Park Lane Harbour

Name: ______________________________
Physics 7
Summer Packet Study Guide

Use this guide to help you to finish the Summer Packet Problems and retake the Physics 7 exam.

I. Units
Units are used to measure the amount of a quantity. You need to have the SI units memorized. You also need to be
able to convert between SI units and English. The conversion will be given to you on the test if you need it.

Quantity SI Unit
Time Seconds (s)
Distance/displacement Meter (m)
Speed/Velocity Meter Per Second (m/s)
Acceleration Meter Per Second Per
Second or Meter Per
Second Squared (m/s2)

Force Newton (N)

Work/Energy Joules (J)
Power Watt (W)

Note: Three of these units (Force, Work/Energy, and Power) are derived which means they can be
written in terms of other units.

𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 2 𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 2
1𝑁 = 1 1𝐽 = 1 1𝑊 = =
𝑠2 𝑠2 𝑠 𝑠3

Example Single Unit Conversion Question:

Question: If there are 1609 meters in 1 mile, convert 4 miles to meters.

Answer:
4 𝑚𝑖 1609 𝑚
× = 4 × 1609 𝑚 = 6436 𝑚
1 𝑚𝑖
Example Double Unit Conversion Question:

Question: If there are 2.54 cm in 1 inch, convert 9 cm/min to in/s.

Answer:
9 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 9 𝑖𝑛
× × = = 0.059 𝑖𝑛/𝑠
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2.54 𝑐𝑚 60 𝑠 2.54 × 60 𝑠

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II. Metric Prefixes
Metric prefixes are used in place of scientific notation. You need to have the metric prefixes pico-tera memorized
and you need to be able to convert between prefixes.

Prefix Symbol Factor

Tera T 1 000 000 000 000 = 1012
Giga G 1 000 000 000 = 109
Mega M 1 000 000 = 106
Kilo k 1 000 = 103
Hecto h 100 = 102
Deka da 10 = 101
Base Unit --- 1
Deci d 0.1 = 10-1
Centi c 0.01 = 10-2
Milli m 0.001 = 10-3
Micro µ 0.000 001 = 10-6
Nano n 0.000 000 001 = 10-9
Pico p 0.000 000 000 001 = 10-12

Example Metric Conversion Question:

Question: Convert 4 Gm to dm.

Answer: First convert from Giga meter to the base unit meter, then convert from meter to deci
meter.
4 𝐺𝑚 1,000,000,000 𝑚 10 𝑑𝑚
× × = 4 × 1,000,000,000 × 10 𝑑𝑚 = 40,000,000,000 𝑑𝑚
1 𝐺𝑚 1𝑚

III. Kinematics
Kinematics is the study of objects in motion. In order to study motion, we must first define motion and to do that,
we need to understand the term reference point. Imagine we
have a boy riding a scooter. Is the boy in motion? To answer
that question, we need to ask “according to which reference
point?” According to the scooter, the boy is not in motion
because the scooter is traveling with the boy. According to
the buildings, the boy is in motion because he is driving past
them. So motion is defined by the change in a position over
time according to a reference point.

Reference Point: a point in space that is chosen to take

measurements of motion.

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Position: location of an object according to a reference point.

Motion: when an object is changing its position over time according to a reference point.

If we can make a measurement of how far an object has traveled from a reference point, we can determine the
distance it has traveled. If we make a measurement of how far an object has traveled from a reference point and the
direction the object has traveled from a reference point we know the displacement of the object.

When measuring motion, sometimes it is important to know the direction a certain measurement of that motion
points. Quantities that we do not need to specify a direction are called scalars and quantities where direction is
needed are called vectors.

Examples of direction: Positive ( + )

Horizontal V Up
e
North
r
t
Negative ( - ) Positive ( + ) c
a
l Negative ( - )
Left Right
Down
West East
South

Scalar: a physical quantity that can be described by a number without a direction.

Vector: a physical quantity that is described by a number and a direction.

Distance: a measurement of how far an object has traveled from a reference point. Distance is a scalar and it is
measured in meters (m). The symbol for distance is x.

Displacement: a measurement of how far and in what direction an object has traveled from a reference point.
Displacement is a vector and it is measured in meters (m). When an object ends its motion in the same spot that it
started its motion, the displacement is zero. This can be seen when an object travels in a circle.

Example of Distance and Displacement:

Question: A dog runs 100 meters north then 50 meters south. (A) what is the distance traveled by the dog? (B)
what is the displacement of the dog?

Answer:

(A) the distance traveled by the dog can be found by adding each distance traveled by the dog.

x = 100 m + 50 m = 150 m

(B) the displacement of the dog can be found by looking at how far and in what direction the dog stopped from
where it started.

Δx = +100 m + -50 m = +50 m. The positive (+) and negative (-) signs must be included because
direction matters when calculating displacement.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

If we want to determine how quickly the object changing its position in a certain amount of time we can determine
how fast or slow an object is traveling and we call these measurements speed and/or velocity.

Time: a measurement of how long a process takes. Time is a scalar and is measured in seconds (s).

Speed: a measurement of the change in distance from a reference point over time. Speed is a scalar and is measured
in meters per second (m/s).
𝑥
𝑠= s: speed (m/s)
𝑡
x: distance (m)

t: time (s)

Average Speed: a measurement of the total distance traveled over a certain time. This is used when there are
multiple trips.
∑ 𝑥 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = =
∑𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Velocity: a measurement of the displacement of an object from a reference point (distance and direction) over time.
Velocity is a vector and is measured in meters per second (m/s).
∆𝑥⃗ 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 v: velocity (m/s)
𝑣⃗ = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖
Δx: displacement (m)

xf and xi: final and initial position (m)

tf and ti: final and initial time (s)

Average Velocity: a measurement of the total displacement of an object from a starting point over time. This is used
when there are multiple trips.
∑ ∆𝑥⃗ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
∑ ∆𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

 Example of Speed and Velocity:

Question: A dog runs 100 meters north in 50 seconds. (A) what is the speed of the dog? (B) what is the velocity of
the dog?

Answer:

(A) the speed of the dog can be found by dividing the distance by the time.
𝑥 100 𝑚
𝑠= = = 2 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 50 𝑠

(B) The velocity of the dog can be found by dividing the displacement of the dog by the time.

∆𝑥⃗ 100 𝑚 North

𝑣⃗ = = = 2 𝑚⁄𝑠 North
∆𝑡 50 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

We can also measure how quickly an object is changing its speed or velocity over a given period of time and this is
called the acceleration.

Acceleration: a measurement of the change in velocity over change in time. Acceleration is a vector and it is
measured in meters per second per second or meters per second squared (m/s2).
∆𝑣⃗ a = acceleration (m/s2)
𝑎⃗ =
∆𝑡
v = velocity (m/s)

t = time (s)

Example Acceleration:

Question: A car increases it speed from 15 m/s north to 20 m/s north in 5 seconds. What is the acceleration of
the car?

Answer: To find the acceleration divide the change in velocity by the change in time.
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
∆𝑣⃗ 20 𝑠 − 15 𝑠 5 𝑚
𝑎⃗ = = North = 𝑠 North = 1 2 North
∆𝑡 5𝑠 5𝑠 𝑠

Determining the direction of acceleration can be tricky. If the velocity and acceleration of an object are in the same
direction the object is speeding up. If the acceleration and velocity of an object are in opposite directions the object
is slowing down.

speeding up: velocity and acceleration are in the same direction.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

 slowing down: velocity and acceleration are in the opposite direction.
Example Determining Direction of Velocity and Acceleration:

Question: An object is traveling to the left and slowing down. What are the directions of the velocity and
acceleration?

Answer: the direction of the velocity is in the same direction as motion, so velocity is left. The object is slowing
down so the acceleration is in the opposite direction as velocity so the acceleration is right.

velocity: left, acceleration: right

When an object is accelerating we can determine the velocity over time and the position over time using the two
kinematic equations of motion.

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
xi and xf: initial and final position (m)
1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 vi and vf: initial and final velocity (m/s)
2
a: acceleration (m/s2)

When using these equations some common terms you may read and what t: time (s)
they mean are:

“dropped from rest”: initial velocity is zero

“free-fall”: a = -g where g is the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8 m/s2 on Earth)

“constant speed”: acceleration is zero

“maximum height”: highest point the object goes, velocity at this point is zero

IV. Graphing
Graphs are useful ways to model the motion of an object over time. Usually three types of graphs are used: position
versus time, velocity versus time, and acceleration versus time.

Position versus Time Graph

 Position of an object at a certain time.

Example: what is the position of the
object at 3 seconds? The position at 3
seconds is 5 meters.
 Velocity of an object during a certain
time frame. Example: what is the
velocity of the object between 2 and
4 seconds? First find the coordinates
for the two times in question and write
them in the form of (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
so we get (4, 0) and (2, 10). Use the
slope equation to find the velocity:
𝑦 −𝑦 0−10 −10
𝑣 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 4−2
= 2
= −5 𝑚/𝑠
2 1

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

Velocity versus Time Graph:

 Velocity of the object at a certain time.

Example: at 10 minutes the velocity of the
object is 60 m/min.
 Distance traveled of an object during a certain
time frame. Example: what is the distance
traveled by the object during the 55 minutes?
To find this, add all areas between the line and
the x-axis.

1 1
(10)(60) + (60)(5) + (15)(60) = 1050 𝑚
2 2

1 1
(40)(10) + (15)(40) = 320𝑚
2 2

Distance traveled = 1050 m + 320 m = 1370 m

 Displacement of an object during a certain time frame. Example: what is the displacement of the object
during the 55 minutes? To find this, add all areas between the line and the x-axis but subtract areas below
the x-axis and the line.

Displacement = 1050 m – 320 m = 730 m

 Acceleration of the object during a certain time frame. Example: what is the acceleration of the object from
15 minutes to 40 minutes? First find the coordinates for the two times in question and write them in the
form of (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) so we get (15, 60) and (40, -40). Use the slope equation to find the acceleration:
𝑦2 −𝑦1 −40−60 −20
𝑎= = = = −0.8 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛2
𝑥2 −𝑥1 40−15 25

Acceleration = -0.8 m/min2

Acceleration versus Time Graph:

 Acceleration of an object at a certain time. Example: at 2

seconds the acceleration of the object is 2 m/s2.
 Average velocity during a certain time frame. Example:
what is the average velocity of the object during the first
4 seconds? To find this, find the area between the line
and the x-axis.

1
(4)(4) = 8 𝑚/𝑠
2

Average Velocity = 8 m/s

V. Dynamics
Now that we have discussed what it means to be in motion we now can talk about how motion occurs. The only
thing that can cause a change in motion is a force, however, object’s do not want their motion to be changed.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

Newton’s First Law: object’s resist changes in motion. An object at rest will remain at rest and an object in motion
will remain in motion unless acted on by a net force.

Inertia: a measure of resistance to a change in motion (also known as mass)

Mass: a measure of the amount of substance (matter) in an object. Mass is a scalar and is measured in kilograms
(kg).

Force: a push or pull on an object that can cause a change in motion for the object. Force is a vector quantity and is
measured in Newtons (N).

There are many types of forces. Some are action-at-a-distance forces meaning they do not need to physically touch
the object to affect motion whereas others are contact forces meaning they need to physically touch the object to
affect motion.

Types of Action-at-a-Distance Forces:

Four Fundamental Forces: all fundamental forces are action-at-a-distance forces. The four forces are listed below in
order from strongest to weakest.

Strong Force: the force that holds together the neutrons and protons of a nucleus.

Electromagnetic Force: the force of electricity and magnetism.

Weak Force: the force that controls radioactivity

Gravitational Force or Weight (Fg): the force due to gravity,

Fg: force due to gravity or weight (N)
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
m: mass (kg)

g: acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

for Earth g = 9.8 m/s2

Types of Contact Forces:

Normal Force (FN): perpendicular force on a surface.

Tension (T): Force on a rope or string.

Friction (Ff): force that points in the opposite direction of motion that occurs between rough surfaces.

 kinetic friction: friction of a moving object Ff = force of friction (N)

 static friction: friction holding an object in place
µ: coefficient of friction
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝐹𝑁
FN: normal force (N)
 𝜇𝑠 > 𝜇𝑘 static friction is always greater than kinetic friction

Force Applied (Fapp): force applied by an outside object that is not described by the other forces.

When representing these forces acting on an object we draw a free-body diagram. See example below.

Balanced Forces: are equal in strength but opposite in direction. This means they cancel and the object is in
equilibrium. Balanced forces cannot change motion so the object will remain stopped if it is not moving or remain at
constant velocity if it is moving.

Unbalanced Forces: forces do not cancel and the object will change its motion (accelerate).

When many forces act on an object we must add them up to analyze the change in motion for that object.

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Newton’s Second Law: the total force acting on an object is directly proportional to the product of mass and
acceleration.
∑F: total force (N)
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 m: mass (kg)

a: acceleration (m/s2)

Example Free-Body Diagram:

A box is pulled to the right across a rough, flat surface.

Example Net Force Equation in x- and y-direction:

x-direction:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦

−𝐹𝑓 + 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐹𝑁 − 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦

Newton’s Third Law: when one object applies a force on a second object, the second object applies and equal force
in opposite direction on the first object. It is important to note that these action-reaction force pairs occur on
different objects so they will not cancel each other out.

Example Action-Reaction Statement:

Action: A boy pulls a box with 40 N of force to the right.

Reaction: The box pulls the boy with 40 N of force to the left.

VI. Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (NLUG)

The gravitational force between two massive objects can be found using NLUG. Each object exerts the same strength
of force on the other but in opposite directions, even if one object is much more massive than the other. This means
that you pull on the Earth just as much as the Earth pulls on you.

F1 (sometimes called F1,2): Force on mass 1

due to mass 2 (N)

F2 (sometimes called F2,1): Force on mass 2

due to mass 1 (N)

G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

m1 = mass 1 (kg)

m2 = mass 2 (kg)

r = distance from center to center (m)

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

Note that the force is inversely proportional to the separation distance squared. That means as distance increases,
force decreases. Also, since the distance is squared, changing the distance changes the force more quickly than
changing mass since mass is not squared. Also note that force is directly proportional to mass so if mass is increased,
force also increases.

Example NLUG Proportionality:

What happens to the force of gravity between two masses when mass is held constant and distance is doubled?
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹= → =
𝑟2 (2𝑟)2 4𝑟 2
So the force is multiplied by ¼ so it becomes F/4

Example NLUG:

What is the force of gravity between the Earth and the Moon?

mE = 5.97 x 1024 kg, mm = 7.34 x 1022 kg, r = 3.84 x 108 m

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 (6.67 × 10−11 )(5.97 × 1024 )(7.34 × 1022 ) 2.92 × 1037

𝐹= = = = 6.6 × 1057 𝑁
𝑟2 (6.67 × 10−11 )2 4.4 × 10−21

VII. Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. When a force is applied to an object and that force causes a displacement of the
object, that force has done work on the object. Only forces that cause displacements do work.

W: work (Joules, J)
𝑊 = 𝐹|| ∆𝑥
F||: Force parallel to direction of
displacement (N)

Δx: displacement (m)

Examples of Work:

Question: a 40 N force pushes a box 3 meters to the right. What is the work done on the box by the force?

Answer: 𝑊 = 𝐹|| ∆𝑥 = 40(3) = 120 J

Question: you hold a 80 N box 1 meter over your head. What is the work done on the box by your force?

Answer: W = 0 J. No work was done because you did not cause a displacement of the box.

The amount of work done over a period of time is called the power.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

 𝑊
𝑃= 𝑡 P: Power (watts, W)

W: Work (J)

t: time (s)

It takes work to lift an object vertically against the force of gravity. By lifting the object, that object now has stored
energy which it can use to fall back down. This energy is called gravitational potential energy.

Gravitational Potential Energy: energy of an object due to its position in a gravitational field. (Any object that has
the ability to fall down a certain height has stored gravitational potential energy.)

𝐺𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ GPE: Gravitational Potential Energy

(J)

m: mass (kg)

g: acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)

(Earth g = 9.8 m/s2

All moving objects contain energy and this energy is called kinetic energy.

Kinetic Energy: the energy of a moving object.

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 KE: Kinetic Energy (J)
2
m: mass (kg)

v: velocity (m/s

Energy is a conserved quantity meaning the amount of energy an object starts with is the same amount of energy
that it ends with when no work is done on the system. This total energy is called the mechanical energy.

Total Mechanical Energy: the total potential energy and kinetic energy of a system.

𝑇𝑀𝐸 = 𝐺𝑃𝐸 + 𝐾𝐸

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Conservation of Energy: the total mechanical energy of an object is a constant.

𝑇𝑀𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑀𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

Example Conservation of Energy: A 1500 kg roller coaster starts from rest at the top of a 140 meter hill. What is the
TME of the roller caoster? What is the velocity at the bottom of the hill? What is the KE at point B?

TME = GPE = mgh = (1500)(9.8)(140) =

2058000 J The TME of the roller coaster will remain
constant. If you know the TME at the top
(starting position) you will know the energy
anywhere.

TME = KE + GPE

2058000 = KE + (1500)(9.8)(95)

2058000 = KE + 1396500

661500 J = KE

TME = KE = ½ mv2

2058000 = ½ (1500) v2

78575 m/s = v

VIII. Momentum
Recall that mass is a measure of the amount of “stuff” that makes up an
object. In SI units this mass is measured in kilograms (kg). All objects that have
mass resist changes in their motion. We call this resistance to change in
motion inertia. The more massive an object the more inertia that object
contains. We see objects in different types of motion every day so what is
changing their motion? A force is the quantity that can cause changes in
motion, or acceleration. Recall that acceleration occurs when an object
speeds up, slows down, or changes its direction. So this means that forces
cause objects to accelerate, or change their motion, and it is in this state of motion that we say the object has
momentum.

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Momentum is essentially mass in motion 1. Objects with greater momentum require a greater force to stop. There
are two ways to increase the momentum of objects, increase the mass or increase the velocity.

p: momentum (kg m/s)

𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗ m: mass (kg)

v: velocity (m/s)

Momentum is a vector which means it has magnitude and direction. Since mass is a scalar, momentum must be in
the same direction as the velocity since it is also a vector. The momentum is directly proportional to the mass and
the velocity. This means that if mass doubles, momentum also doubles and if velocity is halved, momentum is also
halved.

Example: Proportionality of momentum.

The momentum of an object is 5000 kg m/s. If the velocity is halved while the mass is held constant, what
would be the new momentum of the object?

𝑝⃗ = 𝑚𝑣⃗
If m → m and v→ v/2

The momentum equation becomes:

𝑝⃗ → 𝑚 2⃗ =
𝑣 𝑝⃗
2

So the momentum is halved (or half of its starting value) so the new momentum is 2500 kg m/s.

Analyzing momentum is useful because it can tell you physical quantities of objects after they interact via collisions
or explosions. These objects will make up our “system” so that the total momentum of the system will refer to the
sum of the momentum of each object that is interacting. It is also important to define limits to the situations under
investigation. When analyzing these scenarios, the investigation will be limited to closed, isolated systems. This
means that if we are looking at an interaction between objects we will be ignoring forces outside of our system. For
example, if two balls collide, we will investigate their initial and final momentum without considering external
factors such as friction. Under these conditions momentum is a conserved quantity. This means that when objects
interact the momentum of the system is unchanged so that the total momentum of the system before the
interaction equals the total momentum of the system after the interaction.

∑ 𝑝⃗𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝑝⃗𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

Recall that ∑ is the mathematical symbol for summation, ∑ 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯. To solve conservation of momentum
problems the initial momentum of each object needs to be totaled and set it equal to the total momentum of each
of the objects after the interaction. During these interactions kinetic energy of the objects may or may not be
converted into other forms of energy depending upon what type of interaction occurred. Since the main focus of this
text will be collisions, the types will be referred to as elastic collisions and inelastic collisions.

1
Photons are the only known massless particles in the universe yet they still have momentum. The equation for momentum
ℎ
shown in this text refers to massive objects only. The momentum for photons can be found using 𝑝 = 𝜆.
©2019 LeShawna Valdez
Perfectly Elastic Collisions

During all collisions, at least one object is moving before the collision takes place, this is the only
way the objects can come into contact with each other in the first place 2. Since there is at least
one object in motion, the system has initial kinetic energy. If two or more objects collide, then
bounce apart with no loss of kinetic energy the collision is considered perfectly elastic. This
means that both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved, therefore, the total initial kinetic
energy equals the total final kinetic energy and the same for momentum. Very few collisions
Figure 1.1: Ideal gases particles
in the universe are perfectly elastic since there is almost always a transfer of energy, collide with minimal energy loss.
This is an example of a perfectly
however, some lose such a small amount of energy that they are considered elastic. elastic collision.

Inelastic Collisions

During an inelastic collision, two or more objects collide with some, if not
all, kinetic energy loss. This “lost” energy is not actually lost but converted
into other forms such as sound energy, thermal energy, or the energy
required to deform (or change the shape) of objects. This is because it
requires energy to produce a sound wave, to heat up a substance, or to
change the shape of an object. This energy is provided by the initial kinetic
energy of the system and since kinetic energy was converted into other
forms of energy the speed of the object(s) will decrease after the collision. Figure 1.2: A bullet that is fired into a wooden block
In a perfectly inelastic collision the speed decreases to 0 m/s so the objects are is an example of an inelastic collision. If the bullet
and block do not move after the collision, it would
no longer in motion. Refer to table 1.1 for these classifications and examples. be an example of a perfectly inelastic collision.

Table 1.1: Collision classifications and examples.

Collision Type Momentum Conserved? Kinetic Energy Conserved? Examples

Perfectly Elastic Collision Yes Yes Collisions of sub-atomic
particles in gases (nearly
perfect)
Perfectly Inelastic Collision Yes No, maximum KE lost An arrow fired into a
bullseye
Inelastic Collision Yes No A bullet that is fired into a
wooden block that gets stuck
in the block and they move
together afterward

2
Note that during explosions it is not a requirement that an object be moving initially but these will be analyzed later in the text.
©2019 LeShawna Valdez
Example 1: Inelastic Collision, two objects, one initially at rest, one combined mass after collision.

A 0.001 kg bullet is fired with velocity +300 m/s into a 5 kg block initially at rest. The bullet gets embedded in
the block. What is the final velocity of the bullet-block system?

In the initial system the bullet is moving and the block is at rest. This means that all the initial momentum of the
system is in the bullet. After the collision, the bullet is inside the block so they move together with a combined
final momentum.

If the bullet is labeled as object 1 and the block is labeled object 2:

∑ 𝑝⃗𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = ∑ 𝑝⃗𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑝⃗1𝑖 + 𝑝⃗2𝑖 = 𝑝⃗1𝑓 + 𝑝⃗2𝑓

𝑚1 𝑣⃗1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2𝑓

Substituting known values from the problem:

(0.001)(300) + (5)(0) = (0.001)(𝑣1𝑓 ) + (5)(𝑣2𝑓 )

After simplifying and since the bullet is inside the block 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓 :

0.3 = 5.001𝑣𝑓

𝑣𝑓 = +0.06 𝑚/𝑠

So the final velocity of the bullet-block system is +0.6 m/s.

Example 2: Elastic collision, two objects.

A bowling ball of mass 5 kg is traveling at +1 m/s when it collides elastically with a 3 kg bowling ball initially
traveling -0.5 m/s. If the 5 kg bowling ball travels with velocity +0.7 m/s after the collision, what is the velocity
of the 3 kg bowling ball after the collision?

Using the conservation of momentum equation:

𝑚1 𝑣⃗1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣⃗1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣⃗2𝑓

Substituting known values from the problem:

(5)(1) + (3)(−0.5) = (5)(0.6) + (3)(𝑣2𝑓 )

5 − 1.5 = 3 + 3𝑣2𝑓

3.5 = 3 + 3𝑣2𝑓

0.5 = 3𝑣2𝑓

𝑣2𝑓 LeShawna
©2019 = +0.17 𝑚/𝑠
Valdez
IX. Electrostatics
Have you ever rubbed your feet across carpet and then touched a friend to produce a
shock? How does this happen? Similarly, you can rub a balloon on your hair and
observe your hair stand on end. Turns out this is due to one of the four fundamental
forces, electromagnetism. Electromagnetism is part electricity and part magnetism;
we will focus on electricity. In order to properly study electricity, we must first look
into the electric charge.

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter, just like mass. However, unlike
Figure 2.1: A girl observes her hair stand
mass which is only positive, charge can come in both positive and negative form. With on end after rubbing with a balloon.
During this process electrons are
gravitational fields we notice that they are always attractive. This is due to the lack of transferred from her hair to the balloon.
negative mass. Since electric charges can be positive or negative, the electric force
can be attractive or repulsive. Before we delve into the electric force we will look into these charge carriers in more
detail.

The Atom

As the cell is the basic unit of life, the atom is the basic unit of matter. Everyday objects with which we come into
contact are all composed of atoms, even the air we breathe. An atom is composed of an inner nucleus surrounded
by an electron cloud as shown in figure 2.2. The inner nucleus is where
the protons and neutrons are located. Orbiting the outside of the nucleus
are the electrons. The proton and neutron have almost identical mass of
𝑚𝑝 = 1.67 × 10−27 kg and the mass of the electron is 𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 ×
10−31 kg. The charge of the proton and electron are equal and opposite,
𝑞𝑒 = −1.602 × 10−19 C and 𝑞𝑝 = +1.602 × 10−19 C. The neutron is
neutral. Although the atom contains positive and negative charges, most
Figure 2.2: A neutral atom is composed of an inner nucleus
everyday objects we come into contact with do not shock us. This is
containing the proton and neutron with electrons orbiting because most of these objects have equal number of electrons and
the outer region.
protons since their atoms are generally neutral. It is a disruption to this
neutrality that causes a shock. This occurs because objects either acquire
an excess of electrons becoming negatively charged, or objects acquire a deficit of electrons becoming positively
charged. Charge is a conserved property, meaning charge cannot be created or destroyed, so the charge (or
electrons) are being transferred from one object to another causing an imbalance that leaves one object positively
charged and another negatively charged.

Our periodic table is made up of elements, or atoms. Each atom “holds on” to its electrons with different strength.
We call this the electronegativity of the atom. Since atoms are the building blocks of the objects in our everyday life,
some objects hold on to electrons more strongly than others so when we talk about charging an object, we are
talking about the movement of the electron. It is important to note that the proton is not the particle doing the
moving! The proton is held inside the nucleus so it is the orbiting electron that is actually being transferred from one
object to another. For some objects, electrons can flow through that object fairly easily since they are not tightly
bound to the atom. These objects are called conductors. Other objects do not let their electrons flow freely, holding
tightly to the electron. These objects are called insulators. We will discuss three ways to transfer electrons from one
object to another: charging by rubbing, charging by conduction, and charging by induction.

Charging by Rubbing

When two insulators are rubbed together, the insulator with a stronger electronegativity pulls electrons from the
other insulator. This leaves one insulator with excess negative charge and one with a deficit negative charge. This is
called charging by rubbing (friction). The scenarios described at the beginning of the section are examples of
charging by rubbing. When charging by rubbing it is important to note that one insulator is gaining excess electrons
while the other is losing electrons and since insulators do not allow electrons to flow through the material, the extra
electrons will remain “clumped” in the area where the two insulators were rubbed together. In the same way there
©2019 LeShawna Valdez
will be a spot of “missing” electrons on the other insulator where the materials were rubbed together. This is shown
in figure 2.3.

Insulators that have become charged through rubbing can become neutral again through a process called grounding
which will be discussed further in the text.

Example: Charging a balloon by rubbing.

If you rub a balloon on your hair you observe your hair lifting into the air. Describe the process of charging the balloon and your hair.

Answer

When you rub a balloon on your hair, the balloon is more

electronegative than your hair so it pulls electrons from your
hair. Negative charges then begin to accumulate in the region
where the balloon was rubbed onto your hair. A similar region
of a deficit of electrons appears in the area where your hair
was rubbed by the balloon. Since negative charge is attracted
to positive charge, your hair lifts up toward the balloon.

Figure 2.3: Charging a balloon and hair through rubbing.

Charging by Conduction

Charging by conduction is charging objects

A positively charged aluminum rod
through touch, or contact. If a charged object and a neutral metal plate.
is brought into contact with a neutral
conductor, the charged objects will “share” its
charge with the neutral object. We need to be
careful will the word “share” because if a
positively charged objects “shares” charge
with a neutral object, both objects will
become positively charged but must
remember it the electron that is moving, not a The rod is brought near to the
proton. So how do each objects become plate. The electrons in the plate
positively charged? are attracted to the rod so they
move toward the rod. Notice the
Let us say a positively charged aluminum bar protons are still held in place.
is brought near a neutral plate. As the
aluminum rod is brought closer to the plate,
the electrons in the plate will be attracted to
the positive charge of the rod. If the rod then The rod is then touched to the
touches the plate, electrons will leave the metal plate which allows the
plate and jump onto the rod. This reduces electron to leave the plate onto
some of the positive charge of the rod but it the rod.
could not take as many electrons as it would
have liked so the rod still has a deficit of
electrons, therefore it is still positively
charged. The plate that was originally neutral The rod and the plate are
now is missing some electrons because they separated again. Notice that there
left on the rod, therefore the plate is also were not enough electrons to
positively charged. This is process is outlined neutralize the plate so there are
in figure 2.4. still move positive charges than
negative charges. The plate now
A similar process takes place for a negatively has a deficit of negative charge so
charged rod. With charging by conduction, it is positive. Both rod and plate
Figure 2.4: A diagram of positively charging a neutral plateare
through conduction.
positively charged.
we like to say the conductors “share”
©2019 LeShawna Valdez
charge. That means that if the rod in the example initially had a charge of +4 and the plate were neutral, after
charging the rod would have charge +2 and the plate would have charge +2.

Charging by Induction

The last method of charging we will discuss is charging through induction. With induction, a charged object is
brought near another conductor but it never touches the other conductor. Let us say a positively charged rod is
brought near a neutral plate. As the rod gets close to the plate the electrons in the plate move closer to the rod as
shown in figure 2.4. Now, with the rod still not touching the plate, let us say we attach a wire to the plate and that
wire is also connected to Earth as shown in figure 2.5. This is
called grounding the plate. The Earth is an infinite source of
electrons. We can give electrons to the Earth or we can take
electrons from the Earth and the Earth has so many electrons
to spare that it does not notice. So by attaching this grounding
wire to the plate, we allow electrons to come from the Earth
and add onto the plate. Why are they coming from the Earth
onto the plate? They want to neutralize the positive charge of
the rod so they are trying to get as close as they can to the rod.
Now the plate has excess electrons and if we remove the
grounding wire while the rod is still near the plate, the
electrons have nowhere to go. This leave the rod positively
charged and the plate negatively charged. We will have
effectively charged the metal plate without actually touching it Figure 2.5: Grounding a metal plate to allow electrons to flow from the
Earth to the plate.
with the charged rod. This is charging by induction.

Coulomb’s Law

What is causing the electrons to move? Recall that the only thing that can cause a change in motion (or acceleration)
is a force. That must mean there is an electric force causing charged objects to move. Recall that Newton modeled
𝐺𝑚1𝑚2
the gravitational force between two massive objects as 𝐹 = 𝑟2
. Similarly, the electric force between two objects
was modeled by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb and is referred to as Coulomb’s law.
F: Force (N)

k: 9 x 109 N m2/C2
𝑘|𝑞1 ||𝑞2 |
𝐹=
𝑟2 |q1|and |q2|:
absolute value of
charge (C)

r: distance (m)
With the gravitational force, the force is always attractive. This is because we only have
positive mass. With the electric field, we have positive and negative charge, therefore we
have attractive and repulsive electric forces. It is important to note the absolute value around this charge. We must
determine the direction of force using a force vector, therefore we cannot substitute a negative charge into the
equation because that may change the direction of the force. To determine the direction of the force we must draw
a force vector on each charge. The free-body diagram for two positive charges, two negative charges, and a positive-
negative charge combination are shown in figure 2.6. The notation the forces between charges is shown as F1,2 and
F2,1. The notation F1,2 means “force on charge 1 due to charge 2” and the notation F2,1 means “force on charge 2 due
to charge 1”.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

Figure 2.6: The electric force between two charged objects. From left to right, the force between two positive charges, the force between two negative charges, and the force
between opposite charges.

Coulomb’s law shows us that the force is directly proportional to charge and inversely
proportional to the distance squared. This tells us that changing separation distance
between charges has a greater impact on the electric force than changing charge by the
same factor. Figure 2.7 shows that as separation distance between charges increases,
Figure 2.6: Strength of electric force is
inversely proportional to r2.

Example: Proportionality of Coulomb’s Law.

Question 1: Two objects of charge q1 and q2 experience a force F when separated by a distance r. What happens to the force when
charge q1 is doubled but q2 and r remain constant?

Answer: Doubled means multiplied by 2 so we simply substitute that into the equation:

𝑘(2𝑞1 )𝑞2 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2

𝐹= =2 2
𝑟2 𝑟
So the force is doubled.

Question 2: Two objects of charge q1 and q2 experience a force F when separated by a distance r. What happens to the force when r is
doubled but charge q1 and q2 remain constant?

𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑘𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= =
(2𝑟)2 4𝑟 2

So the force is quartered.

1
the force decreases as ∝ 𝑟 2 . The following two examples show this difference. In the first example the charge is
doubled, in the second example the distance is doubled.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

Understanding proportionality is very important in the study of Coulomb’s law but substituting values into
Coulomb’s law can also be tricky because often we are using scientific notation. The following example shows how to
calculate the electric force with numbers in scientific notation form.

Example: In the hydrogen atom the electron orbits the proton a distance of 5.29 x 10-11 m. Draw the force vectors between the electron
and proton and find the magnitude of electric force felt by each.

Answer: the magnitude of force between the proton and electron will be the same it is only the direction of force that is different. This is
due to Newton’s 3rd Law. Since the proton is positively charged and the electron is negatively charged the force vectors take the form:

The charge of the electron and proton can be found on the physics equation sheet so substituting these values into Coulomb’s law we
get:

k = 9 x 109 N m2/kg2
(9×109)(1.602×10−19)(1.602×10−19)
q1 = -1.602 x 10-19 C 𝐹= (5.29×10−11)2

q2 = +1.602 x 10-19 C 𝐹 = 8.25 × 10−8 N

r= 5.29 x 10-11 m

Where we have taken the absolute value of the charge in the calculation.

X. Waves
We encounter waves every single day without evening realizing it. When we think of waves we
often think of an ocean wave but did you know that you would not be able to hear or see if it
were not for waves? A wave is a disturbance that travels from one location to another
transferring energy without a transfer of mass which will be discussed later in the text. Waves
come in many forms and have many properties but to first begin studying waves we need to
understand the two types of waves: mechanical and electromagnetic.

Recall that a photon is a massless particle of light and it is the carrier of the electromagnetic
force, one of the four fundamental forces. Photons have both wave-like and particle-like properties and it is their
wave-like properties that we call the electromagnetic wave. Electromagnetic waves result in the different colors we
see, the warmth of the Sun we feel on our skin, and the ability to warm up food in the microwave. The
electromagnetic spectrum spans from very long radio waves to very short gamma rays. The visible portion, which is
what we can see, is only a tiny fraction of the spectrum as shown in figure 3.1.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

 Figure 3.1: Wavelength and frequency for the range of electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves are the only type of waves that do not need a medium through which to travel. This means
that an electromagnetic wave can travel through the vacuum of space unlike other waves to be discussed further in
the text.

Mechanical waves are those that require a medium through which

to travel. These waves include but are not limited to sound waves,
water waves, and waves on a slinky. Mechanical waves begin as a
disturbance from equilibrium in the medium. Some outside force
has displaced the material of the medium from its state of
equilibrium which then sends a wave of material away from the
disturbance. A restoring force tries to bring the material back to its equilibrium state and this behavior continues in a
repeating motion and we call this a wave oscillation. Except for the fact that mechanical waves require a medium
and electromagnetic waves do not, many other wave-like properties are similar with both types of waves.

Imagine hitting the desk with your fist. The moment you fist hits the desk, the spot near your hand on the desk
begins to vibrate which is simply just a movement back and forth. This vibration travels through the desk and it is the
material of the desk, in this case, that is the medium for this wave. This is an example of a mechanical wave. Imagine
now you are playing basketball and yelling for your friend to pass you the ball. Your throat is able to vibrate the air
around your mouth sending a pressure wave through the air to your friend’s ear so since the wave used the air to
travel, this would be another example of a mechanical wave. As waves travel from one point to the next they are
oscillating, or repeating motion over and over in two ways: transversely and longitudinally. Let us take a look at each.

Transverse versus Longitudinal Waves

Transverse waves travel in an up and down motion whereas longitudinal waves travel in a back and forth motion.
Figure 3.2 shows a longitudinal wave (a) and a transverse wave (b) as it travels. With a longitudinal wave we can see
two areas: compression and rarefaction that travel in a forward motion through the medium. Compression is the
region where the medium is close together and rarefaction is the region where the medium is far apart or stretched.
With a transverse wave we see a vertical disturbance that travels in the forward direction. This vertical disturbance
is made up of crests which are the peaked regions and troughs which are the bottom regions. Once a wave begins to
repeat its motion we say that it has traveled through one wavelength. The wavelength for a longitudinal wave is
shown in figure 3.3 (a) and a transverse wave in figure 3.4 (b)

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

 Figure 3.2 (a) A longitudinal wave formed by an area of compression that travels through the wave. (b) a transverse wave with a crest that travels through t he wave.

Figure 3.3 (a) A longitudinal wave with the compression, rarefaction, and wavelength labeled. (b) A transverse wave with the crest, trough, wavelength, and amplitude
labeled.

Table 3.1 Examples of each type of wave.

Wave Example Longitudinal or Transverse

Electromagnetic waves can only be classified as Sound Wave Longitudinal

transverse waves however mechanical waves can be X-Ray Transverse
found as both longitudinal and transverse. Table 3.1
Ocean Wave Longitudinal and Transverse
provides a few examples of classification of waves.
Gamma Ray Transverse

Earthquake Longitudinal and Transverse

Properties of Waves

Regardless of the classification of the wave, all waves have wavelength, speed, period, and frequency. Transverse
waves also have amplitude which is a measurement of the displacement of the
wave from equilibrium as shown in figure 3.3 (b). As discussed earlier the f = frequency (Hz)
wavelength (λ) of a wave is a measurement of the distance between repeated n = number of oscillations
motion. For a longitudinal wave this would be the distance between successive t = time for oscillations (s)
compressions or rarefactions and for a transverse wave this can be measured from,
for example, peak-to-peak. The period (T) of the wave is a measurement of how long in time it takes to go through
one wavelength. The frequency (f) of the wave is a measurement of the rate of oscillations per second and can be
related to period using an inverse relationship and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

 𝑛
𝑓=
𝑡

If the frequency for one wavelength is to be determined, the number of oscillations the wave has traveled through
would be 1 and the time would be equal to the period for one oscillation and we get the following relationship
between period and frequency.
1 f = frequency (Hz)
𝑓= T: period (s)
𝑇

Frequency of a wave tells you the rate a wave is repeating motion. If the
wave has a high frequency the crests and troughs are closer together and
vice versa for a lower frequency wave as shown in figure 3.4. Since frequency
and period are inversley proportional, the higher the frequency of a wave,
the lower the period.

The speed of the wave is directly proportional to the frequency and inversely
proportional to the period.

Figure 3.4: The top image shows a high frequency wave,

low period. The bottom image shows a low frequency
wave with a high period.

v: velocity (m/s)
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 λ: wavelength (m)
f: frequency (Hz)
𝜆
𝑣= T: period (s)
𝑇
These equations may be deceiving because it appears that wave speed depends on wavelength, frequency, and
period, however for a particular wave of known wavelength and period the only thing that can affect the speed of
the wave is the medium through which it travels. This means that if a sound wave is emitted through the air with a
given frequency and wavelength, it will continue to travel through the air at that speed until the medium changes.
This change can be due to temperature or density. Imagine swimming at the pool and listening to the children play
and talk around you. When you place your head under the water the voices sound muffled. This is because the speed
of the sound wave changed as it traveled from the air then through the water to your ear.

A similar effect occurs with light waves. A light wave has a constant speed through a vacuum of 2.9979 x 108 m/s. It
is possible for light to travel more slowly but the light needs to be traveling through a medium such as glass or water.
This is the cause for interesting optical phenomena which will be discussed later in the text.

Wave Interference

Waves can interact with one another and disturb their motion, this is called interference. As waves interfere they
can cause an increase in amplitude, constructive interference, or a decrease in amplitude, destructive interference.
Figure 3.5 (a) shows a constructive interference pattern that occurred because the crests of the two waves
overlapped. Figure 3.5 (b) shows a destructive interference pattern that occurred because the crest and the trough
of a wave overlapped.

Figure 3.5 (a): Constructive interference. (b) Destructive interference.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez

Sometimes waves can interfere when they are traveling in opposite directions to one another. As the waves pass in
opposite directions to one another a standing wave pattern is observed as shown in figure 3.6 (a). The nodes are
located at the region of no displacement from equilibrium and the antinodes are the region of maximum
displacement as seen in figure 3.6 (b). The number of nodes or antinodes can be determined as outlined in figure 3.6
(c).

Figure 3.6: (a) Standing wave pattern formed on a single string. (b) Nodes and antinodes of a standing wave. (c) A diagram outlining how to determine number of
nodes and antinodes on a standing wave.

Standing waves can be created when an object is vibrated at its natural frequency. This is the frequency that an
object naturally vibrates. When a wave interferes with an object and the frequency of the wave matches the natural
frequency of the object, the amplitude of the wave through the object will increase and this is called resonance.

When waves travel from one material to another, or one medium to

another, the properties of that material can interfere with the wave or
cause the wave to change speed. When the wave runs into an obstacle a
diffraction pattern emerges. Diffraction is caused because the wave must
bend around the obstacle. This pattern can be observed in figure 3.7 (a).
An incident wave is traveling to the right when it runs into two holes in a
barrier. The wave bends around the barrier causing the ripples on the
right side of the image.

Figure 3.7: Diffraction is the bending of a wave around a

barrier while the medium remains the same. A wave
Waves can also be bent by changing from one medium to another. This traveling from left to right is incident on a barrier that has
two holes. As the wave travels through the holes is bends
occurs because wave speed is affected by properties of the medium. around.
Imagine running on the ground, then trying to run in the water. It is more
difficult to run on in the water because of the properties of the water. The same type of effect occurs with waves.
This is the source for the rainbow pattern that can be seen after the rain as the light from the sun is bent as it travels
through the water droplets in the air. When
waves are bent after traveling through one type
of medium to another, we call it refraction and
this can be seen in figure 3.7 (b).

Figure 3.8: Refraction is the bending of a wave as it travels from one

medium to the next.

©2019 LeShawna Valdez