i

sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com

COMPUTER
F
ORM 4NOTES
(
MrI
saboke0705525657)
INTRODUCTIONTONETWORKI NGANDDATACOMMUNI CATION
INTRODUCTION
Ac omputernetwor kformswhenever2ormor ecomputersareint
erconnect
edtogetherwi
thot
herr
elat
ed
accessori
estowor ktogether .
Noncomput ernet worksinclude: o00hgtr56hi
g
a) Roadnet workst hatfacil
itatetrans
ferofgoodsands er
vices
.
b) Telephonenet works( voicenet works)withmanyli
nest hatcri
sscrossacountr
y.
c) Bloodcircul
atorys ystem i nthehumanbody.
d) Theneur ons ystem inthehumanbr ain.
DEF
INITIONOFTERMSUSEDI NNETWORKI NG
1
.COMPUTERNETWORK
 Acol lect
ionofi ndependententi
ti
esthatar
ear r
angedinsuchamannerastoexchangedat
a,i
nfor
mation
orresources .
 Acol l
ecti
onofcomput ersli
nkedtoget
herusingtrans
mis
sionmedi
aforthepur
poseofcommunicat
ionand
resources hari
ng.
2.TRANSMISSIONMEDI A
 Tr ansmi
ssionmedi areferstoanyphys i
calornon-
physi
call
inkbet
weent
woormor
ecomput
ersandi
n
whichasignalcanbemadet oflowf r
om sourcetodes
tinat
ion.
 Someoft hesharedr esourcesinclude:
a) Applicati
onpr ograms .
b) Printers.
c) Faxmachi nes.
d) Modems.
e) Storagedevi ces.

3.DATACOMMUNICATI
ON
 Itist
heproces
softrans
mit
ti
ngdatasi
gnalf
rom onepointt
oanot
hert
hrought
henet
wor
k.
 Itist
hemovementofdatabytel
ecommuni
cati
ons ys
tems.

Sender Recei
ve

TERMSUSEDI NDATACOMMUNI CATI

ON
1. Datas i
gnal.
2. Si
gnalmodul ati
onanddemodulat
ion.
3. Mul t
ipl
exi
ng.
4. Bandwi dth.
5. Bas eband.
6. Broadbandt ransmi
ssi
on.
7. Attenuati
on.

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orMor
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1
.DATASIGNAL
 Computerscommuni catebytr
ansfer
ringdatasignal
sbet weenthemsel
ves.
 Refer
stoavol t
agel eveli
nthecir
cuitwhichrepresentsthefl
owofdata.
 Therearetwotypesofdat asi
gnal
s :
a) Analogsi
gnal:datamadeupofcont inuousvaryingwaveforms i
mil
artovoi
ceors
oundwave.
b) Digi
talsi
gnal:datamadeupnon- conti
nuousdiscretesi
gnal.

2.SI
GNALMODULATI ONANDDEMODULATI ON
 Pr ocessofconverti
ngdat asignalstoaformthatissuit
ablef
ort
ransmissi
onoveratransmiss
ionmedi
um.
a) Modulati
on:convertingdigitaldat
asignal
sintoanal
ogdatasi
gnal
s .
b) Demodulation:converti
ngdi git
aldat
abys uperi
mposingi
tonanalogcarr
iers
ignalwhichcanbe
t
rans
mittedoveranal ogtelephoneli
nes.

3.MULTIPLEXING
 Pr ocessofs endingmultipl
edatasignalsovert
hes amemedi um i.
e.awir
econductorcanbemadet ocar
ry
severaldatasignal
seithers i
mult
aneous l
yoratdiff
erentt i
mes .
 Demul t
ipl
exingisthepr ocessofseparati
ngthemult i
plexeds ignal
sattherecei
vingend.
 Thedi f
fer
entdat asi
gnalsaremadet ohavedi f
fer
entf requenci esonthecabl
ehencet heydonoti
nter
fer
e
withoneanot her.
 Thedi f
fer
entfrequenci
escaus ewhati scall
eddif
ferentlogicalchannelsi
nthemedi um.
exer
exer

pl

Mul
ti
plexedl
ine
pl

To To
t
i

Demul
t

Computer
Mul

Computer
s s

Amul
ti
plexedl
ink

4.BANDWIDTH
 Themaximum amountofdatathatat
rans
missi
onmedium cancar
ryatanyonet
ime.F
orexampl
e,acer
tai
n
cabl
emayhaveabandwidthof100Mbps(Megabi
tspersecond).

5.BASEBANDSI GNAL
 Asi gnalthatisgener
atedandappliedt
othet r
ansmi
ssi
onmedi um di
rect
lywi
thoutmodul
ati
on.
 Thesi gnaltakesthef
orm ofvol
tagesofdi
ff
erentmagni
tudesappl
iedtothemedium.

6.BROADBANDTRANSMI SSI
ON
 Thisi
swher eananalogsignaliss
endoverthetr
ansmis
sionmedi
um us
ingapar t
icul
arfrequency.
 Severaldat
asignal
scanbes endsi
mul
taneous
lythr
oughthesamemedium butatdif
fer
entfrequenci
es.

7.ATTENUATI ON
a) Thisisthel ossofsignalstrength(decreaseinmagni t
udeandener
gy)asas i
gnalprogressi
velymoves
alongat ransmissi
onmedi um.
b) Ifthesignalisnotboos ted,itwillt
otal
lybel ostal
ongthewayandmayneverr eachthedes t
inati
on.
c) Thiscondi t
ionisusuall
ycor r
ectedbypl aci
ngs i
gnalampl
if
ier
sal
socall
edrepeaterstat
ionsalongthe
medi um atappropri
atedi stancesinordertor ecei
vetheweaksi
gnal
,cleani
t,ampli
fyitthenr et
rans
miti
t.

MODESOFDATACOMMUNI
CATI
ON
1. Simplex.
2. Halfdupl
ex.
3. Fulldupl
ex.

1
.SI
MPLEX
 Communicati
oni
sonlyi
nonedi
rect
ion.
 Theyreonlymeantt
osendorr
ecei
vemess
ages
.
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orMor
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Example
a) Radiobr oadcast–theli
stenercannotcommunicat
ebackt
hrought
her
adi
orecei
ver
.
b) Televi
sionbr oadcas
t.
c) Transmis s
ionfrom acomputertoal i
nepri
nter
.
Si
mpl
ex
Sender Recei
ve

2.HALFDUPLEX
 Communi cati
ontakespl
aceinbothdirect
ionsbutonedir
ecti
onatat i
me.
 Twoi nt
erconnect
eddevicesexchangedataalt
ernat
elywher
et hedevi
cesswi
tchbet
weens
endandr
ecei
ve
modesaft
ereacht r
ansmiss
ion.

Sender Hal
fdupl
ex Recei
ve

Exampl
e
1. Walki
etal
kies
2. Faxmachi
nes.
3. Modems.

3.F
ULLDUPLEX
 Occur
sinbothdi
rect
ionss
imul
taneous
ly.

Sender F
ulldupl
ex Recei
ve
Exampl
e:
a) Tel
ephonesys
tem,apers
oncantalkwit
houtwai
ti
ngfort
heot
hert
ofi
nis
h.
b) Computer
scansendandrecei
vedataonanetwork
.

TYPESOFCOMPUTERNETWORKS
1. LocalAreaNetworks(LAN)
Classi
fi
ed
2. Metropoli
tanAreaNetwork(MAN)
accordi
ngto
3. WideAr eaNetwork(WAN) si
ze.

1.LOCALAREANETWORK
 Acommuni cationnet workthats
pansar
elat
ivel
ysmal
lgeogr
aphi
calar
eal
ikei
nonebui
ldi
ngoras
chool
.
 LANsar echar acteri
zedby:
a) Limi
tedgeogr aphicalarea.
b) Highdat
at ransmis si
onr at
es.
c) Lowcosttrans mission
d) Lowintr
a-offi
cet raf
fic.

 LANsal
lowi
nfor
mat
ionandcomput
err
esour
cest
obes
har
edbymanyus
erse.
g.
a) Mas sst
oragedevi
ces
.
b) Proces
sors.
c) Pri
nter
s.
d) Pl
otter
s.
e) Soft
ware.
 LANsar
eal
sochar
act
eri
zedbyt
hef
oll
owi
ngcomponent
s:
a) Ser
ver
.
b) Workst
ations
.
c) Net
workinter
facecar ds(NIC)
d) Net
worktransmissioncables.
e) Net
workoperatings yst
ems .
f) Net
workaccessories.

A.SERVER
F
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 Acomput
erdedi
cat
edt
oser
vici
ngr
eques
tsf
orr
esour
cesf
rom ot
hercomput
ers(
wor
kst
ati
ons
)ona
net
work.
 Theserverpr
ovi
dess
ervi
cest
oLANus
ers
.

B.WORKSTATI ONS
 Anyot hercomput erconnect
edtoanetworkandcans hareresour
ceswit
hanyotherdevi
cesont he
networ
k.
2.METROPOLITANAREANETWORK( MAN)
 Typeofanet wor kwhichcoversageogr
aphicalext
endedf ashi
onareali
keatownorcity(
approxi
matelya
radi
usof5–50km) .
 TheMANi nfr
astructur
emaybeownedbyas i
nglecompanyt hathasof
fi
cesacr
ossamet r
opol
itanarea.
 AMANt herefor
ei smadeupofmanyLANsi namet ropoli
tanarea.
3.WIDEAREANETWORK( WAN)
 Al s
oknownasLongHaulNet work(LHN).
 Itisat ypeofanetwor
kthatcover
sal ar
gegeogr
aphi
calar
easuchasacountr
y,acont
inentort
hewhol
e
world.
 Itcons i
stsofmanyLANsandMansconnectedtof
orm onel
argenet
wor
ks uchastheI
nternet
.
CHARACTERI STICSOFWANs
a) Unli
mitedgeogr aphi
calarea.
b) Lowdat at r
ans missi
onrates.
c) Hightransmi ssi
onl i
nkcosts.
d) Longdi s
tancet ransmissi
on.
e) Highdegr eeofvenderi ndependence.
f) Costl
yt oins t
allandmaintain.
PURPOSEANDLI MITATI ONSOFNETWORKI NG
 Thesear et her eas onsf ors ettingupcomput ernet wor ks,togetherwi ththechal l
engesas sociat
edwi t
ht he
i
mplement ationoft hecomput ernetwor ks .
PURPOSEOFNETWORKI NG
1. Res ources haring
2. Remot ecommuni cation.
3. Distri
but edpr oces singfacil
ities .
4. Cos teffectivenes s.
5. Reliabili
ty.
1.Resources har ing
 Resour cer ef erst odat a/i
nfor mat i
on,files ,print
er s,modems ,communi cationli
nks ,storagedevices,fax
machines ,appl icationpr ogramset c.
 Asl ongascomput ersar econnect ed,t heycans haret heirfil
es,exchangemai l,sendf axesfrom anypoint
onthenet wor k.
 User sdonotneedt otransferf il
esviar emovabl es toragebutwoul dsendt heworkt oanet wor kprint
er.
 Thecent ralizedacces stodat aandi nfor mat i
onleadst oles swas teoftimeandhencegr eaterproducti
vity.
 I nmos tnet wor kar rangement s ,thes har edr esourcesmaybeat tachedt oanet wor ks erver
.
 Thecl ients/ works tationsthens endt hei rr equestst othes erver.
 Thenet wor ks er verr unsas pecialprogr am (servers oftwar e)whichcont rolscomput ersont henet workand
l
ist
ent ocl ientr eques t
st os ervicethem overt henet wor k.–I ll
ustrat
ionPage6
2.Remotecommuni cation
 Ref erst othetrans missionofdat asignalsbetweenthecommunicatingdeviceslocat
edatdi ff
erent
geogr aphi
callocations.
 Ar emot ecli
ent( acomput erthatacces sesresour
ces)f
rom aremot ehost(thecomputerbei ngaccessed)
provi
desr emotecommuni cat
ionmos tl
ybyus eofwirel
esstr
ansmi s
sionmedi asuchasr adiowaves,
microwavesands atell
it
es .
 I ti
st hroughremot ecommuni cati
ont hatpeoplecanbeabletos hareideasandpas smes sagesoverthe
Int
ernet .
 Remot ecommuni cat i
ont huseliminatestheneedofpeopletotravel/r
oam forlongdist
ancesbygi vi
ngt hem

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 4
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
al
otoff
reedom t
othenet
wor
kwhi
cht
rans
lat
est
omor
epr
oduct
ivi
ty.
3.Di
s t
ribut
edpr ocess
ingf aci
li
ti
es
 Ref erstotheactofr unningt hesamepr ogr
amsordat
abasesondif
fer
entcomputer
swhi
chareont
he
samenet work.
 Comput erscandopr ocessingatt hei
rowndi s
per
sedl
ocati
onsordepart
mentsandcans
har
eprogr
ams,
dataandot herresourceswi theachother.
 Its i
mplifi
esflowofinformationands avesti
meandres
ources.
Advantagesofdistri
but
eddat apr
ocessi
ng:
a) Thef ai
lureofthecentr
alcomputerdoesnotaff
ectt
heoperat
ionsoft
heot
hert
ermi
nal
s.
b) Process i
ngloadissharedequal
lyhencenotimewastage.
4.Costeff
ecti
venes s
 Al t
houghthei nit
ialcostandlayi
ngdownofnet workcomponent smaybeexpens i
ve,thesavings
experi
encedandt hevalueaddedt oser
vicedeliverymaket hem ar eadychoiceforenter
pris
ingmanagers.
 Thenet workgr eatlyi
ncreasestheeff
ici
entus eofs car
ceres ources
.
 Net workshaveal soenhanceddai l
ycommuni cat
ionbypr ovi
di ngapaper l
esscommuni cat
ionenvironment
.
 User scans endel ect
ronicmessagesandmai ltoeachot herinsteadofhavingtobeart hecos tofst
amp
dutyordeli
verychar ges.
 Companyexecut ivesmaynotneedt otr
avelacros sconti
nent stoholdmeet i
ngs.Theycanhol dvideo
confer
encesands aveont r
aveli
ngexpens es
.
5.Rel
iabi
li
ty
 Dat acanbetransf
err
edwithmi
nimum err
orfr
om sour
cet odest
inat
ion.
 User scans
til
laccessdat
aandi
nformati
onfr
om t
heot hercomputer
sont henet
wor
kincas
eonebr
eaks
down.

LI
MITATIONSOFNETWORKI NG
1. Securi
t yissues.
2. Highiniti
alcos t
.
3. Moralandcul t
uralef
fects.
4. Spreadoft errori
sm anddr ugt
raf
fi
cki
ng.
5. Over-reli
anceonnet wor ks.

1
. Securi
tyissues
 Dataandi nf
ormat
ionispronetomor ei
ll
egalacces
st hr
eat
sbecausetherecanbedat aaccessandshar
ing
f
rom variouspoi
nts.
 Datacanal s
obet appedorli
stenedtobyunauthor
izedpar
ties
,duri
ngtrans
mi s
sionofdatafr
om sour
ceto
desti
nati
on.
 Oneoft hecommonmet hodsofdatapr
otect
ioninanetworkedenvi
ronmentisencrypt
ioni
ng.

2.Hi
ghinit
ialcost
 Networki ngisanexpensiveventur
eforanorgani
zation.
 Itisexpens i
vetoacquirenetworki
ngequipments
.
 Itisexpens i
vetot r
ainnetworkadmini
str
ator
s,usersandgeneralmai
ntenanceofnet
wor
ks.
 Thei ni
tialcostofbuyi
ngnetworkhardwareands of
twareisver
yhigh.

3.Moralandcul
turaleff
ects
 Thei nter
nethaschatr oomsandmes sagi
ngservicesthatmayenabl eunderagechi l
drentomeetpeers
andadult
sont henet ,someofwhom mayhavebadi ntent
ions.
 Accesst opornographyandothernegati
vematerialshasalsoledtomor aldecay,l
eadingtot
hefi
ght
agai
nstsoci
alproblemsl i
keHI
V/AI
DS,bads exualbehaviour,drugsands ubs
tanceabus emor
ecomplicat
ed.

4.Spreadofterror
ism anddr
ugtraf
fi
cki
ng
 Thei nternetprovi
desari
chrecrui
tmentgroundforallt
ypesofil
legalacti
vit
iess
uchast
err
oris
m anddr
ug
tr
affi
cki
ng.
 Theeasyf l
owofi nf
ormat
ionf
rom oneplacetoanotherkeepsevent hosewhoareonthewrongsi
deofthe

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
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 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
l
awcommunicat
ingeasi
ly.
 Ter
ror
ist
sanddrugtr
aff
icker
sus
einf
ormat
ionnet
wor
ksf
ort
hei
rbus
ines
scommuni
cat
ions
.

5.Over
-rel
ianceonnet
works
 Thedangerofnetworkfai
lur
ecanpar al
yzet
heoperat
ionsofanorgani
zat
ionbesi
desdamagingf
il
es.
 Ifbyanychancethenetworkfai
ls,manysys
temsinorgani
zat
ionscanbebroughttoahal
t.

ELEMENTSOFNETWORKI NG
Ac omput
ernetwor kismadeupofs
ever
als
tandar
del
ement
s(component
s)whi
chcanbecl
ass
ifi
edi
nto3
majorcat
egori
es :
1.Dat
acommuni cati
onmedi a.
2.Communicati
ondevi ces.
3.Networ
kingsoftware.
4.Datasi
gnal.
1.DATACOMMUNI CATI
ONMEDI A
 Apat hwayusedforcarryi
ngdat aandi nf
ormationf
rom onepointtoanother.
 Thecommuni cati
onmedi um dictatesthet ypeofsi
gnal
st hatwil
lbeus edtotrans
mitames sage.
 Tr ansmissi
onmedi ai
st hephys icalpath(bounded)andnonphys icalpat
h(unbounded)bet
weent he
transmit
terandthereceiver.
 Thecommuni cati
onmedi a/channels/pathwayscanbedi vi
dedintotwo:
a) Communi cati
onusingcables( boundedmedi a)
.
b) Wi r
elesscommunicati
ons( unboundedmedi a).
A.COMMUNI CATIONUSI NGCABLES( BOUNDEDMEDI A)
 Communi cat
ions i
gnalsaretransmit
tedfr
om thesourcetothedest
inat
iont
hroughar
est
ri
ctedpat
hway
suchasacabl e.
 Anyr adi
at i
onfrom theguidedmedi um i
sregardedassignall
oss
.
 Themostcommont ypesofboundedt r
ansmissi
onmedi aare:
i
) Twowi r
eopenl inecables.
i
i) Twi st
edpaircables.
i
ii) Coaxialcables.
i
v) Fibreopticcables.

I
)TWOWI REOPENLI NESCABLES:
 Madeupoft wopar al
lelcopperwiresseparatedbyapl asti
ci nsul
ator.
 Usedint el
ecommuni cationnetworktotrans mitvoicesignal.
 Alt
hought heplasti
cins ulat
orismeantt oreducei nter-
li
nei nterf
erencecal
ledcrosst
alk,theirl
inearnat
ure
all
owsanel ectr
omagnet i
cfiel
dtobuildaroundt hem duri
ngheavydat at
ransmissi
onwhi chmaycaus e
int
erf
erencet othes i
gnal .
 Thewiresal s
ocapt ur
eenvi r
onmentalfr
equenci ese.g.radiowaveshencecaus ingnoisei nthetransmis
sion
channel.
 Noisereferstorandom unwant eds i
gnal
spi ckedupbyt hechannel .
I
nsul
ator
Wire
conduct
or
Twowireopenl
ines
cabl
es

 Themostsi
gni
fi
canti
mpai
rment
sdur
ingdat
atr
ans
mis
sionsar
e:
a) Attenuat
ion:thelossofs i
gnals t
rength( ampl
it
ude)asistravel
salongthecable.
b) Crosstalk:causedbys i
gnalcoupl i
ngbet weenthedif
fer
entcablepairscontai
nedwithi
namul t
ipai
rcabl
e
bundlei.
e.interli
neint
erference.
c) Noise:Random unwanteds ignalspickedupbyt hechannel,causedbyeithercrosst
alkorext
ernal
ly
i
ncludedi mpulsese.
g.from sourcesl i
kemot or
s,swit
chingequipments,highcurr
entequi
pmentsetc.
d) I
mpendence:t hi
sistheres i
stanceofferedbythecabletot hesi
gnal.
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orMor
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I
I)TWISTEDPAI
RCABLES
 Madeupoft wosolidcopperwi restrandswoundar oundeachot
herinadoubl
ehel
ixmannert
oreducet
he
devel
opmentofanel ectr
omagnet icfi
eldaroundthet wowir
esastheyt
ransmi
tdat
a.
 Most l
yusedt otr
ans mitbothvoiceanddat asignal
s.
 Thet wocommont ypesoftwi s
tedpai rcabl
esare:
a) Theunshi el
dedt wist
edpai r(UTP)
b) Shiel
dedt wist
edpai r(STP)

a)Unshi
eldedTwis
tedPai
r(UTP)
a) Theydonothaveashieldthatpreventselect
romagnet i
cint
erf
erence(EMI)al
socal
led(
electri
cnoise”fr
om
theenvir
onmentli
kel
ighteningsparks
,radiosignalsandradi
ati
onsfrom spar
kpl
ugsinmot orvehi
cles.
b) Theyarether
efor
enots ui
tablef
orenvironmentst hatareel
ectr
ical
ly“noi
sy”.
b)Shiel
dedTwi stedPai r(
STP)
 Si mil
artouns hieldedtwistedpairexceptthatabraideds hi
eldiswr appedaroundthewirestopr
otect
(shi
eld)them from noise.
 Theshi eldingmaybeamet al
li
cfoilorcopperbrai
d.
 Shi el
dingmi nimizeselectr
omagnet icinter
fer
ence(EMI )orradiofr
equencyinterf
erence.
 Twi st
edpai rcablesarecat egori
zedi nto5groupsac cordi
ngt othetypeofdatatransmit
tedandmaximum
rateoftr
ans missionass hownbel ow:
Cat
egor
y Suitabl
efor Speed(
max.l
imi
t)
tr
ans mit
ti
ng
1 Voice Lesst
han1Mbps
2 Data 1Mbps
3 Data 16Mbps
4 Data 20Mbps
5 Data 100Mbps

KEY:
 Mbps–Megabi tspers econd.
 Today’ snet worksar eappr oachingspeedsofGi gabit
spersecond.
 Mostor ganizat
ionst odayus ecategory5t wis
tedpaircabl
est osetupt
heirl
ocalar
eanetwor
k.
Advant
agesoft wis
tedpai rcables:
a) Theycans uppor thighdat arates(bandwidth)ofupto100Mbps .
b) Telephones ystemsus eUTPwhi chispresenti nmostbuil
dingshencei
tiseasi
ertosetupanet
wor
kmedi
a
becaus econnect ioni salr
eadyavai l
abl
e.
c) Ins
t al
lationequi pmenti scheapandr eadil
yavai l
abl
e.
d) Iti
scheapbecaus eofmas sproductionfortelephoneuse.

Di
sadvantagesoft wi
s t
edpai rcabli
ng
a) Suf
fershighat t
enuation–ar epeateri
sneededtoamplif
yt hesi
gnal.
b) I
tiss ensi
ti
vet oelectromagnet i
cinter
fer
enceandeavesdroppi
ng(tappi
ngi
ntocommuni
cat
ionchannel
sto
getinfor
mation).
c) I
thasl owdat atransmissionratesascomparedtoothercables
.

I
II
)COAXIALCABLES
 Speciall
ywr appedandi ns ulat
edcabl est hatar eablet ot r
ans mitdataatver yhighrate.
 Theyconsi stofcent ralcopperwi recover edwi thadi electr
icmat eri
al(ins
ulator).
 Thedi elect
ricmat eri
alist hens urroundedbyahol l
owmes hconductorwhi chiscover edbyas hieldmaking
t
hecabl emor er esi
stantt oelectromagnet icint
erferencet hant hetwist
edpai rcable.
 Thesi gnalistransmittedbyi nnercopperwi reandisel ectrical
lyshi
eldedbyt heot hercoppers leeve.
 Thebr aid(mes hconduct or)ismadeupofcopperoral umi num ands ervesast hegr oundforthecar ri
er
wir
e.
 Togetherwi ththei nsulationandanyf oils hiel
d,thebr aids hiel
dprotectsthecar ri
erwi r
efrom radio
f
requencyinterference( RF I
)andel ectromagnet i
cinterference( EMI)
.
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 7
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
 Al
thought
hecabl
ehasbet
terpr
otect
ionagai
nstel
ect
ri
cali
nter
fer
encet
hant
heTCP,t
heyhavemoder
ate
protecti
onagai ns
tmagnet icint
erf
erence.
 Thedi ameterofthecent r
ecor eorconductordeterminestheat
tenuati
onrat
ei.
e.t
hethi
nnert
hecor
e,t
he
highertheat t
enuationrate.
 Dataiscarriedont hiscableusingdir
ectcurr
ent( DC).
 Coaxialcableshavebandwi dthsofupt o1
Gbps ,hencetheyarei
ns t
all
edinanet
workt
oformthenet
wor
k
backbone( alinkthatconnectstwoormor es eparat
elocalar
eanetworks)
.

Typesofcoaxi
alcabl
es:
a)Thi
ncoaxialcabl
e(Thi
nnet)
 Hasonedi el
ect
ri
cinsul
ator
.

b)Thi
ckcoaxi
alcabl
e(Thicknet)
 Hastwodi el
ectr
ici
nsulator
saroundt
hecor
eandi
sthi
ckert
hant
het
hinnet
.

Coppercor
e

Cor
einsul
ati
on

Al
umi
num f
oil

Br
aidedshi
eldi
ng

Out
ercover
ing

a)Thi
nnet a)Thi
cknet

Advant
agesofcoaxialcables
1. Theyareverys tabl
eevenunderhi ghload.
2. Havealargebandwi dth–upt o1 Gbpscompar edt otwist
edpai r
.
3. Cancarr
yvoi ce,dataandvideos i
gnalsimult
aneous l
y.
4. Moreresi
stanttor adioandelectromagneticint
er f
erencethantwist
edpaircables.
5. Ext
ensi
velyus edforlongerdi
s t
ancet elephonelinesandascabl esforcl
osedcircui
tTV.
6. Manyarepackagedi nbundl
est hatcanhandl e15000t elephonecal
lssimult
aneously.
7. Haveahigheri mmuni t
ytonoisedi st
ortionanddat aloss.

Dis
advant agesofcoaxi alcables
1. Thickcoaxi alcablesarehar dtoworkwith.
2. Theyar er elati
velyexpens i
vetobuyandt oins
tal
lascompar
edt
otwi
stedpai
rses
peci
all
yforl
onger
dis
t ancet r
ans missi
on.
3. Theyar evul nerabletotapping.
4. Att
enuat ionf orl
ongdi stancetr
ansmis
sion.

I
V)F
IBREOPTI CCABLES
 Util
izelight(optic)totr
ansmitdat afrom onepinttoanot heronthenet work.
 Electr
icals i
gnalsfrom t
hes ourceareconver tedtolightsignal
s,andthenpr opagatedalongthef
ibr
eopti
c
cable.
 Toconver tanelectri
cs i
gnaltolight,youneedal ightemi tt
ingdi
ode( LED)atthet ransmit
ter
.
 Att hereceivingend,aphot osens i
ti
vedevi cecanbeus edtoconvertthelightsignalsbacktoel
ect
ric
si
gnal sthatc anbepr ocessedbyt hecomput er.
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 8
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com

Sendi
ng
computer 1
01001
1

Fi
breopt
ic Photodetector
cabl
e tr
ansformsl i
ght
LEDchanges si
gnaltoel ectr
ic
elect
ri
cal si
gnals
si
gnalstoli
ght
si
gnals
1
01001
1
Recei
vingcomput
er

F
ibr
enet
wor
k.

Typesoffi
breopti
ccables
a) Singl
emodef i
bre.
b) Multi
modefibr
e.

a)Si
nglemodef i
bre
 Hasaver ynarrowcentercore.
 Lightinthecablecanonlytakeonepatht hr
oughit.
 Hasal owattenuati
onrate.
 Prefer
redforlongdist
ancetransmi
ssi
on.
 Hasabandwi dthof50Gbpswhi chishigherthanthatoft
het
wis
tedpai
r’
s100Mbps
.
 Itisveryexpensi
ve.
 Requiresverycaref
ulhandl
ingduri
nginstall
ati
on.

b)Mul
ti
modef ibrecable
 Hasat hi
ckercor e.
 All
owss everalli
ghtraystobef edinthecabl
eatanangle.
 Dist
orti
onofs ignalsi
spos si
blebecauseofmult
ipl
eli
ghtsi
gnal
snavi
gat
ingt
hecabl
eatt
hes
amet
ime.
 Haveahi ghat t
enuati
onr at
e.
 Usuall
yus edfors hor
terdis
tancesthansi
nglemode.

Thi
n
c
Cor
l
ae
ddi
ng
Jacket
Si
ngl
emodef
ibr
e

Thi
ck
cor
e
Claddi
ng
Jacket

Mul
ti
modef
ibr
e

 Li
ghtsignalt
ravel
st hr
oughthecor ethroughapr ocessref
erredtoastot
alint
ernalrefl
ect
ion.
 Theprocessthatcausestot
alinter
nalrefl
ecti
oniscal l
edrefr
acti
on.
 Ref
ract
ionisthebendingoflightwheni tcross
est heboundaryoftwomediumst hathavediff
erentdens
ity.
 Whenlightsi
gnalisinser
tedintothecable,itri
sest ocros
sfrom thecor
etothecl addi
ng.
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 9
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
 Thel
ighti
sbentbacki
ntot
hecor
ehenc
epr
opagat
esal
ongt
hel
engt
hoft
hecabl
eass
hownbel
ow:

Li
ghtr
ays

Mul
ti
modef
ibr
e Cl
addi
ng

Thefi
br eopti
ccabl
eismadeupof
:
a) TheCor e.
b) Cladding.
c) Buffer
d) Strengthmember.
e) Jacket.

a)Thecor
e:
 Thecentr
alpar
toft
hecabl
emadeofahol
lowt
rans
par
entpl
ast
icgl
ass
.
b)Cl
addi
ng:
 asingl
eprotect
ivel
ayersurr
oundi
ngthecore.I
thasl
ightbendi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs.
 Whenl i
ghtt
riestot
ravelf
rom t
hecor
et othecl
addi
ng,iti
sredir
ect
edbacktothecor
e.
c)Buf
fer:
 Sur r
oundst
hecl
addi
ngandi
tsmai
nfunct
ioni
stos
trengt
hent
hecabl
e.
d)Jacket:
 I tistheout ercover ingoft hecabl e.
Advantagesandf eaturesoff ibreopt i
ccabl es
1. Offerhighqual i
tytransmi ssionofs i
gnal s
.
2. Lightwei ght–anor malgl as sfi
brei sthes i
zeofahumanhai r.
3. Cant ransmi tvoice,dat aandvi deos ignalssimult
aneously.
4. Haveal argebandwi dth(upt o1 Gbps).
5. Lowcr os stalk.
6. Immunet oint erf
erenceandeaves dropping.
7. Mor eres i
stantt oradioandel ectromagnet i
cinter
ference.
8. Longdi stancecanbecover edbecaus etheyhavel owattenuati
on.
9. Canbeus edi nhazar douspl aces–hi ghf l
ammabl e,becausethedonotgener
ateel
ect
ri
cals
ignal
s.
10.Canwi t
hs t
andext remet emper atures–upt o10000C.
Dis
advantagesoff ibreopt i
c
1. Connect i
vit
ydevi cesandt hemediaareexpensive.
2. Inst
all
ationisdi f
fi
cultbecaus ethecableneedscaref
ulhandl
ing.
3. Relati
velycompl ext oconf i
gure.
4. Abr okencabl eisdi f
fi
cultandexpensivetorepair
.
5. Expensivefors horterdistances.
6. Pronet owat erseepageandf reezi
ng.

B.WI
RELESSCOMMUNI CATI
ON( UNBOUNDEDMEDI A)
 Typeofmediausedtotrans
mi tdatafr
om onepointt
oanotherwi
thoutus
ingphysicalconnect
ions
.
 At r
ansmi
tt
ingantennaandreceiveraeri
alar
eus edt
ofaci
li
tat
ethecommunicat
ion.

Exampl esofwi r
elesstr
ansmi
ssi
onmedi
a:
i) Mi crowaves .
ii) Satell
it
e.
iii
)Radi owaves .
iv)Infraredtransmiss
ion.
v) Bl uetoothtechnol
ogy.

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 1
0
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
 Thet
rans
mis
sionmedi
aaboveus
edi
ff
erentf
requenc
iesoft
heel
ect
romagnet
ics
pect
rum ass
hownbel
ow.

022Hz
1 Gammar
ays

020Hz
1 X-Rays

016Hz
1 Ul
tr
a-vi
olet(
UV)
1
5
1
0 Hz Vi
sibl
eli
ght Wavelengt
h
1
3 I
nfr
a-r
ed(
IR) i
ncreases
1
0 Hz

1010Hz Mi
crowaves
F
requency
i
ncr
eases
108Hz UHF
Radi
owaves

07Hz
1 VHF

06Hz
1 HF

Theel
ect
romagnet
ics
pect
rum

I
)MI
CROWAVETRANSMI SSI
ON
 Ami crowavei sextremel yhi
ghf requency(communi cationbeam)t hatist r
ansmi t
tedoverdir
ectl
ineofsi
ght
pat
h.
 Themet hodus esver yhighf
r equencyradios i
gnalst ot ransmitdat
at hroughs pace.
 Theelect romagneticwavecannotpas sobstaclesandgeogr aphi
calbarrier
ss uchasmount ai
ns.
 Duet ot heirsmallwavelength,theyeas i
lyreleaset hei
rener gyinwaterasheathencet heyareals
oused
i
nmaki ngmi crowaveovensus edindomes tickitchenappl i
ances.
 I
nnet wor king,microwavesar esuitabl
eforpoi nttopoi ntt r
ansmissi
ons .
 Asignali sdirect
edt horoughaf ocusedbeam f rom trans mitt
ertother eceiverstati
on.

I
I)SATELLI
TECOMMUNI CATION
 Asat el
li
teisamicrowaver elaystat
ion.
 Themi crowavest
ationshavepar aboli
cdis
heswi
thanant
ennaf
ixedont
hem i
nor
dert
ofocusanar
row
beam t
owardsthesatell
it
ei nspace.
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 1
1
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
Mai
nComponentsofasatel
li
tetransmis
sionsyst
em
1
.Tr
ansmi
tt
erearthst
ati
on:
 Set
supanupl i
nktothes at
elli
teinordert
otrans
mitdat
a.
 Theupl
inkhasauniquefrequency.

2.Asatell
it
e:
 Launchedsomewher ei
nanor bitt
hatrecei
ves,ampl
if
iesandret
rans
mit
sthes
ignalt
oar ecei
vingear
th
stat
ionviaadownl
inkf
requencythati
sdiff
erentf
rom t
hatoft
heupli
nksoast
oavoidint
erfer
encewiththe
upli
nks i
gnal
.

3.Recei
vingear
thstat
ion:
 Receivesthesentsignalont
heot
hers
ideoft
hegl
obe.

Sat
ell
it
eins
pace

Downl
ink
Upl
ink

Transmi
tter receivi
ng
earthst
ation earthstat
ion

Sat
ell
it
etr
ans
mis
sions
yst
em

 Acommuni
cat
ions
atel
li
tei
sus
ual
lyl
aunchedi
ntos
paceabout36,
000km abovet
heear
thi
nsuc
ha
mannert
hati
tss
peedwi
llber
elat
ivel
yequalt
other
otat
ions
peedoft
heear
th.
 Theset
ypesofsatel
li
tesarecall
edgeos
tat
ionarysat
ell
it
es.
 Theyar
econvenientbecausetheyel
imi
nat
et heneedtokeeponmovi
ngt
hepar
abol
icdi
shi
nabi
dto
trackt helineofs ight.
 Ageos tati
onarys atel
lit
eof f
er sal argecons tantl i
neofs i
ghttoear t
hs tat
ions.
 Thear eawher et helineofs ightcaneas i
lybel ocatediscalledthes atell
it
esfootpr i
nt.
 Thes atel
li
tetrans mit
st hes i
gnalt omanyr ecipientearths t
ati
onst oform apointt omul t
ipointtr
ansmis
sion.
 Thenewt rendsinmi crowavet ransmi ssionhaves eent heuseofver ys mallapertureterminal(VSAT)
technol ogy.
 I
tr eferst oaver ys mallsatell
itedi s
hus edbot hi ndata,radioandTVcommuni cation.
 I
tenabl esdirectcommuni cationins teadofhavi ngt ogot hrought hestateowneds atel
li
tegat eways.
 Thes atel
li
tepr oducess tr
ongs i
gnal st hatcanber eceivedbyas atel
li
tedi shantennaofonl yabout2
met ersi ndiamet er.
 Thes i
gnalsar edecodedus ingadecoderwhi chi spluggeddi r
ectlytoat elevi
sions etoracomput er
.

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 1
2
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
I
II
)RADI
OCOMMUNI CATI ON
 Radi
owavest r
avelj ustlikes urf
acewat erwaves.
 Theyareomnidirectionali.e.theys t
artfrom acent ralpointands preadoutwar
dsinalldi
rect
ions
.
 Thei
renergyspreadsout wardsovert hecover edar ea.
 Thewavesareradi atedintot heatmos pherebyar adiof r
equencyant ennaatconst
antvel
ocit
y.
 Radi
owavesar enotvi si
bletot hehumaneye.
 Theyareusedinr adioandt elevi
sionbr oadcasts.
 Datacanals
obet ransmi tt
edoverr adiowavescommuni cati
onchannel s
.
 Radi
owavescanbeofhi ghf r
equency,ver yhighfrequencyorul tra-highfr
equency.

Pat
h

Tr
ans
mit
ti
n Receivi
ng
g Antenna

Trans
mis
sion
l
ines

Power
Suppl
y
Tr
ans
mit
ter Recei
ver

a)Hi
ghfrequency(HF)radiowaves
 ASignalispropagatedbydirect
ingi
ttotheionosphereoftheearth.
 Theironspherewi l
lref
lecti
tbacktotheear
th’ssurfaceandthereceiverwi
llpi
ckthesi
gnal
.
 Thebiggestchall
engeofHFcommuni cat
ioni
st hedangerofs i
gnalint
ercept
ionbyunaut
hori
zedpar
ti
es.

Earth’
s
ionospher
e

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 1
3

Sender Ear
th Recei
v
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com

b)Veryhi ghf requency( VHF )radiowaves

 Tr ansmi ttedal ongt heear th’ss urf
ace.
 Duet ot hecur vatureoft heear t
h,thes ignalwil
lmos tli
kelyattenuat eatthehor i
zon.
 Repeat ers tati
onshavet other eforebepl acedstrategi
call
yt omai ntainalineofsightinordertoreceive,
ampl i
fyandpr opagatet hes ignalfrom onear eatoanot her.
 Commont echnologywi tht hehandhel dr adiodevicesli
ke‘ wal
kie-talkie’r
adios.
 Ther angeofVHFi slimitedbutpr eferr
edt ohighfrequencywher enomaj orobstructi
onsareencountered
ont hel ands cape,becaus eitispos si
bletomaket hewavet ofollowanar rowerandmor edirectpathtothe
receiver .
 Toover comet heobs t
ructi
onsont heear t
hs urf
acel i
kemount ainsandbui l
dings
,r epeat
erstat
ionsarebuilt
onr aisedar eas .
c)Ul
tr
ahighf r
equency( UHF )r adi
owaves.
 Theyar eli
keVHFwheni tcomest otheli
neofsightpri
ncipl
ei.
e.t
hereshoul
dbenobar ri
erbet
weent
he
s
endingandt hereceivingaer ial
.
 Theyr equi
res mall
eraer ials.
 TheTVaer i
alforVHFisbi ggerthantheoneforUHFr adi
owavesbecauseUHFradi
owavescanbemadeto
f
oll
owanevennar roweranddi rectpatht
othereceiverthanVHFradi
owaves
.
 ThereforeUHFi spopularf orhorizonli
mit
edbroadcasts.
I
V)BLUETOOTHTECHNOLOGY
 Anewt r
ansmissiontechnologyi.e.as hortrangetechnologyt hatenabl espeopletous ehandheld
communi cat
iondeviceslikecellphonesandPDAst oacces sthei nternet.
 Itenhancescommuni cati
onofper sonalcommuni cat
iondevicest hroughwi relesstechnol
ogy.
 Themai ncomponenti nBl uet
oothi sas malllowpowert wo- wayr adiotransceiver
,s mal
lenoughtobe
inser
tedins malldevi
ces.
 Anet workofBluetoothenableddevi cesiscalledawi r
elessper sonalar eanetwork( WPAN)orpiconet
.
V)I
NF RAREDTRANSMI SSION
 Fal ljustbel owt hevi si
blel i
ghtont heel ect
romagnet i
cs pectrum.
 Theyar enotvi sibletot hehumaneye.
 Communi cationi sachi evedbyhavi nginfr
aredtr ansmittersandr eceivers(tr
ans cei
vers)
.
 Tr ans ceiversofi nfrar
eds ignalsmus tbewithi
nal ineofs i
ghti nthes amer oom.
 Unl iker adios i
gnal s,i
nf r
areds ignal
scannotpenet rateobs taclesli
kewal ls
.However ,thesignalcanbe
refl
ect edof fs ur faceslikewal lsandcei l
ingunti
lt heyr eacht heirdestinat
ion.
 Anexampl ei st hei nf
raredt r
ans cei
veronmos tmobi l
ephones .
 Onceact ivat ed,t wopeopl eint hes amer oom cans endmes sagestoeachot heront hei
rmobi l
ephones
withoutgoi ngt hr ought hemobi l
es ervi
ceprovider .
 Incomput ernet wor ki
ng,t het echnologycanbeus edt oconnectdevi cesinthes ameroom toeachother
withoutneedf orcabl ese. g.acomput ertoapr inter.
 Thecomput ersi nf r
aredt ransceivermus tmaintainal ineofs ightwitht heonef ortheprint
er.
Advantagesofwirel
esscommuni cati
ons
1. Wirelessmedium i
sflexibleinoperat
ionascompar edtoboundedmediai
.e.devi
cescanbemovedar ound
withoutlos
ingaccesstot henet wor
k.
2. Wirelessnetwor
kscans panlargegeographicalar
easeasi
ly.
3. Itcantakeplaceviasatell
iteeveninveryr emoteareast
hatdonothavehighcostphys
icali
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
li
ket el
ephoneli
nes.
Dis
advantagesofwi r
eles
scommuni cat
ions
1. Rel
ativel
ydiff
icul
ttoestabli
shorconfi
gur
e.
2. Theiniti
alcostisveryhigh.

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COMMUNI CATI ONDEVICES
 Thesear edevicesusedasinterf
acesorjunct
ionsbet
weent
hetermi
naldevi
ces.
 Ter mi
nalequipmentaredevicesatbothendsofthecommuni
cat
ionl
inksuchasacomput
er.
 Exampl esofdat acommunicati
ondevicesincl
ude:
i) NICs .
ii) Modemsandcodecs .
iii
)Hubs .
iv)Br i
dges .
v) Repeat ers.
vi)Rout ers.
vii)Gateways.
viii
)Switches.
ix)Acces spoints
.

I
)NETWORKI NTERFACECARDS( NIC)
 Creat
esaphys i
call
inkbet
weent hecomput erandt
het rans
mi s
sionmedi
a.
 Iti
spluggedintoanempt yexpansionslotonthemotherboard.
 However,mos tcomputermotherboardstodaycomer eadywithanonboar
dnet
wor
kint
erf
acecont
rol
ler
.

I
I)MODEMSANDCODECS
 Amodem conver tsas ignalf rom di git
alt oanal ogf or mf orthepur poseoft ransmissi
onovert heanal og
medi a.
 Acodecconver t
sananal ogs ignalt odigitalformf ort ransmiss ionviaadi gitalmedium.
 Amodem canbeext er nal,anadd- oncar dorbui ltont hemot herboar d.
I
II
)HUBSI llustrationpg24
 Al socal l
edaconcent rator.
 I ti
sacomponentt hatconnect scomput ersonanet wor kandi sablet orelays i
gnal
sf r
om onecomput ert
o
anotheront hes amenet wor k.
 Ahubusual l
yconnect snet wor ksthathaveacommonar chit
ect urei.e.onet hathasthes ames etof
communi cations oftwar eus ual lycal l
edpr otocol s.
 Pr otocol sar eas etofr ulest hatgover nt hecommuni cat i
onbet weendevi cesonanet work.
 Ahubt rans mitss i
gnal sbybr oadcas tingt hem t oal lthecomponent sont henet wor
k.
 Af tert hes ignali sbr oadcas ted,t hecomput erwhos eaddr essi sont hemes sagepickst hemes sagef r
om
thenet wor kt hatispar toft hebr oadcas tdomai n.
 Somehubscal l
edi nt ell
igenthubsar eabl et omoni tort hewaycomput er
sar ecommuni cat i
ngont he
networ kandkeept hei nformat ioninas mal ldatabas eoft heirowncal ledamanagementi nformat i
onbas e
(MIB).
 TheNTser vercant henus et hisinformat iont of i
ne- tunet heNT.
 I nt
elligenthubscanbeabl et omanageaNTbyi solat i
ngcomput ersthatar enotfuncti
oni ngpr operly.
 Sever alhubscanbeconnect edt ogetheroneaf teranot hertoexpandaNT.However ,thisincreas esthe
broadcas trangewhi chmayl eadt obr oadcas ts tormsont henet work.
 Br oadcas ts t
or mr efer stoacondi t
ionwher eaNTi sover whel medwi thmes sagebroadcas t
sduet o
mal f
unct ioningofNI Csorhubr elatedpr oblems .

I
V)BRI
DGESill
ustr
ationpg25.
 NTdevicethatselecti
vel
ydetermi
nestheappropri
ateNTs egmentf
orwhichmes
sagei
smeantf
ordel
iver
y
thr
oughaddressf i
lt
eri
ng.
 Abridgecandivi
deabus ynetwor
kint
os egmentstoreducenetwor
ktraf
fi
c.

Pur
poseofus i
ngabr idge:
1. Toextendthelengthandnumberofst
ati
onst hatasegmentcansupport
.
2. Reduceoveral
ltraff
icf
lowbyal
lowi
ngbroadcastsonl
yinthedatadest
inati
ons
egmentoft
heNT.
 Abr
idgemakess
uret
hatpacket
sthatar
enotmeantf
orapar
ti
cul
ars
egmentar
enotbr
oadcas
tedi
nthat
s
egment
.

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I
V)REPEATERS
 Adevi cet hatrecei
vesas ignalf
rom ones egmentofaNT,cl eansi
ttor emoveanydi st
ort
ion,boost
sitand
thens endsi ttoanothersegment .
 ItenablesNTt oeli
minateattenuati
onproblems.
 Theyar et hes i
mplestwayt oexpandaNTbecaus etheybroadcastthes amemes sagetootherNT
segment s.
 However ,t heyshouldbeus edwithreservati
on,becaus
et heyexpandt hebroadcastdomain,whi
chmay
leadtobr oadcas ts
tormsont heNT.
 Abr oadcas tstormisac ondit
ionwherebyt heNTisoversaturat
edwi t
hmes sagesmakingcommuni cat
ion
imposs i
ble.

V)ROUTERS
 I nterconnectsdi ff
erentNTsanddi rectsthetr ansferofdatapacket sfrom sourcet odesti
nati
on.
 Rout ingdependsonNTaddr esses.
 EachNThasauni queidenti
fi
eroraddr esscal l
edt henetwor kaddress .
 Al lthecomput ersont hes amenet workhavet hes amenet wor kaddressnutdi ff
erenthostnumbers.
 Ther out
err eceivesapacketf rom anotherrout eronthei nternetworkandcheckst hedesti
nati
on’snet
work
addr ess.
 I ftheaddr essist hes ameast heoneonwhi cht herouteri s
,itpassest hedat apackettothedesti
nati
on
hos tbyr eadingt hehos taddressotherwisethepacketwi llber out
edt othenextnet workaddress.
 Somemoder nrout i
ngdevicescombi nethefunct ional
it
yofabr idgeandar outer,cal
ledabrouter
.

VI)GATEWAYSI ll
ust
rati
onpg27
Agatewayi sanydevicethatcanbeconf i
gur
edt opr ovi
deaccesstowideareanetwor
ksorInt
ernet.
Ones uchdeviceistherouterinwhi chthegateways oft
wareisins
tal
led.
Agatewayi sthemos tpowerfulnetworkandinternetworkconnect
ivi
tydevi
cebecauseofi
tsabil
it
ytoconver
t
dataacros
sdi f
fer
entnetworkar chi
tectur
esandpr otocols
.

VI
I)SWITCHESI ll
ustr
ationpg28
 Unl i
keahub,as wi t
chforwardsapacketdirectl
ytotheaddressnodewi thoutbroadcast
ing.
 Anoder ef
erstodat ater
minalequipments uchasawor ks
tati
onoracomput eront henetwork.
 Theswi t
chdoest hisbyconnectingtwonodespoi nttopointasiftheywerel i
nkedbyadi rectcabl
e
betweent hem.
 Somehubsal soincorpor
atethes wit
chingmechanisms.Suchahubi sr
eferredtoasas witchi
nghub.
 Swi tchesaremor eexpens i
vethanhubs .Thismeansthatones wit
chmaybeus edasabr idgetoconnect
severalhubsinor dertoreducecolli
sionprobl
emscausedbybr oadcasts.

WI
RELESSCOMMUNI CATIONDEVICES
 Ast hecostofwirel
es st
echnologygoesdownandt hequali
tyofservi
ceincr
eases,i
tisbecomi ngcost
eff
ecti
veforcompani esandindividual
stoext
endt hecapabi
li
tyofwi r
ednetworksbyintegrati
ngwirel
ess
segmentsintotheircommunications.
 Someoft hemos tcommondevi cesusedinwirel
esscommuni cat
ionincl
udeaccesspoints,theant
ennaand
thePCMCI Acard.

I
)ACCESSPOI
NTS( AP)
 Anentr
ypointi
ntoaboundednet
wor
kforpeopl
ewhohavewi
rel
essdevi
cess
uchasPDAs
,lapt
opsand
comput
erswit
hwi r
eles
sli
nks
.

I
I)WIRELESSANTENNAE
 Theaccesspoi ntneedstohaveantennasinordertodet
ectsi
gnal
sinthes ur
rounding.
 Thewavesmayber adi
owaves,microwavesorinf
rar
edwavesinnat
ure.
 Inmos tcases
,accesspoint
swil
lhavetwoantennass ot
hatt
heonet hatr
eceivesthebests
ignalatany
part
iculart
imecanbeus ed.

I
II
)PERSONALCOMPUTERMEMORYCARDI
NTERNATI
ONALASSOCI
ATI
ON(
PCMCI
A)car
d.
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 Anadd-
oncar
dins
ert
edi
ntoadevi
ces
uchasPDAsoral
apt
opi
nor
dert
oenabl
ewi
rel
esscommuni
cat
ion
bet
weent
hedevi
cesandawi
rednet
wor
kser
ver
.

NETWORKSOFTWARE
 Canbeclass
ifi
edint
otwomai
ngr
oupsnamel
y:
1. Net
wor
koperati
ngsyst
ems
.
2. Net
wor
kprotocol
s.

1
.NETWORKINGOPERATI
NGSYSTEMS
 Designedtoopt
imi
zethenet
workedcomput
ersabi
li
tyt
ores
pondt
oser
vicer
eques
ts.
 Serversrunonanetwor
koperat
ings
ystem.

Mai nnetwor krelatedfunctionsofNTO. S.

i) Pr ovidesacces stonet workr esourcese. g.pr
int
ers.
ii) Enablesnodesont heNTt ocommuni cat ewit
heachot hermoreeffi
cient
ly.
iii
)Suppor t
sinterproces scommuni cationi.e.enabl
esthevar i
ousprocessesontheNTt
ocommuni
cat
ewi
th
oneanot her.
iv)Res pondt or eques tsfr
om appl i
cat
ionpr ogramsrunningont henetwork.
v) Suppor t
ingNTs ervicesli
keNTcar ddriversandprotocols
.
vi)I mplementingNTs ecuri
tyfeatures
.

 I
nmostcases,NTO.
S.i
sdesignedasmul
ti-
useroperat
ingsyst
emsthatrunthenetworkser
verpr
ogram.
 Oncei
nst
all
edontheri
ghthardwar
epl
atf
orm andconfi
guredasaserver
,theoperat
ingsyst
em wi
llpr
ovi
de
networkmanagementt oolst
onetworkadminist
ratorsforthetodot hefol
lowi
ng:
i
) Secur ethenetworkagainstunaut
hori
zedaccess.
i
i) Tracknetwor
kus ageandkeepal og/
recordofallthepeoplewhous et henetwor
k.
i
ii
)Ens ureint
er-
operatabil
it
ybetweenvari
oussystemsont henetwork.
i
v)Per for
mancemoni tor
ingtoensuremaximum throughputont henetwork.

Exampl
esofNToperat
ingsys
tems
:
a) WindowsNT/
2000/2003
b) UNIX
c) Li
nux
d) NovelNet
war
e.

NB:
 Inter
networki
ngdevicesli
kerout
ersalsohaveoper
ati
ngs
yst
emsoft
hei
rownandhencet
heycanbe
managedandconfi
guredforopti
mum perf
ormance.
 Routersarespeci
alpurposecomputer
s.

2.PROTOCOLS
 Thesear esetsofrulesandpr oceduresthatgover
ncommunicati
onbetweentwodif
ferentdevi
cesor
people.
 I ncomputernetworki
ng,protocolsrefert
ot herul
esandt
echnicalpr
ocedur
esthatgoverncommunicat
ion
betweendif
fer
entcomput er
s.

WORKINGMECHANI SM OFPROTOCOLS
 Thedatatransmissionpr oces sovert heNThast obebr okendowni nt
odi s
cr et
es yst
emati
cs t
eps.
 Ateachstep,acer tainact i
ont akespl ace.
 Eachstephasi t
sownr ulesandpr ocedur esasdef i
nedbyt heNTpr ot
ocols.
 Thewor kofthesepr otocolsmus tbecoor dinatedsot hattherearenoconf l
ictsorincompl
eteoperati
ons
.
 Thisco-or
dinat
ionisachi evedt hr oughpr otocoll
ayeri
ng.
 NTpr ot
ocolsaredes ignedaf tertheopens ys t
emsi nt
erconnecti
on( OSI)model .
 TheOSImodeli snotapr otocolass uchbuti smeantt ohelpdesignerstocomeupwi t
hhi
ghquali
t y
layer
edprotocols.
 Ithassevenlayers,eachper formingdi st
inctfunct
ionsass hownbelow:

F
orMor
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Layer Funct i
on
7 Appli
cationl ayer Us erappl icati
onsr unher eandgener ater eques t
sf ordata
trans miss i
onoropenr eceivedi nformation.
6 Presentation Addsf ormat ti
ng,displayandencr ypti
oni nformationt othe
l
ayer dat abei ngs ent.
5 Sessionlayer Set supdat at r
ans missions essionsbet weent wo
communi cati
ngdevi ces .
4 Transportl ayer Managesdat at r
ans f
erovert henet wor kt oens ure
reliabil
ity.
3 Networ klayer Addr es sinformationi saddedt ot hepacketandr outi
ngt o
des ti
nat i
on.
2 Datalinklayer Addser rorchecki ngi nfor
mat ionandpr epar esdat afor
goingont ot hephys icalconnect ion.
1 Physicallayer Thedat apacket sar ef i
nall
yt rans mit
tedvi at henet work
cardt hrought hetrans missionmedi ainf orm ofbi t
s.

Appl
icat
ionlayerprotocol
s:
 Appl i
cat
ionprotocolsworkatthehighestl
ayeroft
heOSImodel
.
 Theypr ovideservicestoappl
icat
ionprogr
ams.
Examplesofappl
icati
onpr otocols:
a) Ane- mai
lprogram thatenabl escomposingorreadi
ngofe-mailmes sages.
b) Simplemailtr
ansferpr otocol(SMTP)–AnI nt
ernetprot
ocolf
ort r
ansf
erringe-
mai
ls.
c) Fi
leTransf
erPr ot
ocol( FTP)–f orf
il
etransf
er.
d) Appletal
kandappl es hare–Appl ecomputersnetworki
ngprotocols
ui t
.
Tr
ans
portl
ayerprot
ocols
:
 Ensur
ethatdataispass
edbet
weencomput
ersmor
erel
iabl
y.
Examplesoftrans portprotocols
a) Transmissioncont rolprotocol(
TCP)-Res pons
iblefordel
iver
yofs equenceddataovert henetwork.
b) SequentialPacketExchange( SPX)-Par toftheNovell’si
nter
networ kpacketexchange/sequent
ialpacket
exchange( IPX/SPX)f orsequenceddat a.
c) NetBEUI:al ocalareanet workprotocolforMicrosof
tandIBM networksthatestabl
ishescommuni cat
ion
sessi
onsbet weencomput ers.
d) Appletrans acti
onpr otocol:(
ATP):Applecomput er’
sc ommunicat
ionsessionanddat atr
ansportprotocol
.
Net
workl
ayerprotocol
s
 Provi
deli
nks ervi
ces.
 Theyhandl
eaddr essi
ngandr
out
ingi
nfor
mat
ion,er
rorchecki
ngandr
etr
ans
mis
sionofr
eques
ts.
Examplesofnet wor klayerpr otocol
s
a) Internetpr otocol(IP)–i tdoespacketf orwardingandrouting.
b) Internetwor kpacket sexchange:Net war esprotocolf
orpacketforwardingandr outi
ng.
c) Net BEUI:pr ovi
desdat at ransportser vices,Net bi
ussessionsandapplicati
ons.
4.DATASI GNAL
 Al lmes s
agest hatares entandr eceivedt hr
ought henetworkmus tber epresentedusi
ngadatasi
gnal
.
 Met all
icmedi awoul drequi reanel ectricalsignal
,wirel
essmedi aneedel ectr
omagneticsi
gnal
swhi
lefi
bre
opt i
ccabl esneedl i
ghts ignals.
 Asi gnalcanei therbeanal ogordi gital.

NETWORKTOPOLOGI ES
Topology:
 I tisthephys i
calarrangementofcomputer
sonanet work.
 Ref erstot hewayi nwhichcomputersandotherdevi
ceshavebeenar rangedorhowdat
aispas
sedf
rom
onecomput ertoanotherinthenetwork
.
 I tisthewayi nwhi chthepointsorst
ati
onsofanetworkinter
li
nk(int
eracttoget
her)
.
 I tdeterminest hedatapathsthatmaybefoll
owedorusedbet weenpointsinthenet
wor
k.
 Net worktopologycanbevi ewedintwoways:
a) logicalt
opology.
F
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b) Phys
icalt
opol
ogy.

A.LOGI
CALTOPOLOGY
 Alsocal
ledsi
gnalt
opol
ogy.
 Dealswitht
hewaydatapassesf
rom onedevi
cet
othenextont
heNT.

Examplesoflogicaltopol
ogy
i)Et
hernettopology.
ii
)tokenri
ngt opology.

I
)ETHERNETTOPOLOGY
 Allcomput
ersl
ist
entot
henet
wor
kmedi
aandcanonl
ysenddat
awhennoneoft
heot
her
siss
endi
ng.

I
I)TOKENRI NGTOPOLOGY
 Aspeci alpackagefordatacall
edat okengoesaroundthenetworkandonlyt
hecomput erwhoseaddr
essi
s
onthedatahel dinthetokenwillt
akeupt hetokentoreadthedataandthenreleas
ethetoken.
 Thet okencant henbecapt ur
edbyanot hercomputerwhichneedstotr
ansmitdata.

B.PHYSI
CALTOPOLOGY
 Referst
othephysi
call
ayoutorar
rangementofcomponent
sont
henet
wor
k.

Exampl esofphys icaltopology

i)Startopol ogy.
ii)Bust opology.
iii
)Ringt opology.
iv)Mes ht opology.
v)Tr ee/hierarchi
caltopology.
I
.STARTOPOLOGY
 Asetupwher ealldevicesareconnectedt oacentralhub/ser
ver/s
witch.
 Ahostcomput eri satt
achedtolocal
st hroughmulti
plecommuni cati
onlines.
 Thel ocalcomputersarenotli
nkeddirectlytoeachot her
.
 Bet weenanytwos t
ati
ons,communicationisviathecentralcomputer.
 Whent hehub/centr
almachinerecei
vesdat afrom atransmitt
ingcomput er
,itbr
oadcas
tst
hemes
saget
o
al
ltheothernodesont heNT.

Wor
kst
ati
o
n
Hub/
Swi
tch

Pr
int
er

St
art
opol
ogy
F
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ADVANTAGESOFSTARTOPOLOGY
1. Starnet wor ksar eeas yt oconf igure.
2. net wor kf ailuresduet ocabl esbr eakdownar el owsincecablesarenots hared.
3. failureofanycomput erdoesnotaf fectcommuni cat
ionintheNT,unl essithasmajoref
fectsont hehost
comput er.
4. wir inghubsi ncr easesf l
exibil
ityforgr owthi.e.addit
ionalanddeleti
onofnodesdoesnoti nvol
vei nt
erf
eri
ng
wit htheot her s .
5. allowscent ralizationofkeynet wor kingresour cesli
keconcentrator
sands erver
s.
6. givest heNTadmi nistratoraf ocalpoi ntf
orNTmanagement .Itiseasierf
ort headmi
nis
tratorto
troubl es hootanddi agnos eNTr elatedproblems .
Dis
advant agesofs tart opol ogy
1. Ifthecent ralhubf ail
s ,theent i
renet workwi llbegrounded.
2. Ins tal
lationi st imecons umi ng;eachnodef ormsas egmentofi t
sown.
3. Itiscos tly,r equi r
esonecompl etecabl epercomput er.

I
I.BUSTOPOLOGY
 Al soknownasDai sy-chaintopologyormultipointnet work.
 Al ldevicesar econnect edt oacent r
alcabl
ecal ledt hebusorbackbone.
 Al lstati
onsar eattacheddi rect
lythroughappropr iateinterf
acinghardwaretothetransmissi
onmedi um.
 Eachwor kstati
onont henet workmus tbecapabl eofknowi ngwheni tcanandcannott rans
mi tdat
aus i
ng
thes haredmedi um,s i
ncet hecablecancarryonl yonemes sageatat i
me.
 At erminatori sattachedt oeachendoft hecabl et oavoids i
gnalsfr
om bouncingbackandf orthonthe
cablecaus ings i
gnaldi storti
on.
 Ast hedat apas sesal ongt hecable,eachstationcheckswhet hert
hedatai saddr
es s
edt oit
.
 I ftheaddr es smatchest hemachi ne’
saddres s,itreceivesthedat aotherwisei
trej
ectsit.
 Thenet wor kaddr es s
esofcomput ersonanet wor kiscalledthemedi um acces
scontrol(MAC)address.

Bus Ter
minat
or

Wor
kst
ati
o
Pr
int
er
n
Bust
opol
ogy

Advant
agesofbust opology
1. Iti
seas yt
oinstall
.
2. Requir
eslessphysicall
ineshenceles
scos tl
y.
3. Iti
sindependenti.
e.anys i
ngl
ecomput ercan’taf
fectcommunicat
ionbet
weenot
hercomput
ers
.
4. Easytoexpand,justneedtoaddt henewcomput eront hel
ine.

Dis
advantagesofbust opology
1. Onlyonenodecant ransmits i
gnalsatatime.
2. Fail
ureorfaul
tinthet ransmissionli
neaffect
sthewholecommunicati
onnet
wor
k.
3. Troubl
eshooti
ngacabl ef aul
tisdiff
icul
t.
4. Limit
sthenumberofcomput ersthatcanbeconnectedtothecabl
e.Incr
eas
einthenumberofcomput
ers
resul
tsinanincreasedcol l
isi
onasmachi nescompetefortr
ansmissi
on.

I
II
.RI
NGTOPOLOGY
F
orMor
eEr
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cesCal
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 Alldevi
cesareconnect edt ooneanot herintheshapeofacl osedl oop.
 Thereisnohos tcomput er.
 Eachs t
ati
onisr esponsibleforr egener at
ingandretransmitt
ings ignalsaroundt henetwor
ktoitsneigbour.
 Itusesrepeater
s( devicest hatr eceivedataatoneendandt rans mititbitbybi tt
ot heot
herend).
 As peci
albitpatterncalledat okeni scir
cul
atedaroundt herings equent i
all
yfrom onenodetot henextand
anodei sonlyper mit
tedt ot rans mitdatawhenitreceivesthet oken.
 At okencanbevi ewedasanenvel opeorabagwher edataispl acedf ortr
ansmi s
sionandcar
riedaround
thenetwork.
 Allcomputersinr i
ngtopol ogyhaveequalcapabi li
tiesofs endingandr ecei
ving.

Advantagesofr ingt opology

1. Theyus es hor tlengthcables–l esscostl
y.
2. Simpletoi ns t
all.
3. Veryeffectivewher ethereisdistri
buteddatapr
ocess
ing.
4. Mor ereli
abl ebecaus eofalternaterouti
ngifonecomputerbr
eaksdown.
5. Thepacketdel iverytimeisfixedandguar ant
eed.

Dis
advant agesofr i
ngt opology
1. Install
ationrequir
ess ophisti
cateds of
tware.
2. Delaysi ncommuni cat
ionaredi rect
lyproport
ionaltothenumberofnodest hemes sagehastopass
through.
3. Requi resal otofreconfi
gurationwhennewnodesar eadded.
4. Troubles hooti
ngcanbedi ff
icult
.
5. Tokenmanagementmus tber obustbecauselossorcor r
upti
onofthetokencancaus echaos.
6. Onedevi ceormedi abreakdownmayaf f
ecttheent i
renetwork.However,t
hisi
snott hecasewit
hI BM
tokenr i
ngwher eadevi cecal l
edMul t
iStati
onAcces sUnit(
MSAU)i susedforstat
ionbypassintheeventa
stationfails.
7. Modi fi
cat i
onmaybedi ff
icul
tbecaus eaddingorr emovingadevicecandisr
upttheent i
renet
work.

Ri
ngt
opol
ogy

I
V)MESHTOPOLOGY
 MostcommontypeusedinWAN,wher etherearemanypat hsbetweendi
ff
erentlocat
ions
.
 Devi
cesar
econnectedwithmanyr edundantint
erconnect
ionsbetweent
henodes .
 Ever
ynodehasaconnectiontoeveryothernodei ntheNT,makingpossi
blefordir
ectcommuni
cat
ionwi
th
ever
ycomputerhenceeverycomputerdict
atesitspri
ori
ti
es.
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Advant
agesofmes htopology
1. Thenetwor
ki sreli
ableandeff
ect
iveduet odir
ectrel
ati
ons
hipbet
weenthecomput
ers
.
2. Poi
nttopointconnectionsopt
imi
zethroughputofdat
a.
3. TheNTcans ti
lloperateevenwhenanodebr eaksdownoraconnect
ionbreaks
.

Dis
advantagesofmeshtopol
ogy
1. Iti
sexpensiveoncabl
eduet oredundantli
nks.
2. Administ
rat
ionoft
henetworkisdif
fi
cultbecaus
eoft
hepeert
opeerconnect
ions
.

V)TREE/THERARCHICALTOPOLOGY
 Ahybr i
dtopology.
 Gr oupsofstar–configur
ednetworksareconnect
edtoal inearbusbackbone.
 I tcanalsobeder i
vedoutofbreedi
ngacombi nat
ionofothernetworks
.
Advantagesoftr
eet opol
ogy
1. Fail
ureofoneormor enodesdoesnotaf f
ectthewholenetwork.
2. Fail
ureofas i
nglebranchdoesnotbri
ngthewhol enetworkdown.
Dis
advant
agesoft reet
opol
ogy
1. Communi cat
ionpat
hcansometi
mesbecomequi
tel
ong.
2. Ins
tal
lat
ioncanbecomecostl
yandcomplex
.
Wor
kst
ati
ons

Hub

Pr
int
er

Bus
/Backbon
e

Tr
eet
opol
ogy

SETTI
NGUPPEER–TO–PEERLAN
Hardwarerequirement s
1. Acomput err unningonanyver si
onofMsWi ndowsespeci
all
yWi ndows9x/2000/Me/WindowsXp.
2. Networkinterfacecard(NIC).Somecomputersmayhaveitalreadyins
tal
ledonboar
ds othatyoudonot
havetopur chas eone.
3. Ahuboras wi t
ch.
4. Transmissi
onmedi apref
erablyunshi
eldedt
wistedpai
rcat
egor y5.
5. RJ45connect ors.
Tool
s
1. Cri
mpingt ool
.
2. Cabletes
t er
.
3. Screwdrivers.
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NETWORKSECURITY
 Innetwor
king,ther
ear
esever
alwaysofenf
orci
ngs
ecur
it
y,oneoft
hem i
sshar
elevelandt
heot
heri
sus
er
l
evels
ecuri
ty.

a)Shar
elevelsecur
it
y
 Asi mpl
enet wor
ks ecuri
tyusedi npeertopeernetworks
.
 Theusercandeci dewhichres ourcest
ogiveforshari
ng.
 MostdesktopO.S.s uchasWi ndows9xpr ovi
desuchkindofs
ecur
it
y.

b)User
-leveluti
li
ty
 Usedonser verbasednetworks
.
 Anet wor kadmini
s t
rat
orassi
gnsaccount
stouser
s.
 Eachuseri sprovidedwit
hauni quenameandpasswor
dwhi
chhe/
shecanus
etoacces
snet
wor
k
r
esources.

APPLI
CATI
ONAREASOFI
CTNOTES
I
NTRODUCTI ON
 Therei srampantus eofcomput ersinthes oci
etytoday;offi
ces,ins t
ituti
ons,organizat
ionsandhomes .
 Taskst hatwereprevious l
ymannedmanual l
yar enowt ackl
edel ectronicall
y.
 Itisimperati
vetother eforeunderst
andwaysbywhi chcomput ershavebeenappl iedint hecontempor
ary
soci
etytoaddgreatval uet otheinf
ormations yst
emsofvar iousor ganizati
ons.
 Ani nformat
ionsystem isacol l
ecti
onofs pecif
ichumanandmachi neef for
tsrequiredtos uppor
tt he
deci
sionmakingproces s,dataprocessi
ng,informati
onout putandpr esentati
on.

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APPLICATI
ONAREAS
1. Financials ys t
ems . 9. Entertainments yst
ems
2. Retailsys tems . 1
0 Trans port
ati
ons ystem
3. Res ervations yst
ems 1
1 Homeus e
4. Educat i
onals ystems 1
2 Offi
ceexper tsys t
ems
5. Communi cat i
ons yst
ems 1
3 Mar keting
6. Industrials ystems 1
4 Virt
ualr eali
tysystems
7. Scientif
icandr esear
chsys
tems 1
5 Lawenf or
cements ys
tems
8. Librarys yst ems

1.F
INANCIALSYSTEMS
 Enabl eorganizati
onst
omanaget
hei
rfi
nancesandt
heyi
ncl
ude:
a) Payrolls
ys t
ems .
b) Accounti
ngs ystems.
c) Bankings yst
ems .

A.PAYROLLSYSTEMS
 Scr eensar es etuptocapt urethet ransacti
ondat a,wi thappropr i
atevalidat
ions ,dataisinsertedintothe
trans actionf il
e,payrollprogramst henpr ocesst hepayr ollusingdataf r
om thet r
ansacti
onf i
le,lookup
tablesandt hemas terf i
le.
 Themast erf il
eisthenupdat ed,payr ol
lsystem ispr oduced,pays l
ipsar eprintedforeveryempl oyeeand
otherr eportsr equi
redbymanagementort het axdepar t
ment .
 Comput ersar ethereforeus edt ostoreandpr oces spayr oll
s.
 Backi ngs t
or ageisalsoes sentialf
orpayr ollsystems ,sincetheamountofdat agrowswi thti
me.
 Thepr imar ypur poseoft hepayr ol
ls ystem istot heref
or eprocesst heaccurat einfor
mationofempl oyees
includinggr osspay,deduct i
onsandt henetpay.
 Thepayr ol
ls ystem isdes i
gnedt opr oduces ever alanalysi
sr eport
se. g.abr eakdownofpayr ol lexpenses
agai nstpr oduct i
on/i
ncomeoft hecompany.

B.ACCOUNTI NGSYSTEMS
 Account i
ngi sthepr eparationandanal ysi
soff inancialrecor dsf
oracommer cialcompany,gover nmentor
otheror ganizat
ions.
 Knownast he“ bus i
nes slanguage” ,itenablesdeci s
ionmaker stoint
er pr
etfi
nanci ali
nfor
mat i
onandus e
theres ult
sinpl anningfort hefuturee. g.f
or etell
ingwhatpr oduct
sordepar tment saredoingwel landwhich
onesar edoi ngpoor ly.
 I tdealsmai nlywithnumber sandthi sisat askwel ls ui
tedf orcomputers.
 Thepr oces si
ngofs ucht asksi ssimpl eandeas yt ounder s
t andtoimplementont hecomput er,and
managementcanes tabli
shappr opriatecont rol
sander ror-checki
ngpr ocedurestoens urethes ecuri
tyand
accuracyoft hedat a.

Ther
ear efivemaj or/keybusi
nessaccount
ingact
ivi
ti
es/
subs
yst
emsasout
li
nedbel
ow:
i) Cus tomeror derandentry.
ii)Inventorymanagement .
iii
)Gener alledgeraccounti
ng.
iv)Account sreceivabl
e.
v) Account spayable.
vi)Cas hbook.

I
)CUSTOMERORDERSENTRYANDBI LLI
NG
 Usedt or
ecordincomi
ngcus
tomerorder
s,author
izesdel
iver
yofitemsors
ervi
cesor
der
edandpr
oduces
invoi
cesforcus
tomerswhodonotpayinadvanceoroncas hbas
is.

I
I)I
NVENTORYMANAGEMENT
 Usedt okeept
rackoft
hei
temsinst
ockandhelpt
hemanagementdeter
minewhi
chit
emstore-
order
,
hel
pingt
hemanagementt
ohaveenoughst
ocksatal
lti
mestomeettheneedsbycus
tomer
s.

I
II
)GENERALLEDGERACCOUNTI
NG
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 Al
soknownasnomi
nall
edger
.
 Cont
ainsas
ummaryofal
lbus
ines
saccount
si.
e.us
edt
okeept
rackofhowmuchabus
ines
smakesandi
ts
worthinessbys ummarizingthefinancialt
ransact
ionsinformsofbal
ancesheets,prof
itandlos
saccount
,
tr
ialbalance,daybook/journal
,li
s tofaccountsetc.
 I
tpr oducesreportsonincome,s our cesofincome,expensesandthenetprof
itorlossearned.
 Thesummar yreport(
bal ancesheet)i susual
lygenerat
edattheendofanaccount i
ngper i
od.

I
V)ACCOUNTSRECEIVABLE
 Keepstrackofmoneyowedt oacompanybyitscust
omers.
 Thishel
pst hemanagementtomakeafol
lowupbybi l
li
ngthecus
tomersforover
duepayments.
 Anexampl eiswhengoodsaresol
dtoaretai
ler;moneyowedonthesalesisanaccount
srecei
vabl
eit
em
unti
lthepaymentisrecei
ved.

V)ACCOUNTSPAYABLE
 Asyst em t
hatkeepstr
ackoftheamountt
hebus i
nessowesother
se.g.suppl
ier
s,t
axor
gani
zat
ions
,
t
ranspor
tetc.
 Ittheref
orehel
pst hemanagementt
oproducechequesf
orpaymentofthisamount
.

VI
)CASHBOOK
 Usedtorecorddail
ycashtransact
ions.
 Itr
ecordstherecei
ptsandcashpayment s
.
 Thecashbookhast woaccountsi.
e.Acas haccountandthebankaccount
.
 Withthehelpofacashbook ,t
hecas handbankbalancescanbecheckedeas
ily.

2.BANKINGSYSTEMS
 Si ncet heintroductionoft hemagnet i
cencodedchequesi
nt he1960’s,bankshavebecomedependenton
comput ersformanys ervices .
 Thebanki ngi ndus t
rywasoneoft heearl
ies
tcons
umersofinfor
mationandcommuni cat
iont
echnol
ogy.
 Thecomput erizedbanki ngs ervi
cesincl
ude:
i) Pr ocessingcus tomert ransacti
ons.
ii) Chequecl ear i
ngandpr ocessi
ng.
iii
)Electronicf undstransfer.
iv)Internetbanki ng.
v) Mobi lebanki ng.

I
)PROCESSINGCUSTOMERTRANSACTI ONS
 Theyar eusedi nbankstocar r
youtfinancialtr
ansacti
onssuchasrecordi
ngdeposit
s,wit
hdrawalsand
calcul
ati
ngint er
estsons avi
ngsandl oans.
 Reportsareal sogenerat
edont hecur rentstat
usofaccounts.
 Thet r
ansactionsareenteredviaterminals,whichareconnect
edtoacent r
alcomputerf
orcentral
ized
processi
ng.
 ATMsar eus edt ooff
er24hours ervi
cet ocus t
omersandmor efl
exibi
li
tyi
ncas hdeposi
tsandwi t
hdrawal
s.

I
I)CHEQUECLEARINGANDPROCESSI NG
 Comput er
izedchequescleari
ngandpr oces
singi
smadeposs
ibl
eduet
othechar
act
ersonchequespr
int
ed
usi
nginkcontaini
ngmagneticpart
icl
es.
 MI CRenablestheproces
s i
ngofthechequeshencet
imesavi
ng.

I
II
)ELECTRONICFUNDSTRANSF ER(EFT)
 Thi si
sthemovementofmoneybet weent wodiff
erentaccount
sus i
ngICT,us
ingacashdispens
er.
 Theamountwi thdr
awnbyacus tomerisdeductedfrom his/
heraccount
.
 Cr edi
tcardsareal
sousedwhenpayi ngforgoodsands ervi
ceswherepaymentist
ransf
err
edelect
roni
cal
ly
f
rom thecust
omersaccountt
ot hereci
pient
saccount.

I
V)I
NTERNETBANKI
NG(
e-banki
ng)

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 Enabl
esuserst
oaccessthei
rbankaccountst
hrought
hei nt
ernet.
 Theusercanquer
yaccountstat
ements,paybi
ll
sandtransf
erfundsel
ect
roni
cal
ly.

V)MOBI
LEBANKING( m-banki
ng)
 Anaccountholderi
nabankcanper f
orm banki
ngtransact
ionsusi
nghi s/
hermobil
ephone.
 Thetrans
acti
onsmayi ncl
udecas
ht r
ansf
ers,sett
li
ngbill
select
ronical
lyandperf
ormi
ngaccountquer
ies.
 Mobil
ephonecompani esli
keSaf
ari
com suppor
telectr
oniccashtransf
erservi
ceswit
hthei
rM- Pes
aservi
ce.

3.RETAILSYSTEMS
 Usedi ns uper market s,distr
ibutorout l
etsandot hersf or:
i) Stockcont rol.
ii
) Trans actionshandl i
ngatt heEPOST.
I
)STOCKCONTROL
 St ockcont rolori nvent orycontrolenabl esaus ertomanagehi s/herstockmor eef f
ici
entl
ybykeepingt r
ack
ofthes tocks .
 Accur ateandup- to-dateinformat i
ononavai l
abi l
it
yofs tocksanddemandar ecr it
icalforbus
inesssuccess.
 I tenablesonet or educet her i
skofunders tockingorover s
t ockingi.
e.overstockingtiesupvaluabl
es pace
andcapi talthatcoul dhavebeenus edforot herval uabl eit
emswhi l
eunders tockingcausescustomer
dissat
isfacti
on.
 St ockcont rols ystemsar ethereforeus edfort hef ollowingr easons :
a) Stor i
ngf ulldet ail
soft heitemshel di ns t
ocki .e.i mmedi atelyavail
able.
b) Provi ngus erswi t
hup- to-dateinformationr egar dings t
ocki temsandpr i
ces .
c) Moni t
orings tockl evelss othatitemscanbeor der edingoodt ime.
d) Stor i
ngdet ail
sofs uppli
ersofs tocki t
ems .
e) Stor i
ngdet ail
sofpendi ngor ders.

I
I)POINT-OF -
SALETERMI NAL( P-OST,E-POST)
 Usedt oinputandout putdataatt hepoi ntwher es alesar etr
ansact
ed.
 I thasdi r
ectdat acapturingdeviceslikebarcoder eader s
,cardreader
s,amonitorandar eceiptpri
nter,
wheregoodsar eidenti
fi
edbymeansofbarcodes .
 Tr ansacti
onsatt heP-OSTmayi nvolvet hef ol
lowings teps:
a) TheBCR( wand)i spassedovert hei tem’ sbarcode.
b) Thebar codei sautomati
call
yconver tedt othei t
em numbere. 2.21
60,whichisreadtot hecomput er
.
c) Us i
ngt henumber ,thecomput ers ear chesforthei tem fr
om amasterf
il
ewithacor r
es pondingnumber
i
nt hepr oductsdatabase.
d) Oncet her ecordisfound,it
sdes criptionandpr i
cel ookupfi
leisusedf
orprocessi
ngthes al
e.

Advant
ages:
a) Correctpri
cesareus
edatt hecheckoutcount
er.
b) Iti
sf as
tersincet
heatt
endantdoesnothavet oent
erdet
ail
smanual
ly.

4.RESERVATIONSYSTEMS:
 Thesear edistri
butednetwor kedsystemsthatareus edmai nl
ytomakebooki ngsinareassuchasair
li
nes,
hotel
s,car-rental
,theatersetc.
 Booki ngsaremadef rom ar emoteterminalconnectedtoacent ral
izedcomput erdat
abase.
 Toaccesst hedat abase,acus tomermakesenqui r
iesvi atheremotet er
minalconnectedtothecent
ral
comput er
.
 I ti
nvolvesonlineenqui r
ywher eanindi
vidualdi
rectlyrequest
sfori nf
ormati
ont hr
oughat er
minalf
rom a
centr
alcomput erandr eceivesani mmediaterespons e.

5.EDUCATI
ONALSYSTEMS
 Computersareplayi
ngani ncreas i
nglyimport
antr
olei
neducat
ionali
nst
it
uti
onsi
nthef
oll
owi
ngways
:
i) ComputerAidedInst
ruction(C.A.I
.)
ii) ComputerAidedLearning.
iii
) El
ect
ronicLearni
ng(e-learning)
.
iv) ComputerbasedSimulation.

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I
)COMPUTERAI DEDI NSTRUCTION( C.
A.I
.)
 Referstotheus eofacomput ertolearn,dr i
llandpr act
iceparti
cul
areducationalpri
ncipl
es.
 Itentai
lsl
earningnewl anguages,educationalgames ,t
ypingtut
or’sprogr
amset c.
 Inageographymap,t hestudentmus tprovidet henamesofci ti
es,mountainr anges,namesofr
iver
s,l
akes
etc.
 Abi ol
ogys t
udentmaybeas kedtonameorpos it
ioninter
nalorgans,musclesorbonesi napict
ureoft
he
humanbody.

I
I)COMPUTERAI DEDLEARNI NG(C.A.L.)
 Itpresentseducati
onalmateri
alst hewayat eacherdoesinacl
assroom.
 MostCALpr ogramshavecleargr aphi
calpr
es entat
ionss
uchasvideocli
psandvoi
cef
ordemons
trat
ingor
expl
aini
ngdiff
icul
tconcept
s.

I
II
)ELECTRONI CLEARNI NG( e-l
earning)
 Thi siswher elect ur
esar epresent edfr
om acent ralsiteandt hepr es
entati
onist r
ansmi
tt
edtoremote
conferencet er
mi nalsordispl
ayedonTVs creens.
 Thel earnercanal soaccesslear ni
ngmat erial
sont heI nter
net ,si
tforonli
neexamsandr ecei
veresul
tst
he
sameway,al soknownasComput erBas edTr aini
ng( CBT)andWebBas edTr ai
ning(WBT)sys
tems.
 Someoft hekeybenef i
tsare:
a) Lear ningti
mei sreduced,thor oughandcons istent.
b) Ins t
antavailabil
ityofcoursesatanyt ime.
c) El i
minatestheneedf orclassroom instructors
.
d) Mi nimizestraveltime,cos t
sandt i
meawayf r
om t hewor kplace.
e) Lear nersdonotneedt ogophys i
callytoacol lege.

I
V)COMPUTERBASEDSI MULATI ON
 Referstot hes ci
enceofr epresent i
ngthebehaviourofar eal–li
fes
ituationbyus ingcomputeri
zedmodel
s.
 Simulationprogramsar emos tl
yus edineducati
onalar easwher epr
acticals ki
ll
shavetobel ear
ntli
ke
tr
ainingdr i
vers,pil
ots,engineer setchavetobei nstructedusingavirtualenvironment.
 Satel
litetechnologyandt heI nternetareusedtopr ovidequalit
yeducationalcontentfr
om al
lovertheworl
d
atanaf for
dablecos t
.
 Cours esands eminarsarebeamedbys at
ell
it
eonl arges creenproj
ectors ,TVmoni t
orsorcomputers.
 Studentsinteractwiththei nstr
uct or
sinreal-
ti
meus i
ngphone,f axande- mail
.

6.COMMUNI CATIONSYSTEMS
 Communi cat
ionr efer
stothedist
ri
but i
onofi nf
ormationordatafr
om oneper s
onorl ocati
ontoanother.
 Ef f
ect
iveandef f
icientdat
acommuni cati
oni sachievedbyus eofhigh-speedelect
ronicdevicessuchas
computers,cel
l-
phones ,radi
osandt el
evision.
 Thei ntegrat
ionofcomput eri
zedcomput erdevicesandtelecommuni cat
ioninf
rast
ructureforthepurpos
eof
communi cat
ionisr ef
err
edt oasi
nformat i
onandcommuni cat
iontechnology.

Examplesofcommuni cationsys
temsar
e:
i) Facsimil
e( Fax)
ii) Radio.
iii
) Televis
ions et.
iv) Videoconf erenci
ng.
v) Telecommut ing.
vi) I
nt er
net.

I
)FACSIMILE(FAX)
 Acomput er
izedsys
tem t
hati
scapabl
eoftrans
mit
ti
ngcompl
eteimagesfrom onelocat
iont
oanot
hervi
a
tel
ephonelines
.
 Di gi
tali
magescanbet r
ansmi
ttedi
naeros
paceprogr
amsint
odigi
talcodethatcanbeunderst
oodby
computers.

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 27
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
 Thei
magesincl
udepict
ures,gr
aphs,dr
awi
ngs,photogr
aphs
,signat
uresort ext
.
 Copi
esofdocument
saretransmit
tedel
ect
roni
cal
lyandthedupli
cat
er ecei
vedatther
eci
pient
’smachi
ne
i
.e.canber
efer
redt
oasdi
stantphot
ocopyi
ng.
 Tosendf
axovert
hei
nter
net
,as
peci
almodem cal
ledaf
axmodem i
sat
tachedt
othes
endi
ngand
receivi
ngcomput ers.
Advantagesoff
acs i
milecommuni cat
ions:
a) Theabilit
ytot ransmitani mageoverl ongdistancesislessthan1
0s econds.
b) Theabilit
ytoconf ir
mt hereceiptofat ransmissionquickl
y.
c) Lowcos tforhigh-volumeoper ations.
d) Ther ei
sguar anteeds ecuri
ty–t het r
ans mit
tedimagei ssentasadi gi
ti
zedcode(whichcanbe
scr
ambled)ratherthanaus ablepicture.
e) Convenience–t heabilit
ytos t
oret her esul
tantimageonacomput erfi
leins
teadofapi
eceofpaper
.

I
I)RADI
OCOMMUNI CATION
 Comput erscanbeus edinradiobr oadcast
ingstati
onst odot hef ol
lowi
ng:
a) Recordandmanager adioprogr ammesmeantf orbroadcas t
ing.
b) Managet heradiotransmissi
onandt r
ackper f
ormance.
c) Automatether unni
ngoft hes elect
edpr ogr
ammes .
d) Creat
es li
des,simulatedobjectsands oundeffectswhenpr epari
ngelect
roni
candpri
ntedmedia
advert
isements.
e) Downloadinfor
mat i
onf r
om Internetthatcanbeus edinpr epari
ngprogrammessuchasint
ernat
ional
news.

I
II
)TELEVISIONSETS
 Dat aori nf
ormationistrans
mit
tedvi
aaTVchannelandt
hemos
tcommont
ypesofdat
atr
ans
mit
tedvi
aTV
incl
ude:
a) Teletext(ceefax)
b) Videotext(viewdata)
c)

a)Teletext
 Ref erstoacomput eri
zeds ervi
cewher ebynewsandot
herinf
ormati
onareprovi
dedont
het
elevi
sion
screenst osubscr
iber
s.
 TheTVi sconfi
gur
edus i
ngas pecialadd-oncar
doradapt
er.
 Thesubscr i
bercanbrows eforinformat i
onusi
ngaremotecont
rol
leddevi
ce.
 I tishoweveronewaycommuni cation(simpl
ex)
.

b)Vi
deotext(viewdata)
 At wowaycommuni cations ervice(hal f
-duplex )overat el
ephonel i
neorcabl eTVchannel.
 Asubscr i
bercani nterac twitht hes ervicepr oviderdat abas eandt heinformati
onisdis
playedonahomeTV
s
creen.
 Videotexisus edinr eservationbooki ngs ,or deringf orgoodsands er
vicesaswellassendinge-
mails
.
 Usersofvi deotexcani nteractwi ththedat abas et opaybi ll
s ,ordergoodsetc.
 Theser vi
cess uppliedt hr oughvi deotextandTel et exts yst
emsi ncl
ude:
 I nf
ormat iononweat her,TVpr ogr ammes ,spor t
ingevent s
,currentnews,holi
dayoppor
tunit
ies
,
air
li
nes chedul esands tockmar ketdat a.
 E- mail–t r
ans missionofel ectroni cmes sagest oot herusers.
 Payi ngbi ll
s,or deringgoodsandpur chas i
ngt i
ckets .

I
V)VI
DEOCONF ERENCI NG
 Referstot heus eofcomput er
s ,adigit
alcamer a,anaudiocapturi
ngequi
pmentandcommuni cati
on
networkst oenabl epeopl
ei ndiff
erentlocati
onst os eeandtalkt
ooneanother.
 Eachpar t
icipant’scomputerisattachedwi t
havi deocamer a(camcor
der)
,speaker
sandami crophone.
 Aper soncant herefor
epart
icipat
ei navirtualconferenceroom.
 Allparti
cipantss eeeachotheront hecomput erscreenasiftheyweresi
tti
nginarealconf
erenceroom.

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 28
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
 Vi
deoconf
erenci
ngi
spopul
ari
nTVbr
oadcas
tings
tat
ionswher
eaf
iel
drepor
teri
nter
act
swi
thnews
cas
ter
s
andinor
gani
zat
ionswheret
opmanager
sindi
ff
erentgeogr
aphi
call
ocat
ionshol
dmeet
ingsvi
atheI
nter
net
ortheor
gani
zat
ionsi
ntr
anet
.

V)TELECOMMUTI NG
 Asi t
uat ionwher eanempl oyeewor ksus uall
yathomeus i
ngacomputerconnectedtothewor kplace
networ k.
 I tisanar rangementi nwhi chempl oyeesus emicrocomputersandmodemst ocommuni catewi t
ht heir
bus i
nes sof f
iceswhi l
et heywor kels ewher e.
 Tel ecommut i
ngt akesadvant ageoft hegr owingcommuni cat
ionnet
workst
or educeunneces saryt ravelt
o
theplaceofwor k,reducingt ravelexpens esandlesss t
ressduetocommutinginconveniencess uchas
traf
fi
cj ams .
 Tel ecommut i
ngmaybepr acti
calfor:
a) Wr i
ter s.
b) Engi neers.
c) Ar chi t
ects .
d) Mot her swiths mallchildren.
e) Handi cappedwor kers.
f) Indi vidualswhos ef i
eldswor kt aket hem farf
rom theoffi
ce.

 Thi
sar
rangementcanal
sobepr
act
icals
inceempl
oyeeswhot
elecommut
e:
a) Mayuselessoff
ices uppl
ieslikephotocopying.
b) Donotoccupyvaluableoffi
ces pace.
c) Donotwastetimecommut ingincars,trainsorbuses.
d) Donotwastetimeconver singidlyorsufferi
ngthepettydi
str
act
ionsofoff
icel
if
e.
VI
)THEINTERNET
 Awor ld–widecomput ernetwor kli
nkingcount l
essthous
andsofcomputernetwor
ksfori
nfor
mat
ion
tr
ansf
erandeff
ici
entcommuni cati
on.
 Someoft heservi
cesavai l
abl
eont heinter
netar e:
a) worl
dwideweb( www)
b) el
ectr
oni
cmai l(e-mail
)

a)Worl
dwi deweb( www)
 Acol l
ecti
onofwebpageshel donwebs erver
s.
 Onecanaccessi nf
ormationusingacomput eroranyot
hercommuni
cat
iondevi
cesuchasamobil
ephone
f
orWAP( wir
elessAppl i
cati
onPr otocol
).
 Acomput erconnectedt otheInternetall
owst heusert
oaccessawi
derangeofinf
ormat
ions
uchasnews,
ent
ert
ainment,banking,reser
vation,businessnews,e-
mail
setc.

b)El
ectr
onicmai l(e-mai
l)
 Fastandef f
icientmeansofs endi
ngandr eceivi
ngmessages,data,f
ilesorgraphics.
 Onceyousubscr ibeforInternetServicesthroughaservi
ceprovider,youcans endorr ecei
vee-mail
stoor
f
rom anyoneconnect edt otheInternetusingacomputeroraWAP–enabl edcell
ularphone.
 Document scanbecr eated,distr
ibuted,fi
led,stor
edanddes t
royedel ect
roni
call
yus i
ngacomputer.
 Auserwi thami cro-
comput erandamodem t ypesamessageandt heni dent
if
iesthemes sager
ecipi
ent
s,
usi
nge-mailaddr esses.

Advantagesofe- mail:
 Youdonotcr eatewr itt
endocument s.
 Youavoi datl eastsomet elephoning,eli
minati
ngbus ysignals
,deal i
ngwi t
hi nter mediates ecr
etari
es,
leavi
ngmes sagesorpl ayi
ng“ telephonetag”i.e.repeatedlymi s
s i
ngeachot hers ’cal
ls.
 Mes sagesaredel iveredmuchf as t
erthanpos t
aldeliverys i
ncet heyares entelect ronicall
yandt her
efor
e
receivednear lyi
ns t
antaneously.
 I nmanyci rcums tances,e-mailisbothcheaperandmor econveni entthanphoni ng.
 Youcant i
me- shi
ftmes sages,i.e.youcans endmes sagestopeopl eindi f
ferentt imezonesevent hough
theymi ghtnotbeawake.
 Youcanmas s -di
stri
butemes sagesus ingcomput eri
zedl i
stsofr eci
pientse.g.s alesrepr esent
ati
ves.
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 29
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
7.I
NDUSTRIALSYSTEMS
 I ndus
tri
alpl
ant ssuchasmot orvehicl
emanufact
ures
,chemi
calpl
ant
s,r
efi
ner
iesandmi
ningpl
ant
sus
e
computersystemsi nthefol
lowingways:
i) Comput erAidedDes ignandManufact
uri
ng
ii
) Simulation.
ii
i) Processcont r
ol.

I
)CADandCAM
1. CAD/CAM i sani ntegrat eds yst
em thatall
owspr oductsthathavebeendes ignedt obetransmitt
edintoan
automatedmanuf acturings ystem f
orthepr oducttobemanuf actur
edaspert hecomput ermodel.
2. Thecomput ermodeli sdes i
gnedusingspeci als
oftware,usuall
ycapableofdi spl
aying3Dr epres
entati
onsof
sol
idobject s,whichal l
owst hedes i
gnertovi ewtheobj ectfr
om diff
erentanglesandmodi f
ythedes i
gnunti
l
iti
ss ati
sfactory.
3. TheCADsof twarewi llof t
engener atea3Dvi ewfrom aplan,sideelevati
onandf rontelevati
onoftheobject
.
4. Thefinaldes igncant her eforebeus eddirectlyt
ocr eatemanufacturi
nginformationandt oprovi
de
inf
ormationonquant iti
esofmat eri
alsrequiredtopr oducethei t
em.

CADhardware:
a) agraphi
csworkst
ati
onthatall
owsthedesi
gnert
oint
eract
ivel
ycreat
eadrawing.
b) Ahighresol
uti
onscreen(di
spl
ay)toshowdrawi
ngsi
ncolourandinfi
nedet
ail.
c) Fas
tprocess
orswithagreatdealofmemory.

USESOFCADANDCAM SYSTEMS:
a) Engi
neeri
ngdes ignsforroads,chemicalpl
ants,machi
nepar t
s,ai
rcr
aft
s,car
setc.
b) Patt
erndesignforclothi
ng,archit
ect
uraldesignandkit
chendes i
gn.
c) Roboti
csforcarryi
ngoutas semblyli
neoper ati
ons
,welding,l
if
ti
ngheavyobject
s,spr
aypai
nti
ngof
vehi
clebodiesetc.

I
I)I
NDUSTRI ALSI MULATI ON
 Comput ers imul ationi sthedes igningofmodel sofanact ualort heoreticalphys icalsys t
em,andanal yzi
ng
theexecut ionout putus ingdigitalcomput er s.
 Thi sallowss omeact ivit
iesthatwoul dot her wisebeexpens iveanddanger ousi nr ealli
fes i
tuati
ontobeput
undert es t.
 I tenablesmanuf acturersidentif
ys omeoft heweaknes sesoft her ealsituati
onorobj ect
,henceputt he
correctr einf orcementt otheirdes i
gns .
 Anexampl ei showmot orvehicless eatbel tsar et estedf ort heiref f
ecti
venes sincas eofacarcr ash.
 Thegener alnameofus ingcomput ermodel si ns uchci r
cums tancesi sknownasnon- destructi
vetesting
(NDT) .
 Comput ers imul ationi swidelyus edi nvar iousar easofhumanendeavourands omeoft heappl i
cati
ons
incl
ude:
a) i navi ationwher ecomput ersar eus edf ortrainingpilots ,wher eapi lotfeelsasi fhewer econtrolli
ngan
actualai rcraft.
b) I nengi neer ing,model sares i
mul atedt ot estper formanceundervar i
ouscondi ti
onse. g.thes t
rengthof
mat erialt obeus edf orbuildingabr i
dgecanbet estedus ings imulat or
s.
c) I nmedi cine,s imul ati
oncanbeus edt ot rai
ndoct orsonoper ationtechni ques .
I
II
)PROCESSCONTROL
 Ref erst ot heus eofacomput ers ys t
em t ocont rolanongoi ngphys i
calpr oces ses pecial
lyinmanuf acturi
ng.
 Suchcont r olsmayi ncluder egulati
ngt emper at
ur e,pressur e,fluidf l
owet c.
 Comput erizedpr oces scontrolismos tlyus edi npet r
oleum r efineries,chemi calplantsandot her
manuf actur ingcompani estomanagemachi nei ntensivepr oces s
es .

8.SCI
ENTI
FICANDRESEARCHSYSTEMS
 Computershaveawidevari
etyofappl
icat
ionsi
nsci
ence,r
esear
chandt
echnol
ogy,s
omeofwhi
char
e:
i
) Weatherf
orecas
ting
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 30
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
i
i) Medicalr
esearch
i
ii
) Mi
li
taryands paceexpl
orat
ions
cience.

I
)WEATHERF ORECASTI NG
 Comput er shel panalyzecur rentweather,theyhel ppr edicttheimpendi
ngweat her,andt heyhel pcr eate
thevi s
uali magesus edforbr oadcastTV.
 Duet ot hel argevolumeofdat acoll
ectedfr om rainfal
l,airpressur
e,humidity,temper at
ure,wi nds peedand
cloudcover ,comput ershelpi nanal
yzing,pr ocessingandpr edicti
ngweatherpat ternsusings uchdat a.
 Anotherappl i
cati
onofcomput ersi
nweat herf orecas t
ingistheus eofgeographicalinfor
mat i
ons ys
t em (GIS)
andt hegeogr aphicalposit
ioningsystem (GPS)whi chr epresentgeogr
aphicaldatai ngraphicalform by
pos i
ti
oningands uperimposingitonthewor ldmap. /
 GISi sus edt orepres entdataonweat herpat ternsi nacl ear
erandacoher ent /
logicalmanneronawor l
d
map.

I
I)MEDICALRESEARCH
 Medi calautomationoff
ersgreatassi
stancei
nt hear easofaut omat
icdiagnosis,electr
ocardiogram
screeningandmoni tor
ing.
 Heal thprofessi
onalsusecomputerstechnol
ogyf ordiagnosis
,keepingpatients’data/records,inventory
controletc.
 Comput ersarealsobeingus edt
ocont r
oldevicesthathelpt ocareforthehandi cappeds uchast hedeaf ,
bli
nd,bedr i
ddenetc.
 Adoct orneedingspecial
izedopi
nionscannoweas i
lyr et
ri
eves uchinfor
mat i
onf rom comput erstorage.
 Comput ersals
oal l
owacces stoexpensiv
eforeignexper t
iseforhospit
alsinonecount rytous econs ul
tant
s
orevens urgeonsinanot her
.

I
II
)POLI CEMI LI
TARYANDSPACEEXPLORATI ONSCI ENCE
 Comput ersar eusedinfighti
ngcr ime.
 Pol icear enowabl etokeepdat abas esoff ingerpr intswhi chareaut omaticall
yanalyzedbycomput ers.
 Comput erbas edfacerecognitionands cenemoni tor i
ngandanal ysishel pthepoliceforceinl eadi
ngt o
arrestofof fendersandcr i
minal s.
 I ndef ense,comput ersareus edi nel ectr oni c
,ef f
icientcommuni cation,det ect
ionandt r
acki
ngoft argets
,
radars ystems ,warni
ngs ystemsandmi litaryl aserandgui dedmi s s
iles ystems.
 Comput ertechnologyisthebackboneofs paceexpl orat
ions.
 Fr om s tudyingthemovementofs tars ,s urfaceofmar s,wer elyheavi lyoncomput ers.
 Spaceexpl orati
onsandmi li
taryr es ear chbodi ess uchasAmer ica’snat i
onalaer onauticsands pace
admi nistr
ation(NASA)makeext ens iveus eofcomput ers yst
emsf orr es
ear ch,design,developmentand
cont r
olofunmanneds paceships ,aer opl anesandmi ssi
les.

9.LI
BRARYSYSTEMS
 Librar
iesus ecomput er
izeds ystemsf
oranumberoft
askse.
g.
i
) Lendings yst
em.
i
i) Inventorycontr
ols ys
t em.
i
ii
) Cataloguingsystem.

I
)LENDINGSYSTEM:
 Usedt omanagetheissuanceandr et
urnofborrowedreadingmateri
als
.
 Books,magazines,j
ournal
s,report
setcaregivenuniqueident
if
icat
ionnumbersorcodes
.
 Onceamemberbor rowsabook ,his/
herdet
ailsarerecor
dedandwhent hebooki
sretur
ned,t
he
bor
rower
’srecordisupdatedtorefl
ectt
henews t
atus.

I
I)I
NVENTORYCONTROL:
 Invol
vesus
eofcomputerstomanagestock,whichi
ncl
udeschecki
ngf
orbookscur
rent
lyi
nthes
hel
vesand
t
hoseonhighdemandfort
hepurposeofaddingmore.

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 31
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
 Bookst
hathavebecomeobs
olet
ecanber
eti
redt
othear
chi
ves
.

I
II
)CATALOGUI NG
 Acat alogueisacoll
ect
ionofcardswithinf
ormati
onabouteachbookorreferencematerial
sfoundinthe
li
brar
y.
 Toenhanceser vi
cedeliver
yandef f
ici
ency,computer
izedcat
alogui
nghasreplacedthemanualcards
catal
ogue.
 Anel ectroni
ccat
alogueisupdat
edcons t
antlywhennewr ef
erencemater
ial
sar eacqui
red.

1
0.ENTERTAINMENTSYSTEMS
 Theadvancementinmul t
imedi
atechnol
ogyhasproducedcomputer
sthatcanbeus
edi
nrecr
eat
ionaland
ent
ert
ainment.
 Someappl i
cati
onareasofcomput
ersinrecr
eat
ionandentert
ainmenti
nclude:
i
) Games.
i
i) Musicandvideo.

I
)GAMES
 Digi
talvi
deodi
sks(DVDs)and3Dmulti
mediagamesar enowus edtoaddst
ereos oundanddi
git
alvi
deo
cl
ipstomakegamesmor eandmorer
eali
sti
c.
 Therearecomput
ergamest hats
imul
atesport
ss uchasdri
ving,warcombatetc.
 Suchgamesgivetheplayermaxi
mum pl
easureinav i
rt
ualenvironmentont
hes creen.

I
I)MUSI CANDVI DEO
 Vi deocompactdi s
cs(VCD)anddi git
alvideodi sks(DVDs )havebecomeacommonf eatur
ei nthe
entertainmentindus t
ry.
 I nmus i
cindustry,computersareus edinr ecording,s
ynt hesi
zing,editi
ngandaddi
ngs pecialeff
ectsto
mus i
c.
 I nvideo,comput ersareusedtopr oducehi ghlysimul
atedandani matedmovies
,generates cenesand
actors.
 Manyspeci aleffectsarebeingcreatedbyus ingcomput ergraphicstechni
questoproduceani mated,3D
images .

1
1.TRANSPORTATI ONSYSTEMS
 Comput er
spl ayani ncreasi
ngl
yimpor
tantr
olei
ntr
ans
por
tat
ioni
ndus
tryi
nthef
oll
owi
ngar
eas
:
i) Automobi l
et r
affi
ccont
rol
.
ii
) Airtraff
iccontrol
.
ii
i) Shippingcontrol.

I
)AUTOMOBI LETRAF FI
CCONTROL
 Opti
mum ut i
lizationorr oadcapaci t
yisachievedbygoodcoor dinati
onoft raf
fi
cs i
gnals .
 Traf
fi
ccont roll i
ghtsar econt rolledusi
ngacomput ers ystem.
 Comput erizedt raff
icli
ghts ys
temshaves ens orpadsl aidunder neathther oadwhi chdet ectt
hepatt
ernof
thetraf
ficflow.
 Comput erscant henbeus edt oautomaticall
ygener ateandi mplementt raf
ficsi
gnalpl ans.
 Dataiscol lect ed,s enttoacomput ersystem whi chdet ectsandanal ysesthet r
aff
icflowandbui l
dsupa
simul
atedi mageoft heact ualscene.
 Controlsignal scant henbeout puttothet r
affi
clightsormot ori
s t
sthrought heirreceiverdevi
cestovar
y
theli
ghtt imi ngsorr edirecttraffict
olessbus yr oads.

I
I)AIRTRAF FI
CCONTROL
 Geogr aphicalposi
tioningsystem ( GPS)i sacomput ert
echnologythati susedt odirectair
cr af
tstofol
low
theshortestpathbet weentwol ocations .
 Ai rtr
affi
ccontrol
lersar eusedt ocoor dinatethemovementoft hous andsofaircraf
t,keepingt hem atsafe
dist
ancesf r
om eachot her,di
r ectingt hem dur i
ngtake-
offandlandingf rom ai
rports
,directingthem around
badweat herandens ur i
ngthatt raff
icflowss moothlywit
hmi nimaldel ays.
 Det ail
sofever yf
lightplan(ai
r l
inename,f l
ightnumber,typeofaircraftandequi pment,intendedairspeed,
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crui
singat
tit
udeandf l
ightr
outes)ar est
oredinacomputer.
 Thecomputergener at
esanfli
ghtpr ogr
essstr
ipthati
spassedfr
om contr
oll
erthroughoutthefli
ght
.
 Allsyst
emswi t
hinthecontr
oltoweral s
omakeext ens
iveuseofmicr
oprocessor
st otrackair
craf
tsand
conveyinf
ormationbetweendif
ferentcontr
oltowersi
ndif
fer
entairs
paces.

I
II
)SHIPPINGCONTROL
 Comput ersarewidel yus edtocontrolandguidethepathstakenbys paceshi
psandwatervessel
sasthey
tr
aveltodi st
antlands .
 Theusei fIthasper meat edintotheshippi
ngindust
ryforeff
ici
entmanagementoft hef
leet
s,cargo
handli
ng,communi cationandmuchmor e.
 Shi psalsomakeext ens i
veus eofcomputerandcommuni cati
onstechnologi
esandmoderns hi
pshave
sophis
ticatedmicropr ocessorbasedcontrols
ystemsforsteeri
ngthes hip.

1
2.HOMEUSE
 Mostpeopl earenowusingcomputersathomeforprepar
ingdomes t
icbudgets,ent
ert
ainment
,res
ear
ch
andteachi
ngchil
drenoneducati
onconcepts,t
ypi
ngandpr i
nti
ng,e-mail
,inter
netetc.
 Al s
ous edfors
tori
ngpersonali
nfor
mationanddat
abasesofinvent
oryrecords.

1
3.OF F
ICEEXPERTSYSTEMS
 Ani nf
ormationsyst
em usual
lydevelopedandinst
all
edintheoff
iceofahumanexper torknowledgeworker
.
 Suchasyst em i
scapableofsimulati
ngthedecis
ionmakingprocessandi
ntell
igentpr
oblem sol
uti
onjus
t
l
ikeahumanexper t.
 Italsohasas etofrul
esthathel
pi ttomakeconclusi
onwhens omeparametersareentered.

1
4.MARKETI
NG
 Computersarebeingus edinanumberofwayst oenhancemarketi
ng,thr
ough:
i) E-
commer ceore- bus iness.
ii
) El
ectr
onicpr es
ent at
ions .
ii
i) Adver
tis
ing.
 Marketi
ngi st
hepl anning,pricing,promot
ionanddi
str
ibut
ionofgoodsandservi
cesf
rom pr
oducer
sto
consumers

I
)E-
COMMERCE/E- BUSINESS
 Transacti
onsarecar ri
edoutel ectr
onicall
ywithoutphysi
calinteracti
onbet weent hesell
erandt hebuyer.
 Acust omercanvi si
tas uppli
er’swebs i
te;sel
ectani t
em andpl acingitinavirtualshoppingtray.
 Thewebsi tethent r
acksthewhol es essi
onast hecustomerchoos esvariousit
emsandcal cul
atesthetotal
bil
l.
 Paymenti sthenmadet hroughacheque,cr editcardorthroughel ectr
onicfundst r
ansferandt heit
em is
subsequentlyshippedtot hecus t
omer .

I
I)ELECTRONI CPRESENTATI ON
 Mar keti
ngagent scanus ecomput er
stocr eat
eexciti
ngpresentati
onsconcer
ningtheproduct
sofa
bus i
nes sandpr esentthem t
ot heaudienceusingpresent
ati
ons of
tware.
 El ectronicpresentat
ionsbyus eofsli
det r
ansi
tionsaddvaluetotradi
ti
onalmarket
ingt
echniquesbecaus
e
theyar eat t
racti
ve.

I
II
)ADVERTI SING
 Usi ngs imul ation,present
at i
onandani mati
ons oftware,i tispos s
iblet odes igncatchyadvertmaterial
sand
videocl ips.
 Suchmat erial
scant henbedi spl
ayedonbi l
lboards,broadcas t
edoverat el
evis
ionorplacedont he
inter
net .
 Comput erscam al sobeus edinmar ketanal
ys i
swhi chf ocus esons uchmat t
ersast heproductl
if
ecycle,
saless trategies ,marketshareofcompet i
torsands al
escal lst
rategies .
 Sal esanal ysisisus edtopr ovi
deinformat
iononwhi chpr oductsar es el
lingwellandwhi charesell
ing
poorly,whi chs alespeopl
ehavet hebestandwor stsalesandwhi chs alespeoplear esell
ingthemos tand
theleas tet c.
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1
5.VIRTUALORARTI FICIALREALI TY
 VRorARr efer
st oacondi ti
oni nwhichaper sonbecomesps ychol
ogi
call
yimmer s
edi nanart
if
ici
al
envir
onmentgener atedbyacomput ersystem.
 Itisawayf orhumanst ovisuali
ze,manipulateandi nt
eractwit
hcomputersandext r
emelycomplexdat
a.
 Ot hertermsus edi nsteadofVRar ecyber space,vir
tualworl
dsandvirt
ualenvir
onment .
 Toachi evet hi
seffect,thefollowi
nginteracti
ves ensoryequi
pmentareus ed:
i
) Headmount eddispl
ay/headgear .
i
i) Gloves.
i
ii
) Bodys ui
t.
i
v) Vi
r t
ualrealit
ys of
tware.

I
)HMD/headgear
 Iti
smadeupoft wotinydisplayscreensands ounds ys
temst hatchannelimagesands oundfrom t
he
sour cet
ot heeyesandear sthuspres ent
ingas tereo3Ds oundeffectinthevirt
ualworld.
 Itus essomes ortofhel metvisororgoggl estopl acesmal
lvideodi spl
aysinfrontofeacheye,withspeci
al
opticstofocusands t
retcht heperceivedfiel
dofvi ew.
 Aboom i sanal ternat
ivet otheoften–uncomf ort
ableheadgear .
 Screen,opt i
calands ounds ystemsar ehous edinaboxandt heus erlooksint
ot heboxt hr
oughthetwo
screenst oseet hevirtualworld.

I
I)GLOVES
 Thesearewornonhandst oal
lowtheus ert
onavigat
ethr
oughthevir
tualwor
ldandint
eractwi
thvirt
ual
obj
ect
s.
 Thegloveshavesensor
sthatcol
lectdat
aaboutthemovementofthehandsandrel
aysthedataint
ot he
sys
tem.
 Theygivethewearerasenseoftouchinthevi
rt
ualworl
d.

I
II
)BODYSUI T
 Abodysui t,wornduringvi
rtualr
eali
tyses si
oni smadeupofconductorwi r
eswoundi narubbers ui
t.
 Thewi ressenset hebodymovementandr elaysthedataint
othevir
tualreali
tys
ystem whichinturn
adj
uststhepos i
ti
onoftheuserinthevirtualreali
tyworl
d.
 Fullbodysuitswithposi
ti
onandbends ensor shavebeenusedforcaptur
ingmotionforcharact
er
ani
mations,contr
olofmusicsynt
hesizersetc.

I
V)VI
RTUALREALITYSOF TWARE
 VRsoftwaresuchasbodyelectr
icgivesthewearerofthes ens
orydevicesanint
eract
ivevi
rt
uals
ens
ory
exper
iencethatmakeshim/herfeelasifhe/
sheisinar ealworl
d.
 Thesoftwarei
sresponsi
bleforsimulat
ionofal
laspect
soft hevir
tualr
eali
tyworl
d.

APPLICATIONOFVI RTUALREALI TY
 Usedt opr esentany3Dobj ectori deast hatareei t
herr ealorabs tract.
 Realobj ectsincludebui l
dings ,lands cape,underwat ers hi
pwr ecks,s pacecraft
s ,humananat omy,s culpt
ures,
crimes cener econs tructi
on,s olars ystem etc.
 Ahousecanbesi mul atedbef oret heact ualbuil
dingi sphys i
callyset up–scl i
entcanbeal lowedt ovi rt
uall
y
movet hr ought hehous e,pul ldr awer sandt ouchobj ectsallinacomput ergeneratedenvir
onment .
 I nentertainment ,trainingi nar eass uchasmedi cine,mi li
tary,equipmentoper ati
ons,education,design
evaluati
on,pr ototyping,s i
mul ati
onandas semblyofs equences ,assistancetot hephysi
call
ychal l
engedet c.

1
6.LAW ENF ORCEMENTSYSTEMS
 Bi ometri
canal
ysi
susingcomputersisbecomi ngapr ef
erredtooli.
e.dealswitht
hes t
udy,meas
urement
andanalysi
sofhumanbiol
ogicalcharacteri
sti
cs.
 Bi ometri
cdevi
cesatt
achedtoacomput erareus edt
oi denti
fypeoplebyrecogni
zingoneormorespeci
fi
c
attr
ibut
essuchasfi
ngerpr
int
s,voice,lips,f
acialf
eat
ureslikeir
iscolouretc.
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 Someoft
hedevi
cesi
ncl
udevi
deocamer
asandbi
omet
ri
cscanner
s.

PERSONALNOTES

I
MPACTOFINF
ORMATI
ONTECHNOLOGY
ONSOCI
ETY
I
SSUESRESULTI NGF ROM THEUSEOFI CT
Animpacti sapos it
iveoranegat i
veeff
ect
.ICTs
ect
or,l
ikeanyot
hers
ect
orhasi
tspos
iti
veandnegat
ive
eff
ect
satdi ff
erentlevelsinsociet
y.
1. Eff
ectsonempl oyment.
2. Eff
ectsonaut omat edproducti
on.
3. Is
suesofwor kers’healt
h.
4. Environmentalissues
5. Culturalef
fects.
6. BreakthroughinI CT.

1. EFFECTSONEMPLOYMENT:
Theintroducti
onofcomputer
sint hewor kplacehasres
ult
edi
nthef
oll
owi
ng:
a) Creationofnewjobs.
b) Replacementofcomputeril
li
teratewor kers.
c) Displacementofj
obsthatweref ormerlymanual.

A. JOBCREATI ON:
 I thasi
ntroducednewempl oymentopportuniti
esthatneverexist
edbef ore.
 Theus eofcomput er
sinfinanciali
nst
it
utions,reser
vati
ons yst
ems ,educationalins
tit
uti
ons ,
communicati
onsetc.hascreatednewj obtit
lessuchascomput eroperators ,progr
ammer s,network
admini
str
ators,I
torISmanager s,dat
abas eadminis
trat
ors,sof
twaredevel opers,system anal
ystset
c.
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B. JOBREPLACEMENT:
 Thisi
sas ituati
onwherebycertai
njobsdisappeari
nanor gani
zat
ionbutreappeari
nanotherfor
mr equi
ri
ng
hi
ghski
ll
edmanpower .
 Someclericalandrepeti
ti
vetasksthatrequi
redalargenumberofemployeeshavebeenmader edundant.
 Computerilli
ter
atepeoplehavebeenr epl
acedwiththos
ewhohavet hedes i
redcomput
ers ki
ll
s.

C. JOBDI SPLACEMENT:
 Anempl oyeeismovedt oanot
herplaceordepart
mentwherecomputerski
ll
sarenotrequi
red,es
pecial
ly
thosenotwilli
ngtoacquir
enews ki
ll
sofusi
ngt hecomput
eri
zedsystem.
 Toavoi dlosingcompetentempl
oyees,mostemployer
sorgani
zein-
servi
cetrai
ningf
orthei
remployeeson
regul
arbas i
sinordertohelpt
hem keepupwi t
htherapi
dchangesinICT.

2. EFFECTSONAUTOMATEDPRODUCTI ON:
 Refer st
os ubst
itut
ingmechani calandel ect
ronicdevicesformanualonesf ormor eproduct i
vit
yi .
e.theuse
ofmechanical
,electri
calandelectronicdevicestoi mprovethequalit
yands peedofof fi
cewor k.
 Anumberofmanuf acturi
ngindustri
ess uchasvehi cleassemblyplant
s,oilrefi
neriesandf oodpr ocess
ing
companiesareus i
ngcomput erstoaut omatet hei
rpr ocesseswithanaim ofincreasi
ngpr oduction.
 Comput ercontroll
edr obotsandas semblylinesareacommonf eat
ureinmanuf acturi
ngindus tr
ies.

ADVANTAGESOFUSI NGAUTOMATEDPRODUCTI ON:

a) Increasedef fi
ciencyduet othebalancingofworkl
oadandpr oducti
oncapaci
ty.
b) Impr ovedcus tomers ervicebecaus eofadequateandhi ghqualit
ygoods
c) Fasterwhi char epr oducedi nti
me.
d) Eff
icientutili
zationofresour cessuchasr awmaterials
,personnelandequipmenthence
e) Les soperat i
ngexpens esincurred.
f) Helpedi nr educt i
onofacci dentsinsectorsl
ikeminingandchemi calpr
oducti
onwheremuchwor
kis
potent i
all
yhazar dous.

DI
SADVANTAGES:
a) Highini
tialcostofsett
ingupanaut omatedsystem.
b) Mayleadt ounemploymentins omeareasthatarelabourint
ens
ive.
c) Possi
blel ackofcompatibi
li
tywithsof
twareandhar dware.
d) Overrel
ianceonaut omateds ys
temsleadstolaziness.
e) Resis
tancet ochange.

REASONSWHYEMPLOYEESMAYRESI STAUTOMATEDSYSTEMS
a) Fearofchange:peopl earecr eaturesofhabitsandhencear eafr
aidofchange.
b) Fearofloos i
ngt heirjobs:peopleus ual
lyassociatethecomputerwit
hl ossofjobsandhencet heywil
lbe
afrai
dthatt heymi ghtendupl oosingtheirj
obs.
c) Fearoff ai
lure:si
ncet hecomput erisverynewi nagi venworki
ngenvironment ,thepeopl ewillbeafr
aid
thattheymi ghtneveradaptt oit.
d) Los sofcontrol:themanagementwi l
lbeaf r
aidthatonceacomput erisimplement edt heymightlose
controloftheor ganizati
on.
e) Lackofunder st
anding:theus ermaynotunder standthebenefi
tsofthecomput ers ys
tem intheirj
obs;
hencet hiswi l
lcreateresist
ances incethecomput erwil
lbel
ookeduponasani ntruder.

3. ISUESOFWORKERSHEALTH
 Someoft henegati
veef f
ectsofI
CTonourheal
thi
ncl
ude:
a) Repetit
iveStr
ainI
njuri
es( RSI
)
b) EyeSt r
ainandHeadaches.
c) Elect
romagneti
cemi s
sions.
d) Stress.
e) Isol
ati
on.

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f
) Radiat
ionandvisualdis
playuni
t.
g) Computerchi
ptoxin.

A. RSI–REPETI
TIVESTRAININJURIES
 Injur
iesr
esul
tingfr
om wri
st,hand,arm andmus
cles
trai
n,necks
trai
nsduet
ofor
cedr
epet
it
ivemovement
e.
g.whenenteri
ngdatausingkeyboard.

RemedyforRSI :
i
) Res t
ing.
i
i) Si
tt
ingi narelaxedposit
ion.
i
ii
)Changi ngtypi
ngt echni
ques.

B. EYESTRAI NANDHEADACHES:
 Si ncecomput eruser
shavet heireyesatcl
oser
angewi
tht
hemoni
tor
,ther
eisdangerofdevel
opi
ng
comput ervis
ionsyndrome( CVS).
 Thes yndromeischaracter
izedby:
i
) Eyestrai
n.
i
i) Headaches.
i
ii
) Doublevisi
on.
i
v) Fat
igue.

Remedi
es:
i) Us emoni torswi t
hgoodr esol
ution.
ii) Fitmoni t
or swi thant i
glares creenst hatfi
ltersexcessli
ght.
iii
) Adjustthebr ightnes soft hescr eentot hei nt
ensityt
hatiscomf
ort
abl
etot
heeyes
.
iv) Us ef
latpanels creenst hatdonotemi tsomanyr adi
ati
ons.
v) Us egoodover headf l
uor escencet ubes .
vi) Avoidf l
ickeringmoni torsandl ighti
ngs yst
ems .
vii) Havei nterludesofr ests.
viii
) Til
tthemoni tor st oaconveni entpos i
ti
on.

C. ELECTROMAGNETICEMMISIONS:
 Thes earewavesofel
ectr
icalandmagneti
cener
gythatareemitt
edbycur
rentcar
ryi
ngconductor
s.
 Us ersareadvi
sedtouselowemi s
siondevi
cesi
nor
dert oavoi
dexposi
ngthemsel
vestoexcessemis
sions
.

D. STRESS:
 Ment alst
ressi
sanothercompl
iant.
 Manypeopl ewhowor katcomputerfeelt
hattheyareexpectedtopr oducemoreanddoi
tfas
terbecaus
e
computerst
hemsel
vesarefast
.
 Al s
ot hos
ebeingmonitor
edbycomput ersfr
equentl
yfeeladdit
ionalpressur
e.

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E. I
SOLATION:
 Peoplecanconductbusines
sandcommuni cati
onwi t
houtevercomi ngfacetoface.
 Comput eroper
ator
scanwor kanentir
eshift
,taki
ngt hei
rins
tructi
onsfrom acomput erscr
een,s
endi
ngand
r
ecei
vingmemost oeachotherelect
roni
cal
lywithoutengagi
ngi npersonalconvers
at i
on.
 Thesepeoplefeeli
sol
atedfrom ot
herworkers.

F
. RADIATIONANDVISUALDI SPLAYUNI
T:
 Therehavebeenreport
sthatVDUemitsr
adi
ati
onst
hatcaus
ebi
rt
hdef
ect
s,bl
indnes
s,cancer
,
miscar
riages
,st
eri
li
tyetc.

G. COMPUTERCHIPTOXI N:
 Wor ker
sincomputerchi
pmanufact
uri
ngi
ndus
tri
esar
eexpos
edt
otoxi
cchemi
cal
sthatmaypos
eheal
th
f
act
orss i
mil
art
othosefear
edfr
om VDU.

ERGONOMI CS:
 Thes ci
enceofdesigningt heworkplaceforthecomf or
tandsafetyoft
hewor ker
.
 Itisthes tudyofhowl i
vingandwor kingcondit
ionscanbeadapt edtot
hei nformati
ontechnol
ogy.
 Theneedf orbett
erwor kingenvir
onmenthasr es ul
tedtodesi
gningofspecialfur
nit
uretoprevent
backaches,andspecialmoni t
orstopreventeyes tr
ainetc.

4. ENVI RONMENTALI SSUES:

i
) Energyconsumpt i
onandr adi
ati
on:
I
niti
all
y,comput er
scons umedal otofenergyt herebygener ati
ngal otofheatandemi tt
ingel ectromagnet
ic
radi
ationswhi charehar mfultotheuser.
Remedy:
 El ect roni
cdeviceshavet obeener gystarcompl iantlaunchedbyt heEnvironmentalPr otecti
onAgency( EPA)
toencour ageminimalus eofpowerbyel ectronicdevi ces.
i
i) Envir
onment alissues:
 Hugegar bagedumpsofdeadcomput erpar t
s,pr i
nters ,i
nktonercar t
ri
dges ,monitorsandot hercomputer
acces sor
iesaredis posedi nl
andfi
ll
shenc ecaus ingenvi ronment alpoll
uti
on.
 Ther ehasbeenconcer nont hedisposalofNi ckel-
cadmi um laptopbat ter
iesthatcont aintoxiccadmium
whi chwhenbur iedi nal andf
il
lcanleakintounder groundwat ert abl
esandcat chmentar eas.

5. CULTURALEF FECTS
i
)Mor alef fect
s:
 Ther apidgrowt hofI CTalsopr esentschall
engest oourmor alandcultur
alvalues .
 ICThaschangedt hewaywet alk,aff
ectedourpr i
vacy,humanr i
ghtsandi nt
egr i
ty.
 Humansar eexpos edtoflamingi .
e.wr i
ti
ngon- l
inemes sagesthatusederogatory,obs ceneordirt
y
l
anguage.
 Onecanacces sandvi ewpor nogr aphi
cmat eri
alsthatcanleadtomor aldecadence.
 Thef r eefl
owofi mmor alinf
ormat ionhasnegat i
velyinf
luencedthebehaviorofbot hyoungandol dint he
societ y.
 Tos omeext end,peoplewi ther odedintegr
ityhaveus edcomput ersasat ooltoaccompl isht
heirvi
cese. g.
f
or gingcer ti
ficat
es ,passport
sandot herdocument s.Thismeanst hatt
heper soni scheatingandtherefor
e
his/hermor alintegri
tyhasbeencompr omised.
 Ont hecont rary,ICThasbeenus edasacampai gnplatf
orm againstdi
seaseslikeAI DSanddr ugabuse.

i
i)Computercr
imes:
 Thisistheuseofcomput
ersof
twar
eforil
legalpur
pos e.
 Comput err
elat
edcri
messuchashacki
ng,eavesdropping,pi
racyar
eont
hei
ncr
eas
e.

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TYPESOFCOMPUTERCRI MES
a) Dat amani pul ation:Ref erst oal teri
ngdat at hatenterorexi tacomput ere. g.changi ngdat aonacer ti
fi
cate.
b) Timebomb:Thi sist hecodi ngofacomput erpr ogram t odes t
r oyitselfaft
eri thasbeenr unacer tai
n
numberoft imes .
c) Comput ervi rus:Apr ogr am ent eredintoacomput erwi tht heai m ofdes tr
oyi ngoral teri
ngdat aand
spr eadingt hedes tructi
ont oot hercomput ersonanet work.
d) Trapdoor :Cr eat i
ngofas pecialpasswor dt hatgivesi t
scr eat oras oleacces st othes ystem.
e) Dat ast ealing:Us ingacomput ertos tealinformationt hathasbeengat heredf orsomeoneel sefor
il
legitimat epur pos e.
f) Eavesdr oppi ng:Tappi ngwi t
houtaut hor i
zationintocommuni cationlinesoverwhi chcomput erdataand
mes sagesar es ent.
g) Indust ri
alespi onage:Us ingcomput ertos tealdes igns,mar ket i
ngpl ansorot hertrades ecret
sf r
om one
companyands ell
ingt hem t oanot hercompany.
h) Piracy:Thi si smaki ngunaut horizedcopi esofcopyr i
ght edcomput ers oft
war e.
i) Fraud:Thi si stheus eofcomput erstocheatot herpeopl ewi tht hei nt
ent i
onofgai ningmoneyor
informat ion.
j) Sabot age:Thi si st hei l
legaldes tr
uctionofdat aandi nformat ionwi tht heai m ofcaus inggr eatlosstoan
organi zation.
k) Logi cbomb:I ti sapr ogram t hatisexecut edwhenacer t
ains etofcondi ti
oni smadee. g.af i
redempl oyee
canl oadal ogicbombt oacomput ert odes troywhenr ecor dsar eupdat edinadat abas e.

BREAKTHROUGHSI NICT:
Ther
ehavebeenal otofbreakthroughsinthefi
eldsof
:
 Heal t
hcar e.
 Educat i
on.
 Communi cat
ion–fax,e-mail,int
ernet
.
 Res earch.
 Commer ce–s hi
ppingimportsandexpor t
s.
 Ar tanddes i
gn.
 Ent er
tainment–mus i
c,video,games .
 Tr ansport.

EVOLUTIONOFCOMPUTERSYSTEMS:
Fut
uretrendsinICTwi l
lbecharact
eri
zedby:
1. Rapidevoluti
onincomputerhardwar
eandsof
twar
e.
2. Arti
fi
ciali
ntel
li
gence.
3. Expandedinformat
ionsuper
highway.

1
. RAPI DEVOLUTI ONI NCOMPUTERHARDWAREANDSOF TWARE
 Al otoftechnol ogicalimpr ovement shavebeenmadebot hinhar dwareands of
twares incetheintroduct
ion
ofcomput er s.
 Comput erswi llbemor ei ntell
igent ,comput er
swillbeablet olearni
nt heirenvironment ,underst
andhuman
voice,respondet c.
 Softwarewi llbemor eversatil
eandeas i
ertouse.
 Thes il
iconr evolutionhass eenr apidincreaseinmicroprocessorspeedsandcapabi li
ti
esduet oadvanced
researchi nthes emi -
conduct ori ndus t
ry.
 Futuret r
endswi l
ls eer eductioni ns izeandcos tofcomponent sbutincreasei ncapabilit
y.
 Improvement sini nput,pr ocessing,s torage,out
putandcommuni cati
ondevi ceshavel edt ofas
ter,cheaper
andmor er eli
abledat apr oces si
ngdevi ces.
 Industri
eswi llbecomemor eaut omat ed.
 Microproces sorsofat humb’ ss izecannowexecut ei
ns t
ructi
onsi natril
li
onthofas econdhencel eadingto
emer genceofs mal lerbuts mar tdevi ces.

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2. ARTIFI
CIALI NTELLI
GENCE( A.
I.):
 Abr anchofcomput ersciencet hatisconcernedwi tht hedevelopmentofmachi nesthat
emulate/copy/mimi
chumanl ikequal i
ti
ess uchasl earning,reasoning,communicat
ing,s eei
ngandhear i
ng.
 Thei deaofAIdevel opedf rom aneedt odevelopcomput erprogramst hatwouldevenchal l
engehuman
bei
ngsi nplayinggamess uchasches sands crabble.
 Comput erscient
ist
sandengi neersares t
illworkinghar dandcar ryingouti
ntensi
ver esearchwit
ht heaim
ofcomingupwi t
hs mattercomput erswhi chcanal mos tsimulat
ehumant hi
nkingandl earni
ng,i
nsteadof
rel
yingons t
ati
cprogrammedi nstruct
ions.
 Ther ear e4mai nappli
cationar easofAInamel y:

a) Experts yst
ems .
b) Naturallanguagepr ocessi
ng.
c) Voicer ecogniti
on.
d) Voices ynthes i
s.
e) Comput ervision
f) Arti
fi
cialneur alnetworks
.
g) Robotics/perceptionsyst
ems

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A. EXPERTSYSTEMS:
 Thisissoft
warethatisdesi
gnedtomakeacomput eroper
ateatthelevelofahumanexperti
naspeci
fi
cnar
rowareaofspecial
izati
on.
 Suchs of
twaresi
mulates/
imit
atesthereasoni
ngprocessofexper
tsincertai
nwelldef
inedar
eass
uchasmedicaldi
agnos
is,f
inancialf
orecas
ting,
mai
ntaini
ngl
ocomoti
ves ,l
ocat
ingmineraldeposi
tset
c.

COMPONENTSOFANEXPERTSYSTEM:
i)Knowl
edgebase:
Thisist
hedat
abase/s
tor
eofknowl
edgeaboutapar
ti
cul
ars
ubj
ect
.Itcont
ainsr
elevantf
act
s,bel
ieves
,as
sumpt
ionsandpr
ocedur
esf
ors
olvi
ngapar
ti
cul
ar
probl
em.

ii
)Inf
erenceengine:
Thisi
sSoftwarethatcont
rol
sthes ear
chf
orknowledgei
ntheknowl
edgebas
eandpr
oducesconcl
usi
ons
.Itt
akest
hepr
obl
em pos
ed/
givenbyt
heus
erand
seekstoanalyzeiti
nordertoar
riveataconcl
usi
on.

ii
i) Useri nter
face;
Thisist hedi s
plays creenthatenabl estheus ert
ointer
actwitht hesystem.
EXAMPLESOFEXPERTSYSTEMS:
i)MYCI N:us edf ordi agnosisofbl oodandt r
eatmentofbact
erialinf
ecti
ons.
ii)DELTA:f ormai ntaininglocomot i
ves.
iii
)MUDMAN:pr edict ingminer aldepos i
tsingeologi
calexpl
orationbyanalyzi
ngcompos
iti
onofs
oils
ampl
es.
iv)STEAMER:t raini
ngboi l
err oom t echni
ciansinthenavy.
v)R- 1
:des igni
ngcomput ers ystemsf orcus t
omers.

ADVANTAGESOFEXPERTSYSTEMS:
1.Theycanperforms omet asksmuchf asterthanahumanbei ng.
2.Theycaneas il
yidenti
fyfaultsi
nequi pment.
3.Thecomputercans t
oremuchmor ei nf
ormat i
ont hanahuman.
4.Thes ys
tem givesimpartialandconsist
entr ecommendati
ons.
5.Thecomputerdoesnot‘ forget
’ormakemi stakes.
6.Datacanbekeptupt odat e.
7.Alwaysavai
lable24hour sadayandwi llneverr eti
re.
8.Thes yst
em canbeus edatadi st
anceoveranet work
.

DISADVANTAGESOFEXPERTSYSTEMS:
1.Theycanmakemist
akesandfai
ltol
earnfr
om t
hem.
2.Theyworkbestwhentheprobl
em i
sspeci
fi
candwel
ldef
inedhencecompl
exandcos
tlyt
odes
ign.
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3.Theylackhumantouchi
.e.t
heycan’
tbeques
tionedfurt
her.
4.Heavyuseofthem canmakehumanexper
tsl
oset hei
rjobs
.

B.NATURALLANGUAGEPROCESSI NG:
 Ai medatcomi ngupwi thpr ogrammi ngl anguagesthatwouldmakecomput ersrecogni
zeandunderstandnatur
allanguages,whetherspokenorwri
tt
en.
 Cur rently,ther earevoi cer ecognitioninputdevi cesandvoi ces ynt
hesi
zersareavail
abl
ebutli
mitedtoj us
tafewvocabul ari
es.
 Bef oreus i
ngt hem,t hecomput erpr ogr am mus tbet r
ainedtor ecogni
zethevoiceandthepronunci
ationofwordsbyt heus er.
C.VOI CERECOGNI TI
ON:
 Thi sisas ystem thatwi llall
owvoi cei nput .
 Theus eri nputsdat abys peakingi ntoami crophone.
 Af ews ys t
emsc ants ati
sfactoryper formt histaskbecaus eof:-
i)Wor dswi ths imil
ars ounds .
ii)Diff
er entpeopl epr onounces amewor dsdiff
erentl
y.
iii
)Onewor dhasmul ti
plemeani ngs .
iv)Backgr oundnoi seet c .
 Comput er sthatcanr ecognizeandpr oper l
yreadhumanvoi cewi l
lmakeinf
ormationsyst
emsandot hercomputer
izedappl i
cati
onsaccessi
blet
opeoplewho
can’ tent erdat ainthenor malwayi .e.bl i
nd,handicappedet c.

D. VOI
CESYNTHESI
S:
 Thesear
emachinest
hatar
eabl
etocr
eat
ehumanvoi
ceort
alke.
g.acomput
eri
zedbankt
ell
ergi
vingyouyouraccountbal
ancei
nhumanl
ikevoi
ce.

E. COMPUTERVISI
ON:
 Scient
ist
shopetodevel
opcomputerst
hatwi
llproces
sandi nterpretli
ghtwavesjus
tasthehumanbr ai
ndoes.
 Suchs yst
emswoul
dus escanni
ngdevi
cest
os enseandinterpretobjects
,graphi
csandtextchar
act
ershapes
.
 Itwil
lall
owacomputertoseeashumansdo,readandinterprettextinalmostanyf
ormat.

F
. ARTFIF
ICIALNEURALNETWORKS:
 Theuseofel ectronicdevicesands oftwaretoemul atetheneurologicalstr
uctur
eoft hehumanbr ain.
 Thehumanbr ainwor ksbyr ecei
vings i
gnalsfrom speci
alsensorycel l
scall
edneur ons.
 Whent heneur onsr ecei
vei nf
ormati
on,t heyeitherexci
tethecelltos endasignaltothebrai
nornot .
 Art
if
ici
alneurodesi nar t
if
ici
alnetwor ksworkins imil
armannerbyper ceivi
ngenvironmentals
timuliandhencedeci
dingwhet
hert
opas
sitont
othes
yst
em
ornot.
 Theess ent
ialattr
ibutesofanar ti
fi
cialneuralnetworksare:
i
)Theneur odesc anbet r
ainedtodi sti
nguishbetweenwhatcons ti
tutesas i
gnalandwhatdoesnot .

i
i)Theyarecapabl
eofr ecogni
zingpatt
ernsi
nlar
geamount
sofdat
athatar
etoocompl
exf
ort
hehumanbr
ain.F
rom t
hes
epat
ter
ns,t
heycanmake
predi
cti
onsandpointoutanomal i
es.

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EXAMPLE:
Inbanki
ng,t
hepatter
nofcredi
tcar
dus agecanbetrackedoverti
met otryandgener
ali
zespendi
ngpat
ter
nsofi
ndi
vidualcardowners.I
ncaseoflossort
hef
t,
thebankcannot
icethechangeofspendi
ngpatt
ernandconcludethatthecardi
sinthewronghands
,hencet
akeappropri
atesecur
it
ymeas uresevenbef
ore
l
ossofthecardi
sreport
ed.

G. ROBOTI CS/ PERCEPTIONSYSTEMS:

 Ar oboti sacomput ercont rol
leddevi cet hatemulatesahumanbei ngi
ncarr
yingoutt
asksthatwoul
dotherwisebedanger
ousanddif
fi
cul
t.
 Per cepti
ons yst
emsar es ensi
ngdevi cesthatemul at
ethe5commons ens
eofahumanbei ngi.
e.si
ght,hear
ing,t
ouch,smel
landtas
te.
 Suchdevi ceswoul doper ateundert hecont rolofamicroprocessor
.
 Thi sdevel opmentwoul dgi ver obotsar t
ifi
cialsens
esincluding:
i)Feelingt hes hapeofanobj ect.
ii)List
eningt oult
ras ound.
iii
)Det ectings mellofleakinggas /chemi cal
s .
iv)Tes ti
ngqual it
yoff ood.
v)Seei ngus i
ngt womi niaturevideocamer as .

ADVANTAGESOFROBOTS
1. Theycanwor k24/7allyearroundwithoutgett
ingboredortaki
ngabreak.
2. Theycanwor kfas
terthanhuman.
3. Product
ivi
tyisveryhi
gh.
4. Theoutputisofacons i
stent
lyhighquali
ty.
5. Theycanwor ktogreatdegreesofaccuracythanhumanwor ker
s.
6. Theycanwor kincondit
ionsthatwouldappearhosti
leordangeroust
ohumans
.

DISADVANTAGESOFROBOTS:
1. Theyareexpensi
vetobui l
d,ins
tal
landmai ntai
n.
2. Notfl
exibl
eastheyaredes i
gnedtodoonej ob.
3. Therobotmaymal f
uncti
onandcaus ealotofchaosorabat choffault
ygoods
.
4. Theytakeupthejobofmanypeopl e,l
eadingt obeingsacked.
5. Evi
lpeoplemayuser obot
si nwartomanipulatebiologi
calmater
ial.

THELAWSOFROBOTI CS:
1. Arobotmus
tnotinj
ureahumanbeingor,throughi
nacti
on,all
owahumanbei ngt ocomet ohar
m.
st
2. Arobotmus
tal
waysobeyorder
sgiventoitbyahumanbei ng,exceptwher
eitwouldconfli
ctwi
tht
he1 law.
st nd
3. Arobotmus
tprot
ectit
sownexist
ence,exceptwhereitwouldconfl
ictwi
ththe1 and2 l aw.

EXPANDEDI NFORMATI ONSUPERHI GHWAY

 I nv
olvestheintegrat
ionofcabledandwi rel
esstechnol
ogi
esforthepurposeofdataandinfor
mationtransmiss i
on.
 Ther eisvastincreas
ei nthroughputofvari
oustransmi
ssi
onmedi al
ikefi
beropti
candwirelesstechnologies.
 Sci ent
ist
shavedemons tr
atedaf i
beropticcabl
ewhos edi
ameteristhesizeofasingl
estrandofhairwhi chiscapabl
eofcarr
yingatri
ll
ionbi
tpersecond.
 I nt
ernetisgrowingtremendous l
ycausingwhatisgeneral
lyr
efer
redt oasagrowthoftheinformati
ons uperhighwayt
odigi
talexpl
osi
onorhurri
cane.

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CAREEROPPORTUNI
TIESI
NINF
ORMATI
ONCOMMUNI
CATI
ON
TECHNOLOGY(I
CT)
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I
CThascr
eat
ednewj
obt
it
les
.Someoft
hecomput
ercar
eeroppor
tuni
ti
esi
ncl
ude:

1.SYSTEM ANALYST:
Responsi
bleforanal
yzi
ngacompany’
sneedsorpr
obl
emst
hendes
ignanddevel
opacomput
erbas
edi
nfor
mat
ions
yst
em.

QUALITI
ESOFAGOODSYSTEM ANALYST:
a) Shoul
dhavegoodpr obl
em s ol
vings ki
ll
sandcr eati
vit
yi.e.mus thavewi deexperi
enceinsolvi
ngpr oblems.
b) Shoul
dhavegoodcommuni cat
ions kil
lsi.
e.beabl etocommuni cateclearl
yandpr eci
selytodif
fer
entgr oups.
c) MUSThavebus ines sknowledgei .e.understandt heenvironmentforwhi chthesystem i
sbeingdevel oped.
d) Musthavetechnicalknowledgei .e.welltrai
nedi nr el
evantareasofcomput erscience.
e) Musthavegener alknowledgeoft hefir
mi ncludingitsgoalsandobj ecti
ves.
f) Shoul
dhaveknowl edgeofdat apr ocessi
ngmet hodsandcur renthardwar eandfamili
ari
tywit
havailableprogr
ammi
ngl
anguage.

DUTIESOFASYSTEM ANALYST:
a) Gather,recordandanal yzefactsoft
hes ys
tem.
b) Designnews ystem andr ecommendchangest oexist
ingsys
tems
.
c) Prepareins t
ruct ionmanual s.
d) Co-ordinat
est raini
ngf orusersofnews yst
ems.
e) Wor kwithpr ogr ammer st oconstr
uctandtestt
hes ys
tem.
f) Preparess ystem s pecifi
cati
ons.
g) Co-ordinat
est hei mplement at
ionofnewormodi f
iedsyst
em.

2.CHI
EFPROGRAMMER/PROGRAMMINGMANAGER:
Repor
tst
odatapr
oces
singmanagerwhathasbeenr
epor
tedbypr
ogr
ammi
nggr
oup,j
uni
orands
eni
orpr
ogr
ammer
s.

DUTIESOFCHI EFPROGRAMMERS;
a) Managingthepr ogr ammers .
b) Liai
singwiththes ys t
em analys
t.
c) Reviewandcont rolpr ogr
am documentati
on.
d) Reviewsprogram’sper f
ormance.
e) Ensuresthatallprogramsar ewelltest
edbeforeputi
ntouse.
f) Reviewingallthes ystem speci
fi
cat
ionsbefor
ehandovert
oprogr
ammer
s.

3.COMPUTERPROGRAMMERS:
Thesearepeoplewhosewor kentai
lscodingi.e.f
ormulat
ingins
truct
ionsf
orthecomput
ert
osolvegivenpr
obl
ems
.
QUALITI
ESOFPROGRAMMERS:
a) Goodcommandofpr ogr
ammi nglanguageinus e.
b) Knowledgeofgeneralprogr
ammi ngmet hodol
ogyandr el
ati
onshi
pbetweenprogr
amsandhardware.
c) Creat
ivi
tyfordev
elopingnewpr oblem sol
vingmethods.
d) Pati
enceandpersist
ence.

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DUTIESOFPROGRAMMERS:
a) Codingcomput erpr ogr
am us ingappropri
ateprogramminglanguage.
b) Testi
ngofpr ogramsf orlogicalerr
ors,syntaxands emanti
cerror
s.
c) Debuggingofpr ograms .
d) Document i
ngpr ogramsi .
e.wr it
ingmanuals.
e) Designi
ngandi mplement i
ngpr ograms.
f) Maintai
ningandr eviewingexi st
ingcomputerpr ogr
ams .

4.DATABASEADMI NISTRATOR:
Apersonresponsi
bleforthedesi
gnandimpl
ementat
ionofthedat
abase.
Themajorpurpos
eofcomput eri
zinganor
gani
zat
ionorins
tit
uti
onistost
oredat
ainanor
gani
zedwayf
oreas
yacces
s,r
etr
ievalandupdat
e.

DUTIES:
a) Res ponsibl
eforthedesi
gnandcont rolofor gani
zati
ondatabase.
b) Cont rol
sandmoni tor
sdatabaseus aget hroughas s
ignmentofus erpas
swords.
c) Keepi ngthedatabaseup-t
o-datebyaddi ngnewr ecords
,ordel eti
ngunneces
saryr
ecor
ds.
d) Establis
hingtheappropr
iatecontentandf or
matofdat arecords.

5.SOFTWAREENGINEER:
Pers
onski
ll
edinsoft
waredevel
opmentandt
echni
caloper
ati
onofcomput
erhar
dwar
e.

DUTI
ES:
a)Devel
opi
ngs yst
em andappl i
cati
onsoft
ware.
b)Devel
opi
ngus erandtechnicaldocumentat
ionf
orthenewsoft
ware.
c)Mai
ntai
ningandupdati
ngt hes of
twaretomeetday-t
o-dayr
equir
ement
s.

6.COMPUTERENGINEER:
Speci
ali
zedper
sonnelwhos
edut
iesar
etoas
sembl
ethecomput
ers
yst
ems
.

DUTIES:
a) Designanddevelopcomputercomponent
se. g.motherboar
ds ,st
oragedevicesetc.
b) Designanddevelopengi
neeringandmanufacturi
ngcomput ercontr
oll
eddevi cessuchasrobot
s.
c) Re-engineercomput
ercomponentstoenhancei t
sfuncti
onali
tyandeffi
ciency.
7.WEBDESI GNERS:
Theydes i
gnwebs i
teusi
ngvari
ouss of
twar
etools.Thesewebscont ai
npageswher eindivi
dual
sandorgani
zat
ionscanadver
ti
set
hems
elveswhenpr
omot
ingt
he
product
s.

8.WEBADMINISTRATORS:
Theyadmi
nis
trat
etheorgani
zat
ion’
swebs
itesbymaki
ngs
uret
hewebs
itei
supdat
edper
iodi
cal
lyt
ogi
vet
her
ighti
nfor
mat
ion.

DUTI
ES:
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a)Devel
opingandt esti
ngwebs i
tes.
b)Monit
oringt heaccessanduseofi nternetconnecti
onbyenf orci
ngsecuri
tymeasur
ers
.
c)Downloadinginf
ormationneededbyanor gani
zat
ionfrom i
nternetwebsi
te.
d)Maint
aining,updati
ngandmodi f
yingi nfor
mat i
onont hewebs i
te.
9.COMPUTEROPERATOR:
Thi
sisaper sonwhoi nterf
acestheus erdemandst othecomput erhardwar
ebyus eofasetofs
peci
ali
nst
ruct
ionsknownascommands
.

DUTIES:
a)Enteringdat aintothecomputerforprocessing.
b)Keepi ngup- t
o-daterecor
dsofallinfor
mat i
onpr ocessi
ngacti
vit
ies.
c)Respons i
bleforthegeneralequi
pmentl ayoutwithinthecomputerroom.
d)Activatingthecomput ert
oobeypr ogr
amst hroughus eofcommands .
e)Mount i
ngt hestoragemediae.g.disktotheirdrives.

10.COMPUTERTECHNI CIAN:
Thesearemember softhet echnicalst
affwhosejobistoservi
ceandrepai
rcomputer
s.
Giventhatcomputer
srequirer egularmaint
enance,upgr
adingaswellasemergencyr
epai
rs,demandf
orcomput
ert
echni
cianscont
inuest
ogr
owasmor
e
peoplecomputer
izetheirworkplacesandhomes .

DUTIES:
a) Troubl
eshootingcomput
erhardwareands oftwarerel
atedprobl
ems .
b) Ensuri
ngt hatal
lcomput
errel
atedacces s
oriessuchaspr i
nter
s,stor
agemediaetcarei
ngoodcondit
ion.
c) Assemblingandupgradi
ngcomput ersandtheircomponents.
d) Helphardwar eengi
neer
sindesigningandcr eat
ingsomecomput ercomponent
ssuchasst
oragedevi
ces,mot
her
boar
dset
c.

11
.DATAPROCESSI
NGMANAGER:
Thisi
stheper
soni
nthedat
aproces
singdepar
tmentwi
thi
ntheor
gani
zat
ionwhos
emaj
ordut
yist
oens
uret
hatt
heor
gani
zat
ion’
sneedsar
emet
.

DUTIESANDRESPONSI BI
LITIES:
a) I
nchar geofdataandinformationflowwi t
hinthedepar
tment.
b) Responsibl
eindatacollecti
onandpr eparati
on.
c) Purchaseofhardwareandot herfacil
it
iesandt hei
rmanagement
.
d) Soft
war edevel
opmentandmai ntenance.
e) Assessmentandevaluationofs t
affperfor
mance.

12.I
NFORMATIONSYSTEM MANAGER:
Thisper
soncontrol
s,pl
ans,st
aff
s,s
chedul
esandmonit
orsallt
heact
ivi
ti
esoftheI
CTdepart
menti
ntheorgani
zat
ion.Usi
ngcomput
eri
zedmanagement
i
nformat
ionsyst
em (MIS)
,themanagercantes
tthei
mpactthatanal
ter
nati
vecour
seofact
ionmi
ghthaveonbusi
nes s
.

RESPONSI
BILI
TIES:
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 47
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com
a) Makings urethatal
ltasksintheITdepar t
mentaredonecor
rect
lyandont
ime.
b) Prepari
ngbudget sforthedepartments.
c) Keepingt hedepart
menti nvent
oryrecordsup-
to-dat
e.
d) Managingt hehumanr esourcewithi
nthedepartment.

13.COMPUTERTRAINER:
Speci
ali
zedper
sonnelint
hef
iel
dofcomput
ingandwel
lconver
santwi
thvar
iousdi
sci
pli
nesandcomput
err
elat
edi
ssueswhi
cht
heycanexecut
ewi
theas
e.

RESPONSIBILI
TIES:
a) Trai
ningpeopleonhowt ousecomput ersandvariousappli
cat
ionprograms.
b) Developi
ngt r
aini
ngref
erencematerial
s.
c) Guidelear
ner sonhowtoacquir
eknowl edgethroughcarryi
ngoutr esear
ch.
d) Advisi
ngthel ear
ner
sont hebestcareeropport
uniti
esinthebr oadfi
eldofI
CT.
e) Prepari
nglearnersf
orI
CTexami nat
ions.

14.NETWORKADMINISTRATOR:
a) Speci
ali
stwhoov
er s
eesthesmoot
hrunni
ngofnet
wor
ksys
tem i
nanor
gani
zat
ion.

RESPONSIBI
LITI
ES:
a)Set
upcomput ernetwork.
b)Maint
ainandenforces ecuri
tymeasuresonnetwork
.
c)Monit
ortheus eofnetwor kres
ources.
d)Maint
ainandtroubles
hootnet wor
kr el
atedpr
oblems.

1
5.COMPUTERTYPESETTERS:
Graphi
cdes
igner
sandtypeset
ter
sar
erequi
redi
nor
dert
odes
igngr
aphi
calobj
ect
sandpr
ofes
sionalpubl
icat
ionse.
g.books
,news
paper
sandmagazi
nes
.

16.LI
BRARI
AN:
Respons
ibl
eforkeepi
ngt
hef
il
esi
nvar
iouss
tor
agedevi
cesandf
ort
hephys
icals
ecur
it
yoft
hes
tor
agemedi
a.

DUTIES:
a) Ensuresthatthereareenoughphys i
calf
il
esavai
labl
eforuse.
b) Maintai
nstheext er
nalfi
lesl
abel
s .
c) Ensuresdupli
catesfi
lesarekept
.
d) Ensuresaccessoffil
esisrest
ri
ctedtoauthor
izedpersons
.

17.SELFEMPLOYMENT:
Thiscanbeachi
evedbyusi
ngacomputerorotherICTdevi
cess
uchasmobi
lephonest
ost
artbur
eaus
ervi
ces
,int
ernets
ervi
ces
,cons
ult
ancys
ervi
cesand
computerhar
dwareandsof
twar
evendorbus
iness.

1
8.COMPUTERSALESREPRESENTATI
VES:
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 48
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
Shoul
dhavegoodknowl
edgeini
nfor
mati
onandscommunicat
iont
echnol
ogy.Thi
swoul
dhelpthem toanal
yzecus
tomerneedsandadvi
cet
hem accor
dingl
y.A
goodcomput
ersal
esmanneedst
obes el
fconf
ident
,per
suasi
veandprof
ici
enti
nbusi
nesscommunicat
ion.

FURTHEREDUCATI ONALOPPORTUNI TI
ESINI CT
Therear eot hert ertiaryins t
it
utionsi ncomput i
ngwhereonewoul dfurt
herhisorhereducat
ionalambi
ti
ons
.Theyi
ncl
ude:
1.Uni ver si
ties .
2.Pol yt echni cs.
3.Mi ddl el evelcol l
eges .
1.UNI VERSI TIES:
 Cons ider edast hehi ghes tinst
ituti
oninf or
maleducation.
 Theyar ecat egor izedi nt otwomaj orgroupsi.
e.publi
candpr i
vat
euni ver
sit
ies
.
a)Publ icUni versit
ies:
 Es tablishedbyt hes tat e.
 Runbyas tateappoi ntedmanagement .
 Admi ss i
ont os uchuni vers i
ti
esiscont rol
ledbyeit
hert hes t
ateorar ecogni
zedbody.
Exampl es:
i. JomoKenyat tauni versityofAgricult
ureandtechnology.
ii. Kenyat t
aUni versity.
iii
.Nai robiUni ver s
ity.
iv.Mas enoUni versity.
v. MoiUni vers it
y.
vi.Eger tonUni versity.
vii.Mas i
ndeMul i
roUni ver s
ityofScienceandTechnol ogy.

b)PrivateUni ver si
ties:
 Sel f
-spons oredi ns t
itutionss etupbyi ndi
vidual
s,churchesoranyotherorgani
zation.
 Theyar epr i
vat elyr un.
 St udent s’enr olmentdependsonwhet herthestudentiscapabl
eofs pons
oringhims elf
/hersel
f.
 F ort hem t ooper ate,t heymus tberegist
eredoraccreditedbythecommi ss
ionofhi ghereducationoranyotherqual
it
yassur
ancebodyt
hati
srecogni
zed
wor ldwide.
 Ac credit
at i
onl eadst opubl icacceptanceandconfirmati
onevidencedbythegr antofchar t
ersbyt hest
ateoraccredi
ti
ngbodi
es.
Exampl es:
i. Days tarUni v ersit
y.
ii. Cathol i
cUni vers i
tyofNazar et
h.
iii
.MountKenyaUni ver si
ty.
iv.Kabar akuni ver sity.
v. Bar atonUni ver sit
y.
vi. Cat hol i
cUni versityofEas tAfri
ca.
vii.KenyaMet hodi stUni versit
y

Uni
ver
sit
iesar
eaut
hor
izedt
oof
ferappr
ovedDi
ploma,Under
graduat
eandPos
tgr
aduat
epr
ogr
ammes
.
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 49
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
I
CTRELATEDDEGREEPROGRAMMES
i. Bachelorofcomputers ci
ence.
ii. Bachel
orofInf
ormationtechnology.
iii
.BachelorofScienceinComput erEngi neeri
ng.
iv.BachelorofScience(Comput erNetwor ki
ng).
v. BachelorofScience(Soft
wareEngi neer i
ng).
vi.BachelorofBus i
nessandInformat i
onTec hnology.
vii
.BachelorofScience(computerpr ogrammi ng)
.

I
CTRELATEDMASTERSPROGRAMS:
i. Mastersincomputers ci
ence.
i
i. Mastersininf
ormati
ont echnol
ogy.
ii
i. Mastersinhardwareengineeri
ng.
iv. Mastersinsci
ence( computerengi
neer
ing)
.

2.RESEARCHINSTITUTI
ONS:
 Thes ear
et heotherspec
ial
izedr
esearchi
nst
it
uti
onsthatconcent
rat
eonnar
rowf
iel
dsofs
tudys
uchascomput
erorI
CTt
echnol
ogy,agr
icul
tur
e,s
pace
sci
enceetc.
 I ti
spossi
bletoenrol
linsuchins
tit
uti
onsasaresear
chtrai
nee.

3.POLYTECHNIQUES:
 Thes eareinst
it
uti
onsofhi
gherlearni
ngt
hatmost
lyof
ferDi
plomaandcer
ti
fi
catecours
esi
ntechni
calf
iel
dss
uchasI
CT,mechani
cs,f
oodpr
oduct
ionet
c.
 Apol yt
echnicmayalsobeaccr
editedbyauni
ver
sit
yorthestatet
ooff
erdegreeprogr
ammes.

EXAMPLESOFPOLYTECHNI CSTHATOF
FERI
CTI
NKENYA:
i. Mombas apol yt
echnic.
i
i. Kenyapolytechnic.
ii
i. Eldor
etpolytechnic.
iv. Kisumupolytechnic.

I
CTCOURSESOF FEREDI NPOLYTECHNI CS:
i. Computerrepairandas sembly.
ii. Computeroper ator.
iii. Managementi nformations ys
tem.
iv. Computerprogr ammi ng.
v. Computernetwor king.
vi. Computersoftwar eengineer.
vii. Computerstudies .
viii. I
nfor
mationtechnol ogy.
ix. Computerscience.
x. Computerhardwar eengi neer.
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 50
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
xi
. Webadmi
nis
trat
or

4.COLLEGES:
 Thes earemiddl
eleveli
nst
it
uti
onst
hatof
ferdi
ploma,cer
ti
fi
cat
esandcr
aftcour
sesi
nmanydi
sci
pli
ness
uchast
echni
cal
,ICT,t
eachert
rai
ning,bus
ines
s
managementetc.

EXAMPLESOFCOLLEGES:
a) Riftval leyInsti
tuteofSci enceandTechnol ogy.
b) KaiboiTechni calTr ainingI nst
itute.
c) ThikaI nsti
tuteofSci enceandTechnol ogy.
d) KiambuI nsti
tuteofSci enceandTechnol ogy.
e) Coas tInstit
uteofSci enceandTechnol ogy.
f) KirinyagaTechni calTr ainingIns ti
tute.
g) Nair obiTechni calTr ainingI nst
itute.
h) Nyer iTechnicalTr ainingI nsti
tute.
i) KenyaTechni calTr ainingI nst
itute.
j) KenyaSci enceTeacher sCol l
ege.
k) MachakosTechni calTr ainingIns t
itute.

Themos ti
mportantconsi
derati
onstomakebef or
eyouj oi
nacoll
egetopursueanI
CTcour
se:
a)Whetheritof
fersICTcour
s esrecogni
zedbothlocal
lyandi
nter
nat
ional
ly.
b)Thecostoftr
ainingwithsuchani nst
it
uti
on.

EXAMINATIONSBODI ESFORHI GHERDIPLOMA,DIPLOMAANDCERTI

FICATES:
a)Inf
ormati
onTechnologyStandar
dsAs s
oci
ati
on(ITSA)
b)Inst
it
uteofManagementI nf
ormati
onSyst
ems( I
MIS)
c)KenyaNationalEx
aminat
ionsCouncil(
KNEC).
d)PITMAN.

QUALI
FICATIONSGAI NEDONSTUDYONSI TTINGFORANEXAM:
i. Di pl
omainc omputerstudies.
ii. Di pl
omainc omputerscience.
i
ii. Higherdiplomaincomput ers t
udies .
iv. Higherdiplomaininfor
mat iontechnology.
v. Cer t
ifi
cat
ei ncomputerstudies.
vi. Cer t
ifi
cat
ei ninf
ormati
ont echnology.

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 51
 i
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cah@gmai
l.
com

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