Mechanics of Solids-II

List of Experiments

Sr No. Experiments Date of

Performance
To perform tension test on:
1
Hot rolled deformed steel bars (ASTM A 615/A 615M)

Cold Formed or Tor steel bar (ASTM A-434)

Cast Iron Specimen (ASTM E-8/E8M)

2 To study the bending behavior of Z-section.

To determine the Shear Centre of a channel section.

3

To perform torsion test on:

4 • Mild Steel Specimen
• Cast Iron Specimen

To Determine the Euler Critical Buckling load of a model

5 column using various end conditions.
To study the elastic stress strain behavior in bending using
electrical resistance strain gauges.
6
To Determine the principal strain and stress using Strain
Rosette technique
7
To determine the Elastic Critical Buckling load and Initial
Imperfections of a Pin-ended Real Column using Southwell
8 Plot Technique

1
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Table of Contents
Experiment No. 1.................................................................................................................................. 4
To perform Tension Test ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 APPARATUS ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 RELATED THEORY ......................................................................................................... 4
1.4 PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 35
1.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS...................................................................... 35
1.6 COMMENTS................................................................................................................ 3516
Experiment No. 2................................................................................................................................ 17
To Study Bending Behaviour of Z Section ......................................................................................... 17
2.1 OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................... 17
2.2 APPARATUS ......................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 RELATED THEORY ....................................................................................................... 17
2.4 PROCEDURE .............................................................................................................. 3520
2.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS...................................................................... 21
2.6 COMMENTS.................................................................................................................... 26
Experiment No. 3................................................................................................................................ 27
To Determine the Shear Centre of a Channel Section Beam .............................................................. 27
3.1 OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................... 35
3.2 APPARATUS ......................................................................................................................... 35
3.3 RELATED THEORY ....................................................................................................... 35
3.4 PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 35
3.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS...................................................................... 35
3.6 COMMENTS.................................................................................................................... 35
Experiment No. 4................................................................................................................................ 35
To perform Torsion Test ..................................................................................................................... 35
4.1 OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................... 35
4.2 APPARATUS ......................................................................................................................... 35
4.3 RELATED THEORY ....................................................................................................... 35
4.4 PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 35
4.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS...................................................................... 35
4.6 COMMENTS.................................................................................................................... 35
Experiment No. 5................................................................................................................................ 41

2
 Mechanics of Solids-II

To Determine Euler Critical Buckling Load of column at verious end conditions ............................. 41
5.1 OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................... 35
5.2 APPARATUS ......................................................................................................................... 35
5.3 RELATED THEORY ....................................................................................................... 35
5.4 PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 35
5.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS...................................................................... 35
5.6 COMMENTS.................................................................................................................... 35
Experiment No. 6................................................................................................................................ 46
To study the elastic stress strain behavior in bending using electrical resistance strain gauges
............................................................................................................................................................ 46
6.1 OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................... 35
6.2 APPARATUS ......................................................................................................................... 35
6.3 RELATED THEORY ....................................................................................................... 35
6.4 PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 35
6.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS...................................................................... 35
6.6 COMMENTS.................................................................................................................... 35
Experiment No. 7................................................................................................................................ 55
To Determine the principal strain and stress using Strain Rosette technique...................................... 55
7.1 OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................... 35
7.2 APPARATUS ......................................................................................................................... 35
7.3 RELATED THEORY ...................................................................................................... 35
7.4 PROCEDURE ................................................................................................................. 35
7.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS..................................................................... 35
7.6 COMMENTS................................................................................................................... 35
Experiment No. 8................................................................................................................................ 60
To determine the Elastic Critical Buckling load and Initial Imperfections of a Pin-ended Real
Column using Southwell Plot Technique............................................................................................ 60
8.1 OBJECTIVE ........................................................................................................................... 35
8.2 APPARATUS ......................................................................................................................... 35
8.3 RELATED THEORY ....................................................................................................... 35
8.4 PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................. 35
8.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCUATIONS...................................................................... 35
8.6 COMMENTS.................................................................................................................... 35

3
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 1
STATEMENT
To perform tension test on!
• Hot rolled deformed steel bars (BS 4449:1998) (ASTM A615/615M)
• Cold Formed or Tor steel bar (BS 4461:1978) (ASTM A-434)
• Cast iron specimen( ASTM E-8/E8M)

1.1 PURPOSE
• To study the stress strain behavior of the three specimens
• To check the adequacy of specimen according to the BS standards
• To determine different mechanical properties of steel sample (e.g. Yield Strength,
Tensile Strength Modulus of Elasticity, Ductility)

1.2 APPARATUS
• UTM
• Extensometer; L.C=0.001mm
• Spring Divider
• Vernier Calipers; L.C=0.05mm
• Weighing balance
• Steel Tape

1.3 RELATED THEORY

1. Iron Ores:
• Magnetite (Fe3O4) (70% to 75% iron)
• Hematite (Fe2O3) (70% iron)
• Iron pyrites (FeS2) (45% iron) [not preferred due to sulpher content which
makes it brittle and uneconomical]
• Siderite FeCO3 (40% iron)

2. Steel:

Steel is a metal alloy that is mainly composed of iron and carbon

3. Classification of Steel:

Type of Steel Carbon Content (%)

Low carbon Steel 0.05 - 0.25
Medium carbon steel 0.3 - 0.59
High Carbon Steel 0.6 - 0.99
Ultra High Carbon Steel 1.0 – 2.0
Mild Steel 0.16 - 0.29

4
 Mechanics of Solids-II

4. Chemical Composition of Mild Steel:

Element Maximum % age

Carbon 0.25%
Sulpher 0.06%
Phosphorus 0.06%

5. Effect of Change of Carbon Content Mechanical Properties:

Ultimate Stress
900 300
Brinell Hardness

Elastic Limit
600 200
Stress
(MPa) Brinell
% age Elongation Number

300 100
% age Reduction
In Area

0
0.5
0.1 1.0
Carbon Content (%)

Figure 1.1

1. It is seen that ultimate strength and hardness value increase together with increase in
carbon content.
2. The elastic limit (yield point) is increasing at a reduce rate.

5
 Mechanics of Solids-II

εl = 0.75%
εl < 2% C=0.75%
εl = 2% C=0.45%
C=0.18%
Stress
(MPa)

Strain (%)

Figure 1.2

Fig 1.1 With the increase in carbon content, strength of material increases, ductility
decreases and E remains constant.

7. Ductility:
It is indicated by reduction in area and percentage elongation.

8. Reduction/Extraction Process:

Oxide of iron + Flux Coke Pig iron + water

2300oC

Pig iron + Admixture Steel (molten form)

This molten steel is molded into different sizes known as Billet (Ingot)

75mm 100mm

75mm
100mm

6
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Hot rolled deformed steel bars (BS 4449:1998)

a. Different Grades of Steel:

Grade 40 60 75
σumin Psi(MPa) 70,000(500) 90,000(620) 100,000(690)
σymin Psi(MPa) 40,000(300) 60,000(420) 75,000(520)
% Elongation in 8"
#3 bar 11 9 --
#4 & #5 bars 12 9 --
#6 bar 12 9 7
#7 & #8 bars -- 8 7
#9,#10 &#11 bars -- 7 6

b. The Relationship between Yield Strength and Ultimate Strength:

σyt=(0.55---0.65) σut

7
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Stress ~Strain Diagram for Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar:

Stress
(MPa)

εy Strain (%) εu εf
Elastic Plastic Range
Range

Figure 1.3

i. Proportional Limit:
It is the maximum value of stress that may be developed during a simple tension test
such that the stress remains a linear function of strain. Proportional limit does not exist for
brittle materials.

ii. Elastic Limit:

It is the maximum value of stress that may be developed during a simple tension test
such that there is no permanent set or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
Hook’s Law is not valid after E.L and the numerical values of P.L and E.L are usually
identical.

iii. Yield Point:

The point on stress strain curve after which there is an increase in strain without any
significant increase in stress is called yield point. The phenomenon is called yielding.
The stress corresponding to Y.P is known as yield strength of the material which if
represented in Ksi (Kips per square inch) gives the grade of steel. The stress may actually
decrease momentarily resulting in upper and lower yield points.

8
 Mechanics of Solids-II

iv. Strain Hardening Zone:

If a ductile material can be considerably stressed beyond the yield point without
failure, the material is said to be “strain hardened”. It is a zone after yielding when the
particles of material rearrange themselves and start taking load again, so stress starts
increasing. This is true for many structural metals.

v. Ultimate Strength:
The maximum value of stress on the stress strain diagram is called tensile or ultimate
strength of the material.

vi. Necking:
“Localized decrease in cross sectional area of the sample after the ultimate strength
is called Necking.”
Necking continues up to rupture/failure and results in the formation of cup and cone.

vii. Rupture Strength:

“Rupture strength or breaking strength is the stress at failure.”

If it is obtained by dividing the rupture load with nominal area of the specimen, it is
known as Nominal Rupture Strength, but if actual area of the specimen after failure is used
then it is known as Actual Rupture Strength.

So, the point of actual rupture strength will obviously be higher than the nominal
rupture strength on the stress strain diagram because the rupture area is less than the nominal
area of the sample.

Nominal rupture strength is always less than the ultimate strength for ductile
materials, but both are almost the same for brittle materials.

viii. Modulus of Elasticity:

“It is the stress to strain ratio within elastic limit.” It is determined as the slope of
straight line from zero to elastic limit from the stress strain diagram.
The stress strain linear relationship was discovered by Robert Hook in 1676 and is
known as Hook’s Law. It is mathematically represented by the following equation.
σ=Eε
Where E is termed as the Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus with units of
stress. For Mild Steel E~200GPa (29×106Psi)

ix. Resilience:
The ability of material to absorb energy within the elastic range (without permanent
deformations) is called resilience.

x. Modulus of Resilience: (M.O.R)

Modulus of Resilience is the amount of work done or energy absorbed per unit volume
of material as simple tensile force is increased from zero to proportional limit (P.L). It is
calculated as the area under the stress strain diagram from zero to P.L. Its unit is MPa or Psi.

9
 Mechanics of Solids-II

xi. Toughness:
The ability of material to absorb energy from zero to failure load is called toughness.

xii. Modulus of Toughness :( M.O.T)

Modulus of toughness is the amount of work done on a unit volume of material as the
simple tensile force is increased from zero to the failure of the specimen. It is calculated as
the total area under the stress-strain diagram. Its unit is MPa or Psi.
Gauge Length:-
“It is the length between two marks on a bar.”
• For hot rolled deformed steel G.L = 5d
• For cold formed steel G.L = Lo=5.65√So
Where So = Area of Cross section
= M/ (0.00785xL)

Various Methods for the Determination of Yielding:-

i. Halting of Machine or Drop of Beam Methods:

The yield point during a simple tension test can be observed by Halting of machine or
Drop of beam. But this method is suitable for grade 40 steel only. If we apply it to grade 60
steel the Y.P may not be determined.

ii. Offset Method:

For the materials that do not have well defined yield point, yield strength is determined
by offset method. This consists of drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent of the stress
strain diagram at an offset of 0.2 % strain.

Stress
(MPa)

0.2% Strain (%)

Figure 1.4

iii. Specific Strain Method:

According to this method yielding occurs at 0.5% strain.

10
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Stress
(MPa)

0.5% Strain (%)

Figure 1.5

The yield strength determined by offset method or specific strain method is known as Proof
Stress

iv. Luder Line Method:

According to this method yielding takes place when small pieces of material drop
down from the specimen.

10. Cold Worked Steel: (Cold Twisted Steel)

Yielding is a phenomena in which there is significant increase in strain without any
significant increase in stress. By applying a pre-calculated twist to the steel yielding portion
is eliminated from the stress strain curve. There is a permanent set in the steel after the twisting
at normal temperature that is why it is called cold twisted steel. Commercial name of cold
twisted steel is “Tor steel”.

Twist

Stress
(MPa)

Before
Twist

Strain (%)

Figure 1.6
11
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Advantage:-
We can utilize full strength of the material.
Disadvantage:-
As there is no yielding so the failure is sudden.

Cast Iron
C = 2.0% to 4.5% (main difference)

a. Physical Properties:
1. Its structure is coarse crystalline.
2. It is brittle.
3. It cannot be welded.
4. It does not rust.
5. S.G of cast iron is 7.2 to 7.5

b. Uses:
It is used for making rain water pipes, gratings and manhole covers.

Terminology:-

i. Nominal diameter:
It is that diameter with which a bar is designated.

ii. Sample Length:

Minimum length ≥ 0.5m

Reasons:
• For true representation of the sample.
• For proper gripping.

iii. Nominal Density:

Nominal density of steel is 0.00785kg/mm2/m or 490lb/ft3 ant it is used to calculate
actual area of cross section from the mass and length of the steel bar.
M M M  d2
= = A= =
M
V ( A L) (  L) 4 (  L)

Thus diameter of the bar can be calculated.

b. Cross Sectional Area and Mass:

Tolerence in size = 8%

M
Dia according to specipication − dia calculated from =
A L
Tolerence in size =
Dia according to specificat ion

Tolerence in M L = 4.5%
12
 Mechanics of Solids-II

M according to specipication − M calculated

Tolerence in M L = L L
M according to specificat ion
L

1.4 PROCEDURE:

A. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar: (BS 4449-1998)

1. Note the shape, size length, weight and determine the cross sectional area by using the
relation A=M/ (0.00785L) and determine the effective diameter and compare this
diameter with specification diameter.
2. Calculate the gauge length.
G.L=lo=5d (for hot rolled)
lo =5.65√So where So = M/(0.00785L) (for cold worked)
Mark the half gauge length on the sample.
3. Fix the Betty’s Extensometer to measure the elongation up to 90% of the ultimate
load. (For safety purposes)
4. Calculate the expected yield and ultimate load consequently decide suitable load
increment.
5. Apply the load in decided increments and take the readings of extensometer.
6. Join the two pieces of extensometer and measure the final diameter.

B. Cold Worked Deformed Steel: (BS 4461-1978)

Procedure is same with exception that there is no yielding phenomenon in cold
worked steel bar.

C. Cast Iron:-
Same as above the two with the difference only!
(d + d + d ) (d 2 )
d= , A=
1 2 3

3 4
1.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

A. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar:

Mass = M = 1.4 kg
Length = 613 mm
Diameter = 20 mm
E . L = 463 mm
Load = 104.4 KN
Elongation =59mm

13
 Mechanics of Solids-II

14
 Mechanics of Solids-II

𝑀
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝜌𝐴 ×𝐿
Tolerance in Specification size =
𝐷𝑖𝑎 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
M / L according to specification = 2466150.233

Tolerance in M L =

M /L according to calculation = 2282183.43

Tolerance in M / L = 0.075
Gauge length for hot rolled deformed steel bar= 5*d

G.L = 100mm

Graphs:
STRESS VS STRAIN CURVE

15
 Mechanics of Solids-II

GAUGE LENGTH VS ELONGATION CURVE:

16
 Mechanics of Solids-II

MODES OF FAILURE:

Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bar (Cup & Cone Failure)

Figure 1.7

COMMENTS:

In this we conduct the test of steel specimens. We determine stress-strain behavior through a Tensile Test where we
apply gradually increasing tensile load to the specimen and measure the corresponding strain. From the different
properties we analyze the stress- strain curve obtained from the tensile test. The yield strength is the point where the
material begins to deform plastically, while the Tensile strength is the maximum stress the material can withstand before
failure. The modulus of elasticity represents the materials stiffness, and Ductility measures how much deformation a
material can undergo before breaking.

17
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 2
STATEMENT
To study the bending behavior of Z-section.

2.1 PURPOSE
To confirm the theory that “Loading a beam along principal axis always produces
symmetrical bending.”

2.2 APPARATUS
• Cantilever beam (Z-section) with a rotating arrangement
• Dial gauges (two in no. having L.C=0.01 mm)
• Loading pan and weights
• Vernier Calipers
• Steel tape

2.3 RELATED THEORY

1. Axis of Symmetry:-
If an axis divides a section in two parts in such a manner that the parts are
the mirror images of each other such an axis is called axis of symmetry.

2. Symmetrical Section:-
A section that at least has one axis of symmetry is called a symmetrical
section. e.g. W-section and T-section.

Rectangular
Section W- Section T- Section
Figure 2.1

18
 Mechanics of Solids-II

3. Unsymmetrical Section:-
The section which does not have any axis of symmetry is called
unsymmetrical section. e.g. Z-section and L-section.

Z- Section L- Section
Figure 2.2

4. Principal Axes:-
Principal axes are the set of rectangular axes passing through the centroid of the
section, about which moments of inertia are either maximum or minimum but the product
moment of inertia is zero about the same axes.
Axes of symmetry are always principal axes, but converse is not necessarily true.

5. Orientation of Principle Axes:-

In case of a symmetrical section the axes of symmetry are the
principal axes but for unsymmetrical sections their orientation is determined by using the
following relation.
2IYZ
tan 2 =
IY − IZ

6. Symmetrical Bending:-
When loading and deflection are parallel or along the principal axes,
the bending is said to be symmetrical bending.

7. Unsymmetrical Bending:-
When deflection occurs in more than one plane the bending is termed as
unsymmetrical bending.
Unsymmetrical bending may occur in symmetrical as well as unsymmetrical sections.

Symmetrical Bending in Unsymmetrical Bending

Symmetrical Section in Symmetrical Section

19
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Principle Axis

Unsymmetrical Bending Symmetrical Bending in

in Unsymmetrical Section Unsymmetrical Section
Figure 2.3

Bending Theory:-
Assumptions:-
1. The plane section of the beam remains plane.
2. The material in the beam is homogeneous and obeys Hook’s law.
3. The moduli of elasticity for tension and compression are equal.
4. The beam is initially straight and of constant cross section.
5. The plane of loading must contain a principal axis of the beam cross section and the
loads must be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam.

Plane of loading y

Figure 2.4

20
 Mechanics of Solids-II

M = Bending Moment (N-mm)

I = Second moment of area (mm4)
σ = Bending Stress (N/mm2)
y = Location of fiber at which bending stress is to be calculated w.r.t Neutral
axes (mm)
E = Modulus of Elasticity (N/mm2)
R = Radius of curvature (mm)

Unsymmetrical Bending Stress Calculation:-

P PCosθ
y θ y
y
_ _ + _

z
z = z + PSinθ
α

N.A _
+ + +

Figure 2.5

Orientation of N.A:

2.4 PROCEDURE

1. Measure the dimensions (length, depth, thickness of flanges and web) of the cantilever Z
section using steel tape and Vernier Calipers.
2. Calculate the area, centroid and M.O.I. about horizontal and vertical axes i.e. Izz , Iyy
3. Determine the inclination of principal axes. i.e.  and also determine the M.O.I. about
principal axes i.e. Iz1z1 and Iy1y1 .
4. Take the horizontal and vertical DGR from the deflection gauges attached to the section at
0 load.

21
 Mechanics of Solids-II

y
z

x
V
H

Figure 2.6
5. Apply 20N, 40N and 60N loads respectively and note down DGR from horizontal and vertical
deflection gauges.
6. Unload the section and take DGR against 40N, 20N & 0 and take the mean value of DGR for
loading and unloading conditions.
7. For setting-2 set the angle  to make the loading plane along the principal plane to make sure
unidirectional bending
8. Repeat the same procedure for setting-2 as that of setting –I.

y y1 y1
z

z
α Z1
α

z1

P
Central Fold Vertical P
Load Normal to Principal Axis

Setting-I Setting-II
Figure 2.7

22
 Mechanics of Solids-II

2.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

b1
tf 1

α d

tw

tf 2
b2

Figure 2.8
Table: Sectional properties of Z-section cantilever Beam

Measured Values Mean Values

Description
(mm) (mm)

b1

b2

tf1

tf 2

tw

23
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Calculations
Area =
Iz =
Iy =
Izy =
α orientation of P.A )=
β (orientation of N.A) =
Loading system for cantilever of Z-section

Setting-I Central Fold Vertical Setting-II Loading normal to Maj. Axis

Figure 2.9

24
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Theoretical Deflections for Both Settings:-

Setting Load ᵟx ᵟy ∆ ∆H ∆V
20
Setting-I 40
60
20
Setting-II 40
60

Experimental Deflections:-

Horizontal Deflection Vertical Deflection

Setting Load HDGR HDGR
∆H ∆V
Loading Unloading Loading Unloading
0
Setting 20
I 40
60
0
Setting 20
II 40
60

Comparison of Experimental and theoretical Defections:-

Horizontal Deflection
Vertical Deflection (mm)
Setting Load (mm)
Th. Exp. % Th. Exp. %
(N)
∆H ∆H Diff. ∆V ∆V Diff.

Setting-I

Setting-II

25
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Stress Distribution for Setting I:-

X Y x1 y1 σ (MPa)
Points (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
P = 20N P = 40N P = 60N

Stress Distribution for Setting II:-

X Y x1 y1 σ (MPa)
Points (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
P = 20N P = 40N P = 60N

Stress Distribution Diagram:

26
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Graphs:

1. Load Vs. Horizontal Deflection (Setting I)

2 .Load Vs. Vertical Deflection (Setting I)
3. Load Vs. Horizontal Deflection (Setting II)
4. Load Vs. Vertical Deflection (Setting II)

2.6 COMMENTS:

27
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 3
STATEMENT
To determine the Shear Centre of channel section.

3.1 PURPOSE
To confirm the location of theoretically determined shear centre.

3.2 APPARATUS
• Cantilever beam of a channel section
• Vernier Calipers
• Dial Gauge
• Steel tape
• Loading pan
• Weights

3.3 RELATED THEORY

1. Horizontal Shear Stress:

It is the internal resistance offered by the section to resist the sliding of two portions
against each other in the horizontal direction.
 = VQ / Ib
 = shear stress
I = moment of inertia
Q = Ist moment of area about N.A.

Shear stress is maximum at N.A. and zero at extreme fibers.

2. Expression for maximum shear stress

(max):
 = VQ/Ib
= (Vxbxh/2xh/4) / (bxh3/12) x b h/2
= 3V/2bh h N.A

max = 3V/2A

28
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Shear Stress Distribution:

τmax N.A

τmax N.A

τmax N.A

Figure 3.1

3. Shear Flow:
It is the longitudinal shear force per unit length and is represented as q .
q = xAL/L
As;
AL= Lxb
So;
q = x Lxb /L = xb
q = (VQ/Ib)xb

q = VQ/I

29
 Mechanics of Solids-II

4. Rules for Plotting Shear Flow Diagram:

1. Shear flow in part of the element parallel to the applied shear is always in a direction
opposite to this applied shear.
2. Shear flow due to direct shear occurs in one direction through thin walls of open
sections
3. At junction of elements, incoming shear flow is equal to the outgoing shear flow.
4. The value of shear flow is zero at free tips of the element and more shear flow is
generated as more area is added.
5. Shear flow is assumed to be generated on one side of neutral axis and is assumed to
be consumed/absorbed on the other side.
6. Shear flow generated is proportional to the first moment of area added.
7. Shear flow increases linearly for the elements perpendicular to the load and
parabolically for the elements parallel to the load.
8. Shear flow is considered zero for elements which have insignificant contribution in
corresponding second moment of area value.

30
 Mechanics of Solids-II

5. Shear Flow Distribution:

q
+ +
- q

2q

+ +

q
+
- q

q
+
q -

Figure 3.2

31
 Mechanics of Solids-II

6. Channel Section: b
z
q = VQ/I
q = V/I (Zxt) (h/2) t
qαZ

d
H=½xqxb
qc = qB + V/I (h/2 x t x h/4) t
qc = qB + V/I (h2x t/8)
q α h2

Vertical Shear force = V = qB x h x 2/3 x h Figure 3.3

(qc - qB )

7. Shear Centre:
It is the point in the cross-sectional plane of the beam through which the transverse
load must pass so that the beam bends without twisting.

8. General Rules to locate Shear Centre:

i. It always lies on the axis of symmetry.

ii. If two axis of symmetry exist for a section then it will be at the intersection of these
two axes.
iii. If centerlines of all the elements of a section intersect at a single point then that point
will be the shear centre for that section.
iv. Shear center of the z-section lies at the centriod.

Vxe = Hxh V
eth = Hxh/V
eth = (1/2xbxqxh)/V
eth = 1/2x(bxtxh/2)(V/I)xhxb/V
e
eth = b2h2t/4I

Figure 3.4
32
 Mechanics of Solids-II

3.4 PROCEDURE:
i. Measure the dimensions (length, depth, thickness of flanges and web) of the
cantilever channel section using steel tape and Vernier Calipers.
ii. Calculate the area, centroid and Iz
iii. Set the position of channel section at zero point and read the DGR form the two
deflection gauges attached to the channel section.
iv. Apply 20N and 40N load respectively and take DGR from deflection gauges.
v. Unload the section and take DGR against 20N and 0N load.
vi. Repeat the same procedure for other positions (5,10,-5,-10) of channel section and
draw the table of calculations to determine  and avg.

b1
3.5 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

1 t f1
Dimension 1 2 3 Mean

length 9.8 9.8 9.8 9.8

b1 26.3 26.5 26.8 26.4
d
b2 25.9 26.5 26.4 26.1 2
tf1 3.3 3.2 3.4 3.3 tw
tf2 3.5 3.1 3.5 3.36
tw 3.4 3.3 3.2 3.3
d 50.9 51.4 50.7 51 3 t f2

b2
Figure 3.5

Calculation of M.O.I
Sr # Iz A y Ay2
1 87.12 13.2 1.65 Ixx 123340
2 146.52 1.65 25.5 Iyy 20870.5
3 87.12 13.2 49.35 Izz 1442211

Theoretical Shear Centre:

33
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Table of Observations for all settings

Setting Load Deflection θ ∆ₐᵥ

DGR₁ ∆₁ DGR₂ ∆₂ tan-1( (∆₁-∆2)/B) (∆₁+∆2)/2

N mm mm mm Radians mm
Setting 1 0 3 0.03 5 0.05 0.0436 0.04
Z= 20 3.57 0.0357 5.9 0.059 0.0508 0.0474
40 4.11 0.0411 5.14 0.0514 0.0224 0.0462
60 4.61 0.0461 5.19 0.0519 0.0126 0.049
Setting Un Deflection θ ∆ₐᵥ
Loading

DGR₁ ∆₁ DGR₂ ∆₂ tan-1( (∆₁-∆2)/B) (∆₁+∆2)/2

N mm mm mm Radians mm
Setting 1 0 3 0.03 5 0.05 0.0436 0.04
Z= 20 3.59 0.0359 5.7 0.057 0.0461 0.046
40 4.12 0.0412 5.13 0.0513 0.0220 0.046
60 4.61 0.0461 5.19 0.0519 0.0126 0.049

Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Deflections:

%age
Setting Load Theoretical Experimental difference
1 0
Z=0 20
40
2 0
Z=5 20
40
3 0
Z=10 20
40
4 0
Z=-5 20
40
5 0
Z=-10 20
40

34
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Calculation of Experimental Shear Centre:

Graphs for all Settings (Ө Vs. Z Curves):
1. Plot Ө Vs. Z Curve for 20N load and pick value of Z1 (estimate eexp = Z1 + tw/2)
2. Plot Ө Vs. Z Curve for 40N load and pick value of Z1 (estimate eexp = Z1 + tw/2)
3. Plot Ө Vs. Z Curve for 60N load and pick value of Z1 (estimate eexp = Z1 + tw/2)
4. Plot ∆avg curve for all Z values.

3.6 COMMENTS:

In this experiment we find the shear center of the channel section .First of all we get the different parameters length,
width ,thickness and diameter by using Vernier Caliper having Least Count (0.01mm).After we applied various loads to
check the deflections at X axis and Y axis after unloading vice versa.

35
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 4
STATEMENT
To Perform Torsion Test on:
• Mild Steel Specimen
• Cast Iron Specimen

4.1 OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this job is:
• To study shear stress-strain behavior of mild steel & cast iron.
• To study different mechanical properties in shear e. g; modulus of rigidity or modulus
of elasticity and shear strength etc.
• To compare the failure patterns of the two specimens

4.2 APPARATUS

• Torsion Machine
• Vernier Calipers
• Steel Tape/ Ruler

4.3 RELATED THEOR

1. Moment:-
It is the rotational effect of force on an object. It is of two types as follows:-

i. Bending Moment
The moment which tends to bend a member is known as bending moment.
t = rF (Nm)
ii. Twisting Moment/ Torque
It the moment applied about the longitudinal axis (z-axis) of a member. It tends to
twist the member.

2. Torsion
It is the deformation corresponding to twisting moment.

3. Bending Theory:-
The stress, strain, dimension, curvature, elasticity, are all related, under certain
assumption, by the theory of simple bending. This theory relates to beam flexure resulting
from couples applied to the beam without consideration of the shearing forces.

36
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Assumptions
• The beam is symmetrical about Y-Y
• The traverse plane sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal fibers after
bending (Bernoulli’s assumption)
• The fixed relationship between stress and strain (Young's Modulus)for the beam

4. Torsional Theory:-
This theory has been developed to study the torsional behavior of a circular member
undergoing an applied torque. It relates the material properties with the torque and torsion
developed in a member.

Where,
= shear stress (N/mm2 OR Mpa) G= modulus of rigidity (N/mm2)
r= radius of the shaft (mm) = angle of twist (radians)
T= torque (N-mm) L= effective length (mm)
J= polar moment of inertia (mm4)

Assumptions
• Material is homogenous
• Section is be circular
• A plane section of the member remains plane and does not wrap
• The material is within the elastic range (Hook’s Law is valid)
• For smaller angle of rotation, length and radius of the sample remain the same
• For circular member, subjected to torque, shear-strain vary linearly

5. Polar Moment of Inertia:-

The geometric rigidity of a cross-section is termed has polar moment of inertia. It is
calculated as the summation of second moment of area about both the axis.

J= Ix + Iy

6. Modulus of Rigidity:-
When a material is subjected to pure twist-loading in torsion test, slope of the shear
stress-strain curve within the elastic-limit is termed as modulus of rigidity or modulus of
elasticity in shear.
E= 2G (1+)

37
 Mechanics of Solids-II

7. Poison’s Ratio:-
It is the ratio of lateral strain to the axial strain when material is subjected to axial
loading, denoted by . It lets us to make a judgment that how much lateral strain will be
developed in a material if we know axial strain value and value of Poison’s ratio. For brittle
materials,  value is low.

For mild steel, =   for concrete, = 0.2

8. Torsional Shear Stress

Shear stress developed in a material subjected to torsion corresponding to a specified
torque is called torsional shear stress.

9. Torsional Shear Strength:-

Maximum value of torsional shear stress is termed as torsional shear strength.

10. Torsional Deformation:-

Angular displacement caused by a specified torque in simple tension test is termed as
torsional deformation.

11. Modes of Failure in Torsion Test:-

Fracture in tension for ductile materials occurs in the plane of maximum shear stress
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar whereas for brittle materials, failure occurs
along an angle of 45o helix to the longitudinal axis of the bar due to maximum tensile stress
across that plane.

4.4 PROCEDURE
i. The sample was mounted on the Torsion Machine
ii. The sample was locked into the grips by using HTS lockers
iii. Load was applied for different angles of twist until the sample was broken

4.5 OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS

Total Lengths of Specimens

• Cast Iron=
• Mild Steel=

Effective Lengths of Specimens

• Cast Iron=
• Mild Steel=

38
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Diameter of Specimens

• Mild Steel= 8mm

Least Count of the Machine= 0.001 ton (1 ton= 200 lbs)

Lever Arm= 60mm
E.L = 500mm
Total Length= 600mm
1mm = 1 is 1°angle of twist

For Mild Steel

Angle of Twisting Shear Modulus of
twisting θ moment stress Regidity
Load
Sr. No. =Load*la =16T/πDᵌ
G=TL/QJ
deg rad Ton N T(N-mm) Ƭ(Mpa) Mpa
1 1.5 0.02681 0.00110 9.81 588.6 5.857 27312
2 2.8 0.04887 0.00220 19.62 1176 11.703 29936
3 4.78 0.08238 0.00330 29.43 1765.8 17.573 26665

39
 Mechanics of Solids-II

4.6 COMMENTS

In this experiment we performed the torsion test on mild steel specimen for determined the Twisting moment,
Shear test, and modulus of rigidity. We take 1mm is equal to 1° angle of twisting. 1kg is equal to 1.5mm,
2kg is equal to 2.8mm and 3kg is equal to 4.72mm. when we applying a twisting force gradually to the specimen using
the torsion test machine , Measure the torque applied and the corresponding angle of twist. we continuously monitor and
record the torque and angle of twist values as the test progresses.

40
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 5
STATEMENT
To Determine the Euler Critical Buckling load of a model column using
various end conditions.

5.1 PURPOSE:
To compare the theoretically and experimentally determine critical buckling load
values.

5.2 APPARATUS:
 Weighing balance
 Vernier Caliper
 Steel Tape
 Model Columns

5.3 RELATED THEORY

1. Column:
A column is a line element subjected to axial compressive load. The term is
frequently used to describe a vertical member.
▪ Structural members (i.e., columns) are generally stable when subjected to tensile
loading and fail when the stress in the cross section exceeds the ultimate strength of
material.
▪ In case of elements (i.e., column) subjected to the compressive loading, secondary
bending effect e.g., imperfections within material and/or fabrication process,
inaccurate positioning of loads or asymmetry of cross section can induce premature
failure either in part of cross section or of the whole element. In such case failure
mode is normally the Buckling.

Buckling is categorized into the following

1. Overall buckling
2. Local buckling
3. Lateral Torsional buckling
The design of the most of the compressive members is governed by over-all buckling
capacity. i.e., the maximum compressive load which can be carried before the failure occurs
due to the excessive deflection in the plane of greatest slenderness ratio.
Typical overall buckling occurs in columns of frame structure and in compression members
of trusses

41
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Figure 5.1

2. Types of column on the bases of type of loading

i- Concentrically Loaded Column:
If the load acting on the column coincides with the longitudinal axis of the column
then the column is known as concentric loaded column.

ii-Eccentrically Loaded Column:

If the load acting on the column does not coincide with the longitudinal axis of the
column then the column is known as eccentric loaded column.

Figure 5.2
3. Buckling:
Buckling is bending out of plane when load exceeds critical buckling load. It is the
sudden lateral deformation of a column.
Buckling behavior is characterized by deformations developed in a direction (or
plane) normal to that of the loading that produces it.

When the applied loading is increased, the buckling deformation also increases.
Buckling occurs mainly in members subjected to compressive forces. If the member has

42
 Mechanics of Solids-II

high bending stiffness, its buckling resistance is high. Also, when the member length is
increased, the buckling resistance is decreased.

4. Slenderness Ratio:
The ratio of effective length between supports to the min radius of gyration is known
as slenderness ratio.

If the columns are free to rotate at each end then buckling takes place about that axes
for which the radius of gyration is minimum.

5. Types of column w.r.t. Slenderness Ratio:

i- Short Column:
The column having slenderness ratio less than 30 is known as short column. Failure
occurs when stress over the cross section reaches the yield or crushing value of the
material.
Such element fail by crushing of material induced by predominantly axial compressive
stress (flexure stresses are not dominant).

ii- Intermediate Column:

The column having slenderness ratio in between 30 to 100 is known as intermediate
column. The mode of failure of intermediate column is either crushing of concrete or buckling
or may be both.

iii- Long or Slender Column:

The column having slenderness ratio greater than 100 is known as long column.
Such elements fail due to excessive lateral deflection (i.e., buckling) at a value of stress
considerably less than the yield or crushing value.
In slender column flexure stress are dominant and compressive stress are not too
important.

6. Ideal Column
An ideal column has the following properties.
1. It is prismatic (having the constant cross section throughout the length).
2. Material is homogeneous.
3. Loading is perfectly axial.
4. Pin ended condition (simply supported) is frictionless.

43
 Mechanics of Solids-II

7. Real Column
1. Imperfection are present (i.e., structural and geometric)
2. it’s not perfectly prismatic
3. Centroid may not lie on line joining the centroid of the end section.
4. Load is not acting along the centroidal line.

7. Critical load of columns

The critical load of as slender bar (columns) subjected to axial compression is that value of
the axial load that is just sufficient to keep the bar a slightly deflected configuration.

For theoretical calculation of critical buckling load, we use

Figure 5.3

5.4 PROCEDURE:
• Firstly take the dimensions of the column and check the end conditions.
• Set the apparatus and apply the load at the cap gradually.
• Check that load at where the column shows significant side way deflections
(buckling).
• Note that load, this will be Pexp.

• Similarly calculate theoretical values of Pcr and compare both values.

44
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Observations and Calculations:

End Conditions b(mm) t(mm) L(mm) k kL(mm) I(mm4) Critical Load %
Pth(N) Pexp(N) Difference
1) Both End 13 0.8 162 0.5 81 0.554 166.5 166.5 0
Fixed
2) Top Hinged, 13 0.8 179 2 358 0.554 8.523 8.523 0
Bottom Fixed
3) Both End 13 0.8 184 1 184 0.554 32.267 32.267 0
Hinged
4) Top Fixed, 13 0.8 173 0.699 120.927 0.554 74.705 74.681 0.024
Bottom Roller

Comments:

In this experiment we applied the loads on various end conditions to determine Euler Critical Buckling.This
buckling phenomenon is crucial in understanding the stability of columns under different loading conditions.

Results :
We differentiate critical loads theoretical and experimental of various end conditions.
Both end fixed there 0% difference.
Top hinged bottom fixed 0% difference.
Both end hinged 0% difference.
Top fixed bottom hinged 0.024 % difference.

45
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 6
STATEMENT
To study the elastic stress strain behavior in bending using electrical
resistance strain gauges.

6.1 PURPOSE
To learn the use of strain gauges for measuring the strains in bending.

6.2 APPARATUS

• Model beam (Maximum extreme fiber stress = 250 N/mm2)

• Strain gauges (Cemented to beam, gauge factor = 2.05)
• Strain meter
• 45 Volt D.C battery
• Pressure cell and hydraulic jack
• Vernier caliper
• Measuring tape
• Connecting wires

6.3 RELATED THEORY

1. Strain
Strain is the amount of deformation produced in a body due to an applied force.
More, specifically strain (ε) is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in figure.

Figure 6.1

2. Normal Strain
Strain along the longitudinal axis of the member is called as normal strain.

46
 Mechanics of Solids-II

3. Shear Strain
Change in tangent of angle with respect to original face of the body when shear force
is applied.

Figure 6.2

4. Measurement Of Strain
Practically it is more convenient to measure strain instead of stress because strain is a
physical quantity while stress is not. Therefore many techniques of strain measurement are
developed.

i- Mechanical Strain Gauges

Mechanical measurement of strain is the oldest and direct method. Because of very
small deformations precise instruments are necessary e.g. micrometer, extensometer, dial
gauges and other mechanical accessories are used either directly or as to magnify the
deformation.

Advantages
• These may be made demountable so that a number of gauge stations may be measured
with one instrument.
Disadvantages
• Only surface strain can be measured and at only accessible points.
• Automatic reading is not possible.
• Only static strain can be measured.
• Result may be unreliable due to wear and tear of the instruments.

ii- Optical Strain Gauges

In this type of gauges measurement and magnification are done optically. A system
of mirrors may be used to produce large displacements on the scale.

Advantages
• Suitable for measuring dynamic strains when used with a suitable photographic
according equipment.

Disadvantages

47
 Mechanics of Solids-II

• Only used for research work.

iii- Vibrating Wire Gauges

When wire is stretched between two clamps, the natural frequency will
correspondingly change. This principle is used to measure strain in the vibrating wire gauges.
A gauge containing the wire is clamped to the test specimen and frequency of vibration is
measured then it is compared with standard wire of known frequency.

Advantages
• Stability over long period.
• Easy and rapid.
• If once attached no need to access.

Disadvantages
• Automatic reading is considerably difficult.
• Only static strain can be measured with normal instruments.

iv- Pneumatic Gauges

This type of gauges is widely used in precision engineering but does not seem to have
much application in Civil engineering.
Pressure drop is directly related to the amount of fluid passing through an orifice. Any
relative movement alters the effective area of the orifice. By measuring the change in
pressure, the amount of this displacement can be determined by previous calibration.

Advantages
• Stability
• Simplicity with high degree of accuracy.

Disadvantages
• Comparatively large sized

v- Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

General definition

These are very fine metal wire grids having some paper base and are cemented on the
surface of structural member to measure normal surface strain in any desired direction.

Components
• Filament
• Paper base/carrier (plastic, Bakolite)
• Terminals/leads

History
In 1856 Lord Kelvin noted that resistance of a conductor changes with change in
length of conductor.

48
 Mechanics of Solids-II

This was the basic idea to develop electrical resistance strain gauge by Edward E.
Simmons in 1938.

5. Working principle

Where

R = resistance of conductor in ohm

L = length of conductor
A = cross-sectional area
Ρ = resistivity of material or specific resistance

Resistance increases with increase in length and decreases with increase in cross-sectional
area of the wire. Change in resistance can be measured with the help of wheatstone bridge.

6. Construction of strain gauge

• Length of filament = 10 to 25 mm
• Diameter of filament = 0.025 mm
• Range of gauge resistance,

60 to 1000 ohm old literature

30 to 3000 ohm new literature

But 100, 120, 350 and 1000 ohm being the most common values
• Safe current = 25 to 50 mA
• Range of voltage = 35 to 50 volts

49
 Mechanics of Solids-II

• Metals used
i. Alloy of copper and nickel
ii. Alloy of nickel, chromium and iron with some other minor elements

7. Requirements of metals
1. Material should be very sensitive to change in resistance with change in length.
2. Proportional limit for the strain gauge material should be more than stress strain limit
of the structural component.

8. Metal foil gauges

Metal foil gauges are cut from a plate of the metal whereas in simple wire gauges, the
wire is bent in the required shape.

9. Gauge factor
Gauge factor or axial sensitivity of the electrical strain gauge is the ratio of the rate of
change of resistance to the rate of change of length, denoted by Ka.

• Value of gauge factor is provided by the manufacturer.

• Range of gauge factor is from 1.9 to 4.0 (in lab range = 2 to 4).
• Gauge factor is constant directly relating the unit change in resistance to strain.

50
 Mechanics of Solids-II

10. Measurement of strain using electrical resistance strain gauges (the Wheatstone
bridge)

Figure 6.3

The electrical resistance strain gauges depend upon the simple method of measuring the
change in resistance by means of wheatstone bridge circuit in which the four arms of the
bridge contains resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4. The potential difference between A and B is
measured by means of a Galvanometer and power is supplied using a battery. According to
the Kirchoff’s law for flow of current in the circuit and Ohm’s law for potential difference,
we have an equation.

Now any one of the resistances is replaced by the strain gauge(called as active strain gauge
Ra)

At the time when load is zero there is no deformation, consequently change in resistance
will be zero and the equation will be valid. As the load is applied the resistance changes,
leaving the equation invalid. The equation is again balanced with the help of the strain meter
and the difference between the two readings is recorded as the change in resistance. Finally
strain can be computed using the following relation.

This method for determining the change in resistance is known as Null Method.

51
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Temperature effect

Change in temperature can effect in two ways

1)

2) Coefficient of thermal expansion

Change in temperature will cause the change in resistance. Strain gauge material and
structural component materials are two different materials and having different coefficient of
thermal expansion values, so due to change in temperature there will be change in strain which
is source of error. So we can’t ignore the temperature effect, even a single degree.

11. Temperature compensation

The simplest solution to compensate the temperature effect is by using a dummy strain
gauge.

12. Dummy strain gauge

It is a strain gauge having the same resistance and sensitivity as the active strain gauge
on the component. It is cemented on a separate piece of metal which is of same type and is
placed close to the actual component.

Dummy strain gauge then forms one arm of the Wheatstone bridge so that if there is
any change due to temperature of the active gauge, same change occurs in the dummy gauge
and this compensation leaves the balance of the bridge unaltered.

13. Humidity effect

Humidity can also affect the result in two ways.

• Corrosion of the filament

• Short-circuiting

Solution
After cementing the electrical resistance strain gauge to the structural component,
apply few coats of water proofing agent (petrosene wax, digel).

14. Theoretical procedure

52
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Advantages
• Normal strain can be measured in any desired direction
• Remote reading is possible
• We can measure strain where access is not possible
• One person can measure the strain for a number of gauges
• A strain gauge cemented to the structural component can measure the strain for
several years until and unless it is damaged or unbounded.

6.4 PROCEDURE

1. Measure the beam (cross-sectional dimensions and a and b) and location of each
gauge.
2. Switch on the strain meter. Check setting of each factor. Take zero load readings of
strain meter for each gauge and for proving ring.
3. Apply the loads in three equal increments over the range.
4. Unload and check the gauge zeros. If large drifts are detected repeat the experiment
for the gauges concerned.

6.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

53
 Mechanics of Solids-II

6.5 COMMENTS:

54
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 7
To Determine the principal strain and stress using Strain Rosette
technique

7.1 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this job is to determine the principal strain and stress using
Strain Rosette technique

7.2 APPARATUS
• Model beam (maximum extreme fiber stress = 250 N/mm2 )
• Strain rosette 2 Nos. (cemented to beam, gauge factor = 2.05)
• Strain meter (gives direct strain reading)
• 45 volt D.C battery
• Pressure cell (hydraulic jack and bourdon gauge)
• Vernier caliper
• Measuring tape
• Connecting wires

7.3 RELATED THEORY

1. Uniaxial stress / strain system:

the forces are acting in such a way that deformation is only in one direction and stress
produced due to these strains are also in one direction. This is called as “uni-axial stress /
strain system”.

2. Bi-Axial Stress / Strain System (2-D):

When forces are applied in such a way that they produce deformations in two
directions such as tension, compression along with shear, in this system the strain is produced
in two directions rather than one dimension.

3. Difference between Principal Planes and Principal Axes:

Principal planes are two dimensional surfaces where normal stresses achieve their
extreme values and shear stresses are zero.

Τxy = 0 , σ1,2 = σmax, min

Where principal axes are the imaginary lines where 2nd moment of area achieves its
extreme value and product moment of inertia is zero.

(Ixx)max, min , (Iyy)min, max , (Ixy) = 0

55
 Mechanics of Solids-II

4. Principal Stress (σ1, σ2):

When the normal stresses achieve their extreme values as σmax, min is known as

“principal stresses”

OR

“These are extreme values of normal stresses which are possible at any point in a
material.”

When normal stress are acting on major principal planes then these are called as “major
principal stress” (σ1 or σmax.)

When normal stresses are acting on minor principal planes, then these are called as
“minor principal stresses” (σ2, σmin)

Mathematically,

σ1,2 = σmax, min

σ1,2 = (σx + σy)/2 ± [(σx-σy)2/2 + (τxy)2]

5. Principal Strains: (Є1,2 ,Єmax, Min ):

The extreme values of normal strain at any point in a material are known as “principal
strains” and these are major and minor principal strains.

Mathematically,

Є1,2 = Єmax, min = (Єx + Єy) ± [(Єx – Єy)2/2 + (γxy)2/2]

6. Strain Rosette:
It is the set of at least three strain gauges in three different directions cemented on
the complete state of stresses and strains.

Єo = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Ө + γxy/2 sin2Ө

Єa = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Өa + γxy/2 sin2Өa (I)

Єb = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Өb + γxy/2 sin2Өb (II)
Єc = (Єx + Єy)/2 + (Єx – Єy)/2 cos2Өc + γxy/2 sin2Өc (III)

By solving simultaneously these equations, we get the values of Єx, Єy and γxy

56
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Types:
Normally, four types are available in the market, which are as under:-
• 45o strain rosette:
• 60o strain rosette:
• 120o strain rosette:
• Four Elements Strain Rosette

45o Strain Rosette:

A strain rosette having included angle of 45o between consecutive strain gauges is
known as “45o strain rosette”

Өa = 0o , Өb = 45o , Өc = 90o

Putting these values in equations 1, 2 and 3, we get:

Єx = Єa , Єy = Єc , γxy = Єa + Єc - 2Єb

Є1,2 = (Єa + Єc)/2 ± [(Єa – Єc)2/2 + (Єb – Єc)2/2]

tan2Өp = (Єa + Єc - 2Єb)/( Єa – Єc)

By using mohr’s circle

Radius (R) = [(CE)2 +(AE)2]

CE = (Єa – Єc)/2
AE = (Єa + Єc)/2 - Єb

Center (C) = ((Єa + Єc)/2 , 0 )

60o strain Rosette:

A strain rosette having included angle of 60o between consecutive strain gauges is
known as “60o styrain rosette”.

Өa = 0o , Өb = 60o , Өc = 120o

Putting these values in equation 1, 2 and 3, we get:

Єx = Єa
Єy = 1/3 (2Єb + 2Єc – Єa)
½ γxy = 1/[3] (Єc –Єb)

Є1,2 = (Єa + Єb + Єc)/3 ± 2/3 [Єa (Єa – Єb) + Єb (Єb – Єc)]

tan2Өp = [3] (Єb – Єc) / (2Єa – Єb – Єc)

57
 Mechanics of Solids-II

120o Strain Rosette:

A strain rosette having included angle of 120o between consecutive strain gauges is
known as “120o strain rosette”

Өa = 0o , Өb = 120o , Өc = 240o

Putting these values in equation 1, 2 and 3, we get:

Єx = Єa
Єy = 2/3 (Єb + Єc – Є a/2)
γxy = 1.35 (Єc – Єb)

Fourth Element Strain Rosette:

Advantage:
• We can have a counter check of computed values of coordinate strain (precision).
• We can compute the avg value of coordinate strains by using the relation;

(Єx)avg = Σ (Єi/N)

7.4 PROCEDURE
i. Measure the beam span “a” and location of each strain rosette.
ii. Switch on the stain meter. Check battery voltage and setting of each factor. Set the
static mode for strain measurements.
iii. Take zero load readings of strain meter for each gauge.
iv. Apply load in two equal increments over the range and take strain meter readings for
each strain gauge for each load.
v. Unload and check the gauge zeros. If large drifts are detected repeat the experiment
for the gauges concerned.

7.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION

L=
I=
G=
Y=

Graphs:

58
 Mechanics of Solids-II

7.2 COMMENTS

59
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Experiment 8
To determine the Elastic Critical Buckling load and Initial Imperfections
of a Pin-ended Real Column using Southwell Plot Technique

8.1 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this job is to determine the critical buckling load and initial
imperfection of a pin ended column using south-well plot technique

8.2 APPARATUS
▪ Model column
▪ Loading arrangement
▪ Measuring steel tape
▪ Vernier callipers

8.3 Related theory

1. Column:
A column is a line element (long slender bar) subjected to axial compression. The term is
frequently used to describe a vertical member
Buckling is categorized into the following
▪ Overall buckling
▪ Local buckling
▪ Lateral Torsional buckling

2. Initially curved column

The column whose centroidal axis is not perfectly vertical and has some eccentricity is
known as initially curved column

Figure 8.1

60
 Mechanics of Solids-II

3. Derivation
EI d²y/dx²=M
M=-P(y +y)
d²y/dx²= -Py/EI -Py/EI
Let
k²= P/EI
dy²/dx² + k²y = -k²y
y = ao sin πx/L
d²y/dx² + k²y = -k²ao sin πx/L
Solution of above equation is
y = C sin kx + D cos kx - k²ao / (π²/L² - k²) sin πx/L
Applying boundary conditions
At point A
x=0, y=0
D=0
At point B
x = L, y = 0
C=0
So we get
y = ( k²ao/ (π²/L² - k²) ) sin πx/L
y = (( ao/ (π²/k²L² - 1) ) sin πx/L
y = (( ao/ (π²EI/L²P - 1)) sin πx/L
y = ( ao/ (Pcr/P - 1)) sin πx/L
For pin ended column maximum deflection is at x = L/2
ym = ( ao/(Pcr/P - 1) ) sin π(L/2)/L
ym = ( ao/ (Pcr/P - 1) )
ym = (Pcr/P - 1) = a
ym/P = ym/Pcr + ao/Pcr
ym/P = (1/Pcr) ym + ao/Pcr

8.4 PROCEDURE
▪ First note the initial imperfection of the model column
▪ Fix the column in compression machine and apply load in increment
▪ Note down dial gauge reading for every increment of load until the sample fails

61
 Mechanics of Solids-II

8.5 OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Initial imperfection

Effective length

Total length

Breadth

Load Loading Cycle-1 Loading Cycle-2 Mean

Value
P DGR Ym DGR Ym Ym Ym/p
kg N mm mm mm

Southwell Plot:

62
 Mechanics of Solids-II

Slope
Pcr
Initial imperfection from sample
Initial imperfection from graph
%difference

8.6 COMMENTS

63