that pendulum is moving in the same plane.Experiment 4 Metre Scale- Mass of Given Object by the Principle of Moment Theory —> If we have an unknown mass of mass m, and another mass ‘M’ which is being placed in paper bag, Distance of unknown mass from wedge = power arm = a, Distance of paper bag from wedge = weight arm = a, <— 4, —_5<__ a, —__y Then if at a particular position of a, and a, meter scale becomes horizontal, then if means net moment about wedge is zero. 7 Note: mga, = Mga, It is clear that their is no impact of gravity in final result obtained. 7 Material required > Meter scale, weight box, Known mass, paper bag, wedge. Instruction —> Use a broad and heavy wedge with sharpe edge. Meter scale should have uniform mass distribution. threads used for loops should be thick light and strong. Sources of error > |. Wedge may not be sharp. 2. Meter scale may have faulty calibration. 3. Threads used for loops may be thick and heavy.Experiment 6 Fig. : Rise of liquid in a capillary tube > When a liquid rises in a capillary tube, the weight of the column of the liquid of density p below the meniscus is supported by the upward force of surface tension acting around the circumference of the points of contact. yg (approx.) for water = T = Surface tension of liquid a wees gr h = height of the liquid column r= inner radius of capillary tube x Precautions: > To make capillary tube free of contamination, it must be rinsed first in a solution of caustic soda then with dilute nitric acid and finally cleaned with water thoroughly. > Capillary tube must be kept vertical while dipping it in water, to ensure that capillary tube is sufficiently wet, raise and lower water level in container by lifting or lowering the beaker. > It should have no effect on height of liquid level in the capillary tube, water level in capillary tube should be slightly above the edge of the beaker/ dish so that the edge does not obstruct observations.> > > Surface tension changes with impurities and temperature of liquid. Inserting dry capillary tube in the liquid can cause gross error in the measurement of surface tension as liquid level in capillary tube may not fall back when the level in container is lowered. In a fine capillary tube, the meniscus. surface may be considered to be semispherical and the weight of liquid above the lowest point of the meniscus as forng now the formula will become It will give more precise calculation of surface tension. Detergent reduces the surface tension of water. This can be checked by fact that when detergent added to distilled water, rise will become less. If quantity of detergent increased then rise will be still lesser.Experiment 7 When a spherical body of radius ‘r’ and density ‘o’ falls freely through a viscous liquid of density *p’ and viscosity *y’ with terminal velocity “V“ Upward force = downward force > By re-arranging: > where, “V’ is the terminal velocity, the constant velocity acquired by a body while moving through viscous fluid under application of constant force. > Terminal velocity depends directly on r? from above equation, so for different radii of spherical balls, if we plot a graph °V’ vs ‘r?’, it will be a straight line. From graph we get slope as v/r? so,Za Souce of Error and Precautions: >> In order to minimise the g factor, although small on the value of terminal velocity, Radius of the guide bore tube contaning the experimental viscous liquid shall be much longer than radius of the falling spherical balls. > The steel balls should fall without touching the sides of tube. »> The balls should be dropped gently in the tube containing viscous liquid.Experiment 08 Speed of Sound in Air at Room Temperature Using a Resonance Tube. Apparatus > Resonance tube, Rubber pad, Thermometer, set squares, plumb line, water in beaker, two timings barks of known frequency. Theory > Let |, and I, be length of air column for first and second resonance respectively. with turning fork of frequency f. Then, A=2(,-1) Speed, v = fA On substituting we get, v= 2f(I, - |) MS NO]>) =) 5, a6) =) IRON BASESi Procedure > |. Set the resonance tube vertical, with the help of leveling screw. 2. Fix the resesvior R in the uppermost position. 3. Loose the cock p, and fill the reservoir and tube with water by braker. 4. Tight the cock, lower the resesvior and fix it in the lowest position, 5. Take use of tuning fork of higher frequency.Experiment 9 > If we have a body of mass ‘m’ and specific heat ‘S’ then, in case if the temperature of body changes by At, then heat gained or lost by it is given by, > Specifuc Heat Capacity Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through unit degree centigrade (SI Unit Jkg~! K*t) > Calorimetry Principle If we brought two body of different temperature in thermal contact, amount of heat lost by body with higher temperature = amount of heat gained by body with lower temperature, at thermal equilibrium, provided no heat is lost to surrounding. [=e Process for specific heat of solid: Measure mass of empty calorimeter having lid and stirrer say mass obtained is m, > Fill the calorimeter with water and measure its mass now, say mass obtained is mz > Dip the given solid in water and put it out, shake it so that no water drop is stick with solid. measure the wet solid say mass m3 > In a beaker containing water put the solid in it with help of thread tied with solid, such that solid can be kept out of it with the help of solid. > Put this beaker on wire gauze on tripod stand. now heat the beaker for 5-10 min.s > Measure the temperature of calori meter water, say it is ty After 5-10 min.s boil measure the temperature of water in beaker, say it is, tz > Now remove the solid from boiling water and after shaking it, dip it in calorimeter.Once thermal equilibrium is achieved, then measure temperature say it is t;)> Heat lost by solid when it cools from t, to t3 = heat gained by water and calorimeter from t, to t3 from here, > Terms used here are, mass of water in calorimeter = m,- m, m, = mass measure of calorimeter before adding water m, = mass of calorimeter after adding water t; | = temperature of water calorimeter initially t, | = temperature of solid in boiling water ts = final temperature of calorimeter water m3 = mass of solid (wet) So = Specific heat of solid (to be determined) Ss pecific heat of water S; = Specific heat of calorimeter [F note: "> Above experiment is for measure of specific heat of solid, if all other qualities like specific heat of water/ liquid used in calorimeter is known and specific heat of calorimeter is known. »» Repeat the same experiment for measuring the specific heat of liquid/water filled in calorimeter and you will have the specific heat of solid and material of calorimeter known. > and now the equation - 1 will be re-written like:Experiment 10 The Resistivity of the Material of a Given Wire Using Metre Bridge. It completly based on wheat stone bridge principle. Which says for no deflection in galvanometer. P “QS Resistance of wire of length AD R___ Resistance of wire of length DC Here S is unknown resistance, a = Area of cross section of wire L = length of wirePrecautions > All the connections and plugs should be tight jockey should be move gently over meter bridge wire. The plug in key (K,) should be inserted only at the time of taking observa- tions. Null points should be in the middle of wire. (30 cm to 70cm) Source of Error > + Metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross section. + Effects of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect the measurement * The length L of wire should not include the length below the terminals when placed in gap E or F. * The resistance of end piece/metal strip may not be negligible, the error introduced by it can be + If metre bridge wire is not tightly streched between scale, then It will arise error. kK— em > (100-l)em ———>|Experiment I 1 The resistance of a given wire using Ohm’s law If we have a conductor, such that potential difference ‘V’ exist between the two end of a conductor, when current | is flowing through it. then Va l>Vv=ER R is resistance of conductor 1|_ ——@———{kJ wr Rheostat R If we plot a graph of potential difference V along y-axis and current (I) along x axis, for different value of Rheostat resistance (means by adjusting Rheostat we get different voltage drop across conductor so different current for conductor), and we obtain a straight line graph passing through origin. Material required > Ammeter, voltmeter, Rheostat, Battery and wire of unknown resistance, sand Paper.Precautions > * Connection should be neat, clean and tight. + Use thick Cu wire for the connections after removing insulations near their ends by sand paper. * Use a low resistance rheostat. * The unknown resistance should not be too low (much lower than internal resistance of battery). * The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heavy resistance (otherwise it’s resistance will increase) * Zero error in measury instruments. Source of Error > * Wire used may not be of uniform area of cross section. + Length of resistance wire measured should be between one terminal of voltmeter and the other. * Length of ends wound around the terminals of volmeter. If included would give error in measured length. Notes > | - Arresistor obey ohm’s law. If instead of V-I However not all ~~ graph, we plots I-V conducting devices obey I ohms law. example: graph then slope will Diode, thermistor, etc are \ give ! ,notR non-ohmic resitance. al ieExperiment [2 Resistance and Figure of Merit of a Galvanometer by Half deflection method Galvanometer is a sensitive device used to detect very low current it's working is based on principle that a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field. Experience a torque when an electric current is setup in it. Deflection is determind with the help of pointer attached to it. Ifa coil carrying current | is placed in a radial magnetic field,coil deflection 8 is given by. 1=K@ K = figure of merit of a galvanometer + High Resistance Box From diagram if only K, is closed then deflection is @ and if both K, and K, closed then deflection becomes 0/2. RS from given circuit diagram, G= > given circuit diag RS If K, is closed only then figure of merit of galvanometer Ke JT/eE Which is calculated by opening K, and © \R+G only crossing K,Precautions > * Key K, should be inserted only after high value of R has been taken out from resistance box otherwise galvanometer coil may burn + Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer is of even division, so that 8/2 will be easy to calculate. * EMF of battery should be constant. + Use as high as practically possible value of R, this ensure correct value of G. * All the connections and plays in the resistance box should be tight. Source of Error > + Plugs in the resistance box maybe loose or they may not be clean. + Emf of battery may be constant. Notes > —_ = If we plot a graph between —| Current sensitivity RS and R-S RS on axis and ) __ of galvanometer = R-S on x axis it’s slope will E give the value of G > "RO (galvanometer resistance.) “ allt By crosing key K, and adjusting Resistance value in box 2. i.e S, we get deflection 6/2 in the galvanometer, then resitance S=G, because half of current passing through R is secured by S and half by galvanometer. resistance @. It is note worthy that R is so large as compare to S or G,so opening or closing Key K, will not impact current galvanometer currentExperiment 13 Determine Focal Length Introduction ¢ Defination of Parallax correction- The parallax correction method Is a technique used to account for parallax errors in measurements. Particularly in experiment setups involving optics. ¢ When parallax occurs- Parallax occurs when the observers line of sight Is not directly aligned with object or measurement scale, leading to inaccuracy in reading. * Setup- Parallax correction is done on optical bench. An optical bench consist of scale parallel and to each other. In between there are two pins consisting lens holder in between and opposite. SCALE* How to remove parallax? Parallax can be checked by moving only one eye left and right at the pin. If they Coincide then error is removed. otherwise error persists. Error can be removed by adjusting pin(s) close or away of the lens/mirror. (1) Focal Length of Concave Mirror * Setup- The setup to be done for determining focal length of concave mirror will be as shown. Place a concave mirror in the mirror holder with the pin infront of it. Concave Mirror \ TTT groan -, 1 ' \* Concept- Moving with basic concept, we know that when an object is placed at centre of curva- tures of concave mirror then, ray of that object moves from focus. Thus the image formed is real and Inverted c F and same size. Procedure- |- Place the pin infront of the mirror 2- Move the pin front and backward and watch if the image in the lens coincide with object pin. 3- Note the reading and repeat the experiment. 4- If the image pin and mirror pin coincides with the object pin. Mark that Point (x,) 5- The point were mirror is kept in marked as (x,) 6- x, — point where pin coinsides X, — point where mirror is kept 7- R= x,-x, and focal length (f) = R/2 (2) Focal Length of Convex Mirror * Setup- In the setup, the pin is kept in front of the observers with convex lens in between and then convex mirror. * Concept- When Ray falls on convex mirror such that it falls on centre of curvatures, then it x 1 x retraces it's path. Object PIN Object PIN CONVEX 2 its past. LENS CONVEX MIRROR + Procedure-(3) Focal Length of Convex Lens * Setup- In the setup, on the optical bench, two pins one on the either side of the lens holder. Pins are adjustable and move along the scales. * Concept- In a convex lens, the image obtained Is inverted and real. So, When performing this experiment we observe an invented image which leds us to conclude the parallax problem and its correction. The distance where Parallax is corrected as our radius of curvatues. Lens Movable <— y—3 * Procedure- |- Place the lens on the lens holder so that it faces a distant object. 2- Position the screen so that it forms a sharp image of the object. 3- Move the pin too and fro till the parallax is removed. 4- Measure the distance between the screen and the lens.* For Plotting Graphs- I. Take u along x-axis and v along y-axis. Scales of both should be same. The sets of reading we got for u between F and 2F, will give b points on the graph by interchanging u and v. 2. The point z is the point of intersection of a line oz bisecting the angle ZXOY with hypubola. 3. Draw two lines AZ and BZ. Both equal to 2f. OA = OB = 2FExperiment 14 > A triangular prism has three rectangular lateral surfaces and two triangular bases. > The line along which any two faces (refracting surfaces) of the prism meet is the refracting edge of the prism angle, between them is the angle of the prism. > For this experiment, it is convenient to place the prism with its rectangular surfaces vertical. i-r)+(e-r') =ite-A Fig. : Refraction of light through a glass prism > From diagram; r+ r= A b=(i-r)t(e-r)=ite-A > At the position of the prism for minimum deviation Sm light ray passes through prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base: 5=6m, i =e which means r =r’ > Advantage of putting prism in minimum deviation position is that the image is brightest in this position.ae & (in degrees) —> w S s 3 40 50 60 70 80 90 i (in degrees) —> we Ss Fig. 2: Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation =V, Process to be followed: Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of cellotape or drawing pins. > Draw a straight line x-y in middle and parallel to the sheet edge mark points O, , O2, O3...... on straight line x-y at suitable distance of 8 to 10cm and draw normal O,N,, O2N, ...... > Draw straight lines P10, P2O2, P3O3. for showing angle of incidence as 35°, 40° ...... 60°, with the help of protractor. > Place the prism with its refracting face AB. On line x- y with point O,, in the middle of AB, as shown in figure. >» Draw boundary of prism with a sharp pencil. > For two alpins front Q, with sharp tips vertically about 10 cm apart, on incident line P; Q4, Such that pin Q, is closed to Q, > Close one eye (say left) and looking through the prism. Bring our right eye in line with the images of the pins Py and Q,. > Fix alpin Ry and S, about 10cm apart vertically on white paper sheet with their tips in line with tips of image of pins Py and Qy > Remove the pins Ry and S, and encircle their pin pricks on the white paper with help of sharp pencil. > Remove pin P, and Q, and encircle their pin pricks also to get emergent ray Ry S, join points Ry and S,Ni No Ns Fig. 3: Refraction of light through a glass pism for various angles of incidence Souce of Error and Precautions: ©» If the three angles of refraction between adjacent points of faces are not equal then, > There maybe error in measuring the angular values. > Alpins should be fixed vertical to the plane of paper > Distance PQ and RS should be about 10cm in order to locate incident and emergent rays with greater accuracy. > Position of prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations and same angle of prism should be used for all observations. | Note: Angle of incidence should be taken more than 35°, other case their can be TIR inside the prism. The I- 8 curve obtained in this experiment is a non linear curve. So in region of minimum deviation more reading should be taller, it will help in obtaining the suitable position of sign of minimum deviation more accurately.Experiment I5 Refractive Index of a Glass Slab Using Travelling Microscope. If a glass slab is placed in air on a horizontal surface and its bottom surface is viewed from top. It appears to be elevated due to the phenomenon of refraction. Distance between apparent bottom and top surface gives apparent thickness. n,, = Refresh index of glass wrt air real thickness of slab _ a7] Apperent thickness of slab - a,-a, Procedure > » Find least count of microscope scale. » Put a mark on a sheet of paper. » Place the paper on horizontal platform of microscope. »® Adjust the microscope in such a way that its system is vertically above mark. » Focus the microscope on the mark and record the reading a, using the main scale reading (MSR) and vernier scale reading of its coinciding division. » Next, place glass slab over the mark on the sheet of paper. »® Move microscope upward untill mark on paper seen through slab is sharp and clear. Take the reading a, on MSR. » Spread a little lycopodium powder/chalk dust over the top surface of glass slab. ® Raise the ions system of the microscope and focus the microscope to see some of their particles and record reading a,Source of error > » Position of microscope may not be normal to the surface of glass slab. » If layer of lycopodium powder/chalk dust spread in glass slab is thick. It will not actually represent top of glass slab and thus produce error in result. Precautions > » The screws used in focussing the microscope should be moved in only one direction to avoid back-lash error » Once microscope is focused for the first reading i.e a,, then focusing arrangement should not be altered for a, and a, reading. » Glass slab should be placed on horizontal surface » To avoid Inaccurate finding of corresponding V.S.R use hand lens. Requirements > Travelling microscope, a glass slab, lycopodium powder/chalk dust powder and a paperExperiment 16 Characteristic Curves of p-n Junction Diode in Forward and Reverse Bias. Forward bias > » When an external voltage is applied to a pn junction diode in such a way that the p-side with +ve terminal of battery and n- to negative side. >» [Threshold Voltage or cut in Voltage) In case of forward bias, when voltage is increased, intially a negligible current flow till the applied voltage crosses a certain value after a characteristic voltage, the diode current increases significantly (expotentially), even for a very small increase in diode bias voltage. Reverse bias > ™» When the P region to negative side and N region to positive side in circuit. n region is at higher potential than p region. > Reverse saturation Current, As the applied voltage is increased in reverse biased condition, starting from zero value, current increases but soon be- comes constant, this current is very small. It is called reverse saturation current. K E Figure: Forward biasing for a p-n junction diodeFigure: Reverse biasing for a p-n junction diode Cautions > Never increase the value of the voltage too much across the diode. excessive current flow may damage the diode. If it exceeds limits, maximum permissible current can be known from manufacturer data. I(mA) 0% OF 09 08 001 100 80 60 40 20 0.2 04 0.6 0.8 1.0 vy) O€ 07 Ol (uA) Figure: Typical I-V characteristics of a silicon diode in forward biasing and reverse biasingExperiment |7 Characteristic Curves of a Zener Diode and Finding Reverse Break Down Voltage Zener diode (IN 758) A p-n junction diode, (both P and N regions are more heavily doped as compared to rectifying p-n junction diode) operated in the break down region of reverse voltage characteristics. These diode are designated with sufficient power dissipation capacity to work in the break down region. Two breakdown mechanism 1) Avalanche Breakdown > With increasing reverse bias voltage the electric field across the junction of p-n diode increase at a certain reverse bias. Electric field imparts a sufficiently high energy to a thermally generated carrier crossing junction. Those corrects cotel collides with a crystal ion on ita way, distrups a covalent bond and produces an electron-hole pair. These carriers on gaining sufficient energy from the applied field collide with other crystal ions and generate further electron hole-pair. Because of this mechanism —> Large reverse current flow Il) Zener Breakdown > Both p-n sides are heavily doped, due to high dopant and densities, depletion layer junction width is small, due to which a small voltage across it may create a very high field,this junction field may stop an electron from valance band,which can tunnel to n side through thin depletion layer. Reverse current at zener voltage —> Zener current —> Their is a danger of large current flow through diode that it can result in this excessive heating. To protect diode from such case we connect a protective resistance vo'/ Zener breakdown -40 -60 -80 -100 (uA) Figure: Zener diode characteristics curve Figure: Circuit for Zener diode characteristic curveExperiment 18 » A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct, when reverse biased, it does not emit light while conducting. > LED (Light Emitting Diode) is also a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. > A resistor is a two terminal device. It conduct equally in both directions. > A capacitor is a two terminal device. It does not conduct but stores some charge when DC voltage is applied. =y Process to be followed: »> If the component has two terrminals, it could be a resistor, a capacitor, a diode or a LED. > Look for colour bands, it has a typical set of three colour bands followed by a silver or gold band component is a resistor. >» Connect multimeter terminals (in resistance mode- highest range) to the component terminal. > And watch for multimeter deflection. Also repeat by reversing the component terminals Vly, Following things to be noted now: > If multimeter shows an equal deflection in both the directions, the component is a resistor. > If deflection is accompanied with emission of light, in one direction and a much less or zero deflection in the other direction the component is a LED. -> If multimeter does not show any deflection in one direction and shows deflection with no light emission in the other direction then the component is diode.> If the multimeter does not know any deflection on connecting its terminal either way to the component. It is a capacitor. Bt if capacitance of capacitor is large, multimeter may show a momentary deflection. % DP =) “> & a L @ Na) (c) Resistor (d) Capacitor (a) Diode (b) LED