INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION

In telecommunications, transmission (abbreviation Tx) is the process of sending and propagating an

analogue or digital information signal over a physical point-to-point or point-to-multipoint transmission
medium, either wired, optical fiber or wireless.
CIRCUITS
A circuit is the physical path that runs between two or more points. There are two types of circuits: two-
wire circuits and four-wire circuits.
TWO-WIRE CIRCUITS
A two-wire circuit has two insulated electrical conductors. One wire is used for transmission of the
information. The other wire acts as the return path to complete the electrical circuit.
FOUR-WIRE CIRCUITS
A four-wire circuit has two pairs of conductors. That is, it has two sets of one-way transmission paths:
one path for each direction and a complementary path to complete the electrical circuit Four-wire circuits
are used where there is distance between the termination points which requires that the signal be
strengthened periodically.
CHANNELS
A channel defines a logical conversation path. It is the frequency band, time slot, or wavelength (also
referred to as lambda λ) over which a single conversation flows.
LINES AND TRUNKS
Lines and trunks are basically the same thing, but they're used in different situations. A line is a
connection that is configured to support a normal calling load generated by one individual. A trunk is a
circuit that is configured to support the calling loads generated by a group of users; it is the transmission
facility that ties together switching systems.
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
A transmission system is the equipment and the associated transmission path required to provide the
above channels. In transmission the equipment used includes multiplexers, demultiplexer, Radio
transmitters, radio receivers (normally called transceivers), optical transmission equipment, ADM
(add/drop multiplexers), repeaters, regenerators etc. these types of equipment will be discussed
throughout this discipline in detail.
FDM - FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is a scheme in which numerous signals are combined for
transmission on a single communications line or channel. Each signal is assigned a different frequency
(sub-channel) within the main channel.

MULTIPLEXING

TRANSMISSION PATH
The characteristics of the transmission path are very dependent on the transmission medium used.
Amongst the more important characteristics are as follows:-
a. Attenuation
b. Noise
c. Variation in attenuation with frequency
d. Variation in attenuation with time
e. Frequency band

The main problems to overcome in any transmission system are:

• Attenuation
• Distortion
• Noise, interference and cross-talk
advantages of digital systems over analogue
  Possibilities to send all thinkable services such as telephony, high speed data, TV, music
etc. via the same transmission medium.
 Utilization of the higher unused radio frequency bands. RF bands in the region of 10GHz
or above are unsuitable for analog transmission due to high attenuation by rain, fog etc.
whereas the S/N in analog systems decrease linearly with fading of the RF carrier, the
BER in digital systems is unaffected by fading until the received signal reaches a certain
threshold value.
 High immunity against noise.
 Possibility to use integrated circuits makes digital systems economical and alignment free
 Easy maintenance
BIT ERROR RATE – BER
Bit error rate, BER is used to quantify a channel carrying data by counting the rate of errors in a data
string. It is used in telecommunications, networks and radio systems. Bit error rate, BER is a key
parameter that is used in assessing systems that transmit digital data from one location to another.
Another contributory factor for bit errors is any phase jitter that may be present in the system as this can
alter the sampling of the data.
1. 1 X 10-3 – 1 bit in 1000 bits has been affected. Severe errors
2. 1 X 10-6 – 1 bit in 1000000 bits has been affected. Poor BER
3. 1 X 10-9 – 1 bit in 1000000000 bits has been affected. Good BER
4. 1 X 10-12 – 1 bit in 1000000000000 bits has been affected. Perfect BER

FACTORS AFFECTING BIT ERROR RATE, BER

1. Interference:
2. Increase transmitter power:
3. Lower order modulation:
4. Reduce bandwidth:
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a scheme in which numerous signals are combined for transmission
on a single communications line or channel. Each signal is assigned a different timeslot for transmission.
The main steps required for a TDM system are therefore;
a. analogue to digital conversion
b. Multiplexing
c. transmission over a digital path
d. demultiplexing
e. digital to analogue conversion

PCM SIGNAL BUILD UP

The basis of digital systems is TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (TDM) system. Below is the
description of how a basic voice signal is converted from analogue to a digital signal. Basically we will
look at the following steps
1. Filtering
2. Sampling
3. Quantization
4. Compounding
5. Encoding and decoding

TRANSMISSION MODULE 2
RADIO TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
THE RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

Band Name Frequency Range Example Communication use

Extremely Low Frequency 3–30 Hz Submarine communications

Super Low Frequency 30–300 Hz Submarine communications

Ultra Low Frequency 300–3,000 Hz Underground communications

Very Low Frequency 3–30 kHz Navigation

Low Frequency 30–300 kHz AM Broadcasting

Medium Frequency 300–3,000 kHz AM broadcasting

High Frequency 3–30 MHz Shortwave broadcast

Very High Frequency 30–300 MHz Private mobile radio; FM and

television broadcasting

Ultra High Frequency 300–3,000 MHz Television broadcasting, cellular

radio, and wireless LANs

Super High Frequency 3–30 GHz Wireless LANs; point-to-point and

poin to-multipoint microwave

Extremely High Frequency 30–300 GHz Point-to-point microwave

The HF band is defined as the frequency range of 3 to 30 MHz. In practice, most HF radios use the
spectrum from 1.6 to 30 MHz. Most long-haul communications in this band take place between 4 and 18
MHz. Higher frequencies (18 to 30 MHz) may also be available from time to time, depending on
ionospheric conditions and the time of day.

Ground waves consist of three components: surface waves, direct waves, and ground-reflected waves.
Surface waves travel along the surface of the earth, reaching beyond the horizon. Eventually, surface
wave energy is absorbed by the earth. The effective range of surface waves is largely determined by the
frequency and conductivity of the surface over which the waves travel.
Direct waves travel in a straight line, becoming weaker as distance increases. They may be bent, or
refracted, by the atmosphere, which extends their useful range slightly beyond the horizon. Transmitting
and receiving antennas must be able to “see” each other for communications to take place, so antenna
height is critical in determining range. Because of this, direct waves are sometimes known as line-of-sight
(LOS) waves.
Sky waves make beyond line-of-sight (BLOS) communications possible. At certain frequencies, radio
waves are refracted (or bent), returning to earth hundreds or thousands of miles away.
MICROWAVE RADIO TRANSMITTER
The block A represents the interface unit normally known as the baseband (BB) unit. The block B is the
FM modulator or BB to IF converter unit. Block C represents the phase equalizer which compensates
group delay in the signal path. The IF signals then passes to block D where the conversion of the IF
signals to RF (radio frequency) signals is done. The RF signal is amplified in the RF-amplifier block E to
attain the high RF power. Some transmitters may use a frequency multiplier stage shown by the dotted
block F to raise the RF frequency to the actual RF frequency to be transmitted by the radio. Block G
represents the channel band-pass filter which allows only a specific RF band to pass to the antenna. This
filter is important because the antenna can carry traffic from more than one transmitter simultaneously.
MICROWAVE RADIO RECEIVER

The RF signal from the antenna is selected by the branching filter (A) and is passed to the down converter
(B). This RF Signal modulates the local oscillator, signal from the local oscillator assembly comprising
the VCO (I), the phase lock loop circuit (J) and the frequency multiplier (H), in the down converter (B).
The modulation products are passed to the low pass filter and preamplifier (C) which selects and
amplifies the IF signal. In (D) the IF signal undergoes phase equalization and then is fed to the IF filter
(E) which limits the noise. The variable gain amplifier (IF main amplifier) is shown by block (F). The,
automatic gain (AGC) control signal is derived from the output of (F). The AGC loop is formed by the
rectifier unit (K), the amplifier unit (L) and the main variable amplifier unit (F) in our diagram. The
discriminator unit is represented by block (G)
TRANSMISSION LINES FOR MICROWAVE
a. Coaxial cable – Normally used below 1 GHz and as short sections at higher frequencies.
b. Wave guide – Normally used above 1 GHz. Waveguides have low losses and are either of the
rectangular, circular or elliptical types.
c. Strip line – used especially in microwave circuits or as connectors between circuits.
INTERFERENCE
1. INTRA‐SYSTEM INTERFERENCE

 Imperfections
 Echo
 Noise
2. INTER‐CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

 Adjacent Channel
 Cochannel Cross‐polarization
 Transmitter Or Receiver
 Spurious Emission
3. INTER‐HOP INTERFERENCE

 Front‐To‐Back
 Over reach
4. EXTRA‐SYSTEM INTERFERENCE

 Satellite systems
 Radar
 Other Radio Systems

MODULE 3 TRANSMISSION
OPTICAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
WHAT IS AN OPTICAL FIBER?
An optical fiber is a flexible filament of very clear glass capable of carrying information in the form
of light.
advantages that fiber has over copper or even microwave
  High bandwidth for voice, video and data applications
 Optical fiber can carry thousands of times more information than copper wire.
 Fiber is more lightweight than copper.
 Low loss. The higher frequency, the greater the signal loss using copper cabling. With fiber,
the signal loss is the same across frequencies, except at the very highest frequencies
 Reliability - Fiber is more reliable than copper and has a longer life span
 Secure - Fiber does not emit electromagnetic interference and is difficult to tap

OPTICAL FIBER CONSTRUCTION

CORE

 Carries the light signals

 Silica and a dopant to raise index of refraction

CLADDING
Surrounds the core

PLASTIC COATING
 Protects the glass
 Gives fiber flexibility

OPTIC FIBER TYPES

There are two main types of fiber optic cables namely
1. Single-mode fiber (SMF)
2. Multi-mode fiber (MMF)

SINGLE MODE VS MULTI MODE

Single-mode Multi-mode
Small core (8-10μm) Large core (50 & 62.5 μm)
Carries only one mode Carries many modes
Generally inexpensive Generally expensive
Difficult to couple light & connectorise Easy to couple light & connectorise
Uses expensive lasers (e.g. DFB lasers) Uses inexpensive lasers (VCELS) and LEDs
Carries larger bandwidth Carries lower bandwidth
Signal quality high Signal quality low
Long distance transmission Short distance transmission

OPTIC FIBER SPLICING and

connectors

There are two ways that fibers are joined:

connections between fibers in the system

connections, typically at termination

points

Fusion splicing Procedure

1. Strip fiber cable jacket. Strip back about 3 meters of fiber cable jacket to expose the fiber loose tubes or
tight buffered fibers. Use cable rip cord to cut through the fiber jacket. Then carefully peel back the jacket
and expose the insides. Cut off the excess jacket. Clean off all cable gel with cable gel remover. Separate
the fiber loose tubes and buffers by carefully cutting away any yarn or sheath. Leave enough of the
strength member to properly secure the cable in the splice enclose.
2. Strip fiber tubes. For a loose tube fiber cable, strip away about 2 meters of fiber tube using a buffer
tube stripper and expose the individual fibers.
3. Clean cable gel. Carefully clean all fibers in the loose tube of any filling gel with cable gel remover.
4. Secure cable tubes. Secure the end of the loose tube to the splice tray and lay out cleaned and separated
fibers on the table. Strip and clean the other cable tube’s fiber that is to be spliced, and secure to the splice
tray.
5. Strip first splicing fiber. Hold the first splicing fiber and remove the 250um fiber coating to expose
5cm of 125um bare fiber cladding with fiber coating stripper tool. For tight buffered fibers, remove 5cm
of 900um tight buffer first with a buffer stripping tool, and then remove the 5cm of 250um coating.
6. Place the fusion splice protection sleeve. Put a fusion splice protection sleeve onto the fiber being
spliced.
7. Clean the bare fiber. Carefully clean the stripped bare fiber with lint-free wipes soaked in isopropyl
alcohol. After cleaning, prevent the fiber from touching anything.
8. Fiber cleaving. With a high precision fiber cleaver, cleave the fiber to a specified length according to
your fusion splicer’s manual.
9. Prepare second fiber being spliced. Strip, clean and cleave the other fiber to be spliced.
10. Fusion splicing. Place both fibers in the fusion splicer and do the fusion splice according to its
manual.
11. Heat shrinks the fusion splice protection sleeve. Slide the fusion splice protection sleeve on the joint
and put it into the heat shrink oven, and press the heat button.
12. Place splice into splice tray. Carefully place the finished splice into the splice tray and loop excess
fiber around its guides. Ensure that the fiber’s minimum bending radius is not compromised.
13. Perform OTDR test. Perform an OTDR test of the splice and redo the splice if necessary.
14. Close the splice tray. After all fibers have been spliced, carefully close the splice tray and place it into
the splice enclosure.
15. Bidirectional OTDR test (or power meter test). Test the splices with an OTDR or power meter from
both directions.
16. Mount the splice enclosure. Close and mount the splice enclosure if all splices meet the specifications

FUJISTU OLTE - Optical Line Terminal is divided into 3

1. PDH MUX
A). PCM30 MUX BLOCK -The PCM-30 Multiplex Block converts 30- channels of voice
signals and signaling information to give 2MB\s output.
B). H-MUX A BLOCK -The main function of H MUX A block is to combine 16 E1 signals x
2MB\s to come up with a 34Mbps signal which will be sent to H MUX B for further higher order
multiplexing.
C). H MUX B BLOCK -This is the fourth order multiplex (M34MUX) equipment in digital
transmission system 4 x 34MB\s to give 140MB\s output.
2. OPTICAL BLOCK
 Converts the 140Mbps electrical to light
 Performs automatic protection switching (APS)
3. Equipment Supervisory Block

SDH EQUIPMENT

This section will explain the basic configuration and equipment set up for the Fujistu FLX150/600
equipment. Student should take note that while some components vary from different vendors, the
principle of most SDH equipment remains the same.

SDH NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS

Types of network configurations supported by SDH equipment include the following

 Point-to-point network
 Linear network
 Hubbing network
 Ring network (2-fiber)
 Meshed network

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS

ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS

➨It is used for mobile and wireless communication applications independent of location.
➨It covers wide area of the earth hence entire country or region can be covered with just one satellite.
➨It provides wider bandwidth based on SCPC or MCPC allocation types.
➨It co-exists with terrestrial microwave line of sight communication.
➨It is easy to install and manage the ground station sites.
➨It does not incur much of the costs per VSAT site.
➨It is used for voice, data, video and any other information transmission.
➨It is easy to obtain service from one single provider and uniform service is available.
➨It has small fading margin on the order of about 3dB.
Applications
 weather forecasting,
 radio/TV signal broadcasting,
 gathering intelligence in military,
 navigation of ships and aircrafts,
 global mobile communication,
 connecting remote areas etc.
DISADVANTAGES OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS

➨Satellite manufacturing requires more time.

➨Redundant components are used in the network design. This incur more cost in the installation phase.
➨Satellite once launched, requires to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it remains in
the orbit.
There are, in general, four types of satellite:
v Geostationary satellite (GEO) - 35,784 km away from the earth
v High elliptical orbiting satellite (HEO) - 18,000 to 35,000 km above the earth’s surface
v Middle-earth orbiting satellite (MEO) - 8,000 to 18,000 km above the earth’s surface
v Low-earth-orbiting satellite (LEO) - 160 to 1,600 km above earth’s surface
Application of satellite

 Navigation
 Mobile communication
 Military
 Internet access
 Weather forecasting
 broadcasting
Transponder (satellite communications)
A communications satellite's transponder is the series of interconnected units that form a communications
channel between the receiving and the transmitting antennas.[1] It is mainly used in satellite
communication to transfer the received signals.
FREQUENCY TRANSLATION TRANSPONDER

where the uplink radio frequency, fup, is converted to an intermediate lower frequency, fif, amplified, and
then converted back up to the downlink RF frequency, fdwn, for transmission to earth.
ON-BOARD PROCESSING TRANSPONDER

The uplink signal at fup is demodulated to baseband, fbaseband . The baseband signal is available for
processing on-board, including reformatting and error-correction. The baseband information is then
remodulated to the downlink carrier at fdwn,

What are uplink and downlink?

The communication going from a satellite to ground is called downlink, and when it is going from ground
to a satellite it is called uplink. When an uplink is being received by the spacecraft at the same time a
downlink is being received by Earth, the communication is called two-way. If there is only an uplink
happening, this communication is called upload. If there is only a downlink happening, the
communication is called one-way.
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal)
VSAT, the acronym of very small aperture terminal, which signifies a ‘‘small-diameter ground terminal”
in straight interpretation, deriving from the fact that the wiring diameter of a VSAT system’s ground
tends to be smaller, usually between 0.7m and 4m. It is also a type of Satellite Earth Station (SES) or
simply “E/S” that is designed and built purposely for “end-user” deployment.

Block diagram of Transponder

Duplexer is a two--way microwave gate. It receives uplink signal from the satellite
antenna and transmits downlink signal to the satellite antenna.
Low Noise Amplifier ((LNA)) amplifies the weak received signal.
Carrier Processor performs the frequency down conversion of received signal (uplink)
This block determines the type of transponder
Power Amplifier amplifies the power of frequency down converted signal (down link) to the required
level.

Mobile Communications
IMEI – INTERNATIONAL MOBILE EQUIPMENT IDENTIFIER.
The IMEI is an internationally-unique serial number allocated to the MS hardware at the time
of manufacture. It is registered by the network operator and (optionally) stored in the AuC
for validation purposes.
IMSI – INTERNATIONAL MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTIFIER
When a subscriber registers with a network operator, a unique subscriber IMSI identifier is
issued and stored in the SIM of the MS. An MS can only function fully if it is operated with a
valid SIM inserted into an <MS with a valid IMEI.
TMSI –TEMPORARY MOBILE SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY
A TMSI is used to protect the true identity (IMSI) of a subscriber. It is issued by and stored
within a VLR (not in the HLR) when an IMSI attach takes place or a Location Area (LA)
update takes place. At the MS it is stored in the MS’s SIM. The issued TMSI only has validity
within a specific LA.
MSISDN – MOBILE SUBSCRIBER ISDN NUMBER
The MSISDN represents the ‘true’ or ‘dialled’ number associated with the subscriber. It is
assigned to the subscriber by the network operator at registration and is stored in the SIM. It
is possible for an MS to hold multiple MSISDNs, each associated with a different service.
MSRN – MOBILE STATION ROAMING NUMBER
The MSRN is a temporary, location-dependant ISDN number issued by the parent VLR to all
MSs within its area of responsibility. It is stored in the VLR and associated HLR but not in the
MS. The MSRN is used by the VLR-associated MSC for call routing within the MSC/VLR
service area.
LAI – LOCATION AREA IDENTITY
Each Location Area within the PLMN has an associated internationally-unique identifier
(LAI). The LAI is broadcast regularly by BTSs on the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH),
thus uniquely identifying each cell with an associated LA. The purpose of LAs is covered
later in this course.
CI – CELL IDENTIFIER
The CI an identifier assigned to each cell within a network. However, the CI is only unique
within a specific Location Area. When combined with the internationally unique LAI for its
associated LA, the Global Cell Identity (GCI) is produced which is also internationally
unique.
BSIC – BASE STATION IDENTITY CODE
Each BTS is issued with a unique identity, the BSIC and is used to distinguish neighbouring
BTSs.

A GSM is composed of three subsystems

 Mobile Station (MS)

 Base Station Subsystem (BSS) – comprising of BSC and BTSs
 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) -comprise of an MSC and associated data base
Base Station Controller (BSC) - Manages the handovers within BSS area
Base Transceiver System (BTS) - Controls several transmitters
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) - A typical telephony exchange (ISDN exchange) which supports
mobile communications
Visitor Location Register (VLR) - Contains the location of the active Mobile Stations
Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC) - Links the system to PSTN and other operators
Home Location Register (HLR) - Contain subscriber information, including authentication information
in Authentication Center (AuC)
Equipment Identity Register (EIR) - Contains all the permanent subscriber information

Handoff (Handover)

 When a user on an active call moves from one cell into another, the channels have to be shifted
from one BS to the other without disrupting the call. This is the process of handoff.
 The MS is told to switch over to the new BTS
Different Scenario when handover takes place in GSM
  Channels in the same cell (internal)
 Cells within the same BSS (internal)
 Cells in different BSS but under the control of the same MSC (external)
 Cells under the control of different MSC (external)

Causes of handover in a network

 Received signal quality

 Received signal strength
 Distance of MSC from BTS
 Drop below power budget margin
FACTORS INFLUENCING HANDOFFS
1. Transmitted power – since the transmission power is different for different cells, the handoff
threshold will vary from cell to cell.
2. Received power – the received power generally depends on the Line of Sight (LoS) path between
the MS and the BS. When the user is on the boundary of the two cells the LoS path plays a
critical role in handoffs.
3. Area and shape of cell – The cell structure also determines the handoffs
4. Mobility of users – the number of users entering or leaving a particular cell also determined the
handoff strategy of the cell.

3 G UTRAN (Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network)

luB luPS
Gi

RNC (Radio Network Controller) - enables autonomous radio resource management (RRM).
SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node) - responsible for routing the packet switched data
to and from the mobile stations (MS) within its area of responsibility.
GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node) - acts as interface between the GPRS backbone and
the external packet data network (PDN).
PLMN -
4G (LTE)

MME (Mobility Management Entity) - manages and stores UE context

SGW (Serving Gateway) - routes and forwards user data packets
PDN GW (Packet Data Network Gateway) - provides connectivity to the UE to external packet data
networks
S1-MME: - Reference point for the control plane protocol between E-UTRAN and MME.
S5: - It provides user plane tunnelling and tunnel management between Serving GW and PDN GW.
S11: - Reference point between MME and Serving GW.
SGi: - It is the reference point between the PDN GW and the packet data network

 LTE stands for Long Term Evolution

 Next Generation mobile broadband technology Based on UMTS 3G technology
Advantages of LTE
Major LTE Radio Technologies

 Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) for downlink

 Uses Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SC-FDMA) for uplink
 Uses Multi-input Multi-output (MIMO) for enhanced throughput
Frequency reuse
Base station antennas are designed to achieve the desired coverage within the cells that they are assigned
to. By limiting the coverage area to the boundaries of a cell, the same channel groups can be used to cover
different cells which are separated by an acceptable reuse distance. This is the concept of frequency reuse
/ frequency planning. Frequency reuse is the process of using the same radio frequencies on radio
transmitter sites within a geographic area that are separated by sufficient distance to cause minimal
interference with each other
Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −

 Allows communications within cell on a given frequency

 Limits escaping power to adjacent cell’s
 Allows reuse of frequency in nearby cell’s
 Uses same frequency for multiple conversations
OptiX RTN Radio Transmission System
The OptiX RTN 900 series provide a variety of service interfaces and can be installed easily and
configured flexibly. The OptiX RTN 900 series provide a solution that can integrate TDM
microwave, Hybrid microwave, and Packet microwave technologies according to the
networking scheme for the sites, achieving smooth upgrade from TDM microwave to Hybrid
microwave, and from Hybrid microwave to Packet microwave. This solution meets the
transmission requirements of 2G, 3G, and LTE services while also allowing for future network
evolution and convergence.

OptiX RTN 910

 1 U high IDU.
 Boards pluggable.
 Integrated service ports on system control,
 switching, and timing boards.
 One or two IF boards.

OptiX RTN 950

 2 U high IDU.
 Boards pluggable.
 1+1 protection for system control, switching, and
 timing boards.
 A maximum of six IF boards

OptiX RTN 980

 5 U high IDU.
 Boards pluggable.
 1+1 protection for system control, switching, and
  timing boards.
 Integrated service ports on system control,
 switching, and timing boards.
 A maximum of fourteen IF boards.

 The OptiX RTN 980 is large-capacity nodal microwave equipment deployed at the convergence
layer. It supports the convergence of up to 20 radio links, and supports multiple protection schemes.
Service interface type
 E1 interface
 STM-1 optical/electrical interface
 STM-4 optical interface
 FE optical/electrical interface
 GE optical/electrical interface
 10GE optical interface

What is a satellite link budget?

A link budget is an accounting of all of the gains and losses from a transmitter, through a medium (free
space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunication system. ... A simple link
budget equation looks like this: Received Power (dB) = Transmitted Power (dB) + Gains (dB) − Losses
(dB)

Frequency Division Multiple Access

 Each mobile is assigned a separate frequency channel for the duration of the call
 Sufficient guard band is required to prevent adjacent channel interference
 Usually, mobile terminals will have one downlink frequency band and one uplink frequency band
 Different cellular network protocols use different frequencies
 Frequency is a precious and scare resource. We are running out of it

Time Division Multiple Access

 Guard time – signal transmitted by mobile terminals at different locations do no
arrive at the base station at the same time
 Time is divided into slots and only one mobile terminal transmits during each slot
 Like during the lecture, only one can talk, but others may take the floor in turn
 Each user is given a specific slot. No competition in cellular network

An IP radio parabolic dish has a diameter of 1m. Determine the gain at 1GHz and 6GHz

omni directional
It emits a spherical shaped. It works well wen receiving on unknown signal at all angles
bi-directional antenna
Are scarce more advanced than omni directional antenna because they radiate more distance and range on
mobile signal

directional antenna
it focuses on the signal towards a specific targeted spot and is used for part to sport connections
Difference between asynchronous and synchronous
Difference between Analogue and Digital Radio Systems

Three types of vsat

Application of vsat
• High Speed Internet Access
• Virtual Private Networks
• Telemetry & Data Collection
• News Wire Services (SCADA)
• Point-of-sales transactions
• Financial Management
• Private-Line Voice
• Distance Education

VSATs offer several advantages such as:

1) Simple installation and maintenance (installation can be done in hours and minutes).
2) Full control over the entire unit.
3) Higher grade of service and reliability.
4) Generally, they are easy to operate and to troubleshoot.
5) VSAT terminals are cheaper.
6) There is no last mile issue on VSAT operation.

Disadvantages of VSAT
1) VSAT get affected in bad weather conditions.
2) Latency for packet from source to destination is higher due to distance of satellite from earth. Latency
further increases in star topology of VSAT, as it requires two hops to reach a final destination.
3) Requires clear line of sight between VSAT dish and satellite in space.

Give two example of polarization

 Vertical polarization
 Horizontal polarization
 Circular polarization
 Linear polarization
 Slant polarization
Importance of polarization
 Used to detect or monitor orientation
 Used to identify refractive index and thickness
 Eliminate interference fringes
List and explain various type of FDMA assignment used in satellite communication
What is CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access
5 parameters that need to be configured when installing a microwave link.
 Maximum transmit power
 Tx high threshold
 Tx low threshold
 Rx high threshold
 Rx low threshold

What does CATV stand for

Cable Television
Advantages of CATV over satellite TV
 Reliable
 Stability
 Bundling
Color mixing

Main colors used to produce video and pictures

 Black
 White
 Red
 Green
 Blue
IP Radio Advantages

•Simple handling and easy installation

•Convenient small devices with reliable sound quality can be used in the system
•User groups can share a common channel and communication can be in simplex of full duplex,
depending on programming
•Cost-effective
•Built-in security

PDH – plesanchronous
SDH – synchronous digital hierarchy
Functions of Transmission
 Converts baseband signal to Rf signal
 Radiates signal
 Amplifies signal
Unidirectional

Add and Drop Multiplexer