Społeczeństwo i Edukacja

Society and Education

28 (1) 2018
Wydawca / Publisher: ISSN: 1898-0171
Instytut Studiów
Międzynarodowych
Copyright © 2018 by
i Edukacji HUMANUM
Society and Education
www.humanum.org.pl
All rights reserved

Anna Macejová
Katedra Etiky a Bioetiky, Filozofická fakulta Prešovskej
university v Prešove, Prešov, Slovakia
E-mail: [email protected]

o u ik cia edzi ek o
a pacie to z a ko u ika c
z u ost akt e po a ie
Communication in Physician - Patient Relationship
(Importance of Communication Skills - Active
Listening)
Abstract
Medicine is not only a strict science, but above all, it represents a human science, in which the focus
is on a human being, a patient and his health. Nowadays, clinical medicine is not only about treating
a disease (to cure), but also about treating a patient as a whole (care). The object of medicine has
remained the same, a man and his health. This article aims at effective communication in physician -
patient relationship. There arises a question whether effective communication aimed at active listening
may help in physician - patient relationship. More precisely, what could be its outcomes when it comes
to patients´ compliance of a treatment and their further satisfaction.
Keywords: communication, physician, patient, ethics, active listening, empathic responding.

INTRODUCTION

E
specially in medicine, it is important to see each patient equally and make no
distinctions in the provision of care based on the differences among the pa-
tients. The doctor is expected to respect the patients, regardless of their ori-
gin, education, race and so on. Of course, this respect should be observed from the
position of a patient to a doctor as well. Moreover, it is also not ethical to make any
differences among the patients. Nowadays, physicians should allow their patients
to ask the questions, give them right to participate in the treatment and agree or
disagree with the treatment proposed. Physician and patient should seek alterna-
tive solutions together. Physician should be able to respect a patient as a person
who needs help, not only in the terms the treatment, but also in terms of human
help. They should be able to use the right words and demonstrate empathy to a pa-

SPOŁECZEŃSTWO I EDUKACJA. Międzynarodowe Studia Humanistyczne

 Anna Macejová: Komunikácia medzi lekárom a pacientom...

tient, who is suffering from disease. Many times a patient comes with fear and
expects that the physician will help him. The physician acts as an expert, whose
aim is to help, to heal and revitalize. The best way to achieve it is to communicate
with a patient effectively and well. This paper highlights the need to improve com-
munication in physician - patient relationship. As one of the possible solution how
to manage it, I suggest to improve communication skills, especially active listening
strategies and physician´s ability to observe patient´s verbal and non - verbal cues.
This might lead to more effective and ethical communication and less complaints
of the patients on physicians´ communication skills.

PHYSICIAN - PATIENT COMMUNICATION

The key to effective and mutually comforting relationship is communication, not
just what people talk to each other but how they talk together. In our relationships
with colleagues and other social relationships, we should try to treat people with
politeness and respect to their dignity. It is how we want the others to deal with us
(Leebov, 2012, p. 14). Leebov states, choice of words when speaking one to anoth-
er may have a great influence on communication and relationship as such. Good
communication with regard to values as honesty, politeness, respect for a dignity
and autonomy of a human being represents the key to a good relationship.

Patient communication, verbal and non-verbal alike, affects the quality of a good
relationship between physician and patient. It depends both, on how a physician
manages an interview, as well as on the content of about what they communicate.
Unwillingness, indifference, tactless behaviour, rudeness, snappishness, vulgarity,
arrogance are reflected at physician´s language, behaviour and actions (Linhar-
tova, 2007, p. 57). According to Borg, human communication consists of 93 % of
body language and paralinguistic clues and only 7% belongs to words in communi-
cation (Borg, 2010, pp. 94-95). It is just a benefit for a physician to have knowledge
of non - verbal communication such as gestures, eye contact, posture and body
movement. Non - verbal communication brings sense of caring, empathy, support
and mirrors physician´s emotions such as disinterest, anger, disbelief or boredom,
too. (Berman & Chutka, 2016, p. 244). As we can see, the authors strengthen here
the importance of concentration on the patient as a whole person, not only on his
disease. Physician should be able to observe these non-verbal signals, which may
help him with further diagnosis and treatment.

The patient - centred interview reminds physicians to be more attentive with pa-
tient´s verbal and non - verbal cues. Especially non-verbal behaviour of a patient
can determine problems and factors, which may influence patient´s symptoms or
compliance. Posture, eye contact, handshake, hot flushing, speed of speech and
other non - verbal cues can reveal a lot about patient´s emotional state and his
concerns. Physicians usually can detect patient´s non-verbal cues, but they try
to ignore them sometimes, answer by more information or questions. Ameri-
can Academy of Physician and Patient (further AAPP) recommends responding
to a patient rather with a statement than a question (Barrier, Patricia A. et al.,
2003, p.212). Using a patient-centred approach a physician should use a phrase
that builds a relationship “You seem very sad” (angry, upset, tired etc.). This helps

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

128
 Społeczeństwo i Edukacja, ISSN: 1898-0171, 28 (1) 2018, s. 127-137

a physician to recognize patients´ emotions and sometimes a patient to reveal

more information. The AAPP also suggests for physician-patient relationship
building the use of the mnemonic PEARLS.1

According to Platt et al., physicians should show their “respectful attention” non-
verbally as it has a great power for building a relationship with a patient. They
expended a bit patient–centred approach and suggest including language, which
may help to learn more about a patient as for example: “tell me about yourself—to
gain basic psychosocial background; tell me what you expect from this visit—to
clarify patient expectations; tell me how this illness has affected you—to deter-
mine how the patient perceives the problem; tell me what you think is causing the
problem—to learn about the patient’s idea of illness; tell me how you feel about
this problem—to learn some of the emotional connections” (Barrier, Patricia A. et
al., 2003, p. 213). This approach is very helpful for physicians. Moreover, I think
it also gives patient opportunity to express himself, his concerns and satisfies his
need to be heard and understood and creates the atmosphere for calm interview
with a doctor.

It is proved that the rate of patient compliance relates to verbal and non-verbal
communication with the physician, as well as with the healthcare he receives.
When a physician is able to communicate effectively with a patient, speaks and
discusses the problem well, he already starts to heal the patient. The patient rather
overlooks the quality of the treatment, than overall impression of the interview.
Therefore there are registered much more complaints about communication than
about treatment and care. An experienced doctor knows the patient comes with
fear to him (as a child to his parents for help) and tries to leave the doctor’s office
like “mature” and above all knowledgeable, hoping for help in emotional and ra-
tional peace and balance (Linhartova, 2007, p.58). Medical representatives, not
only physicians know well how significant it is to communicate with their patients
and their relatives or acquaintances in this way (Leebov, 2012, p.14). Sometimes
there may appear barriers as time pressure, personal problems, aggressive patient
or just lack of empathy, poor communication skills and there arise communication
problems resulting in ineffective communication.

COMMUNICATION AS PROBLEM IN PHYSICIAN - PATIENT

RELATIONSHIP
Patients see as the biggest problem in communication with their physicians, lack
of communication skills. They identified communication with their physicians as
wrong, rude, insufficient the situation or the patient. Patients usually expect an
open and equal dialogue, they want to hear the truth and from the physician they
expect him to use understandable (comprehensible) language. They also expect to
1 Mnemonic Pearls stands for: “Partnership- acknowledges that the physician and the pa-
tient are in this together; Empathy- expresses understanding to the patient; Apology- ac-
knowledges that the physician is sorry the patient had to wait, that a laboratory test had
to be repeated, etc;Respect- acknowledges the patient’s suffering, difficulties, etc; Le- giti-
mization- acknowledges that many patients are angry, frustrated, depressed, etc; Support-
acknowledges that the physician will not abandon the patient” (Barrier, Patricia A. et al.,
2003, p. 213).

SPOŁECZEŃSTWO I EDUKACJA. Międzynarodowe Studia Humanistyczne

129
 Anna Macejová: Komunikácia medzi lekárom a pacientom...

get enough information about their health condition and disease, treatment pos-
sibilities and recovery. Mostly they are interested in healthy lifestyle, prevention,
specialized place for treatment of disease and where they can discuss their health
problems etc. (Linhartova, 2007, pp.53-54). When there are some problems in
physician - patient communication, as for example, lack of understanding on the
side of the physician, a number of patients´ complaints arise. The most frequent
complaints of patients in communication with their physicians are mentioned be-
low.2

Northouse and Northouse add that physician - patient relationship and effective
communication is affected not only by a specific personal or professional charac-
teristics, but by another four factors. There belong: uncertainty about the role that
a patient is expected to play, uncertainty about who is responsible for managing
specific aspects of the patient care and illness, unequal ”power” in a relationship
of a physician and patient (usually a patient is that one with less power), medi-
cal jargon that is unknown to a patient (Berry, 2006, p.41). Davis and Fallowfield
(1994) also claim that most problems in healthcare communication arise from
basic mistakes made by healthcare professionals. There belong: Healthcare pro-
fessionals do not introduce themselves, do not ask their patients for clarification,
do not allow patients to ask questions, do not ask about patients´ feelings and do
not provide information in such a form that patient could use them (Berry, 2006,
p.41). Most patients also complain in media about inappropriate behaviour, lack of
given information, especially improper communication by physicians. Physician
is expected to start open dialogue, open communication to avoid disappointment.
Communication is not a simple process. We must remember that it is necessary
to cultivate and develop not only speech itself, but everything that accompanies it
(Linhartova, 2007, p.56). Poor communication has negative influence on medical
outcomes and patient´s compliance. Then patients complain that physicians are
hurried, do not listen to them or do not allow participating in medical care. On the
other side physicians complain that they are hurried and do not have enough time
for their patients. To obtain a medical history that is clear and complete depends
on quality of physician - patient communication. Duffy suggests, as physicians
must pay more attention to development and of their therapeutic and diagnostic
skills, they cannot forget to pay the same attention for development and refreshing
of their communication skills (Barrier, Patricia A. et al., 2003, p.211). Above were
mentioned some of physician´s minuses which do not lead to effective commu-
nication. On the other hand, also patient should realize that physician has many

2 The most frequent complaints of patients in communication with their physicians represent
1. Lack of information about: treatment, recovering, prevention, alternative treatment, 2.
Incomprehensible information given by the physicians (Latin terms), 3. Detraction of pa-
tient´s problem by physician, 4. Humiliating treatment (“like with children”), 5. Rude and
vulgar behaviour of the physician, 6. Lack of space for the patients to express their opin-
ions, 7. Failure to respect patients feeling of shame, 8. Physician did not believe the pain to
his patient, 9. Physician did not explain probable (expected) development of the disease,
10. Physician did not ask the patient for his consent of the treatment, 11. A patient was
asked to say confidential information in the presence of another person, 12. Physician did
not ask him whether he agrees with it or not, (or without patient´s consent the information
were given away to another person- relatives or others), 13. Long ordering periods for the
treatment and too long time spent in the waiting room (Linhartova, 2007, p.54).

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

130
 Społeczeństwo i Edukacja, ISSN: 1898-0171, 28 (1) 2018, s. 127-137

other patients with health problems (beside him) and usually not enough time to
spend with everyone. Therefore, on one hand, physicians should be more inter-
ested in continuous development of their communication skills and on the other
hand, patients should think of the values such as respect, politeness, patience in
their behaviour and communication with their physicians. Open attentive com-
munication without hesitation, discrimination, humiliation but with mutual re-
spect to individuality and dignity of each individual leads to better understanding
on both parts and so to better communication and effective treatment.

ETHICAL COMMUNICATION IN PHYSICIAN - PATIENT

RELATIONSHIP
Thus, we cannot speak about effective communication without mentioning eth-
ics. Communication in physician - patient relationship must be also ethical and
medicine of today must be humanized. Ethics calls for human physicians with the
ability to incorporate ethical values into their daily practice via effective commu-
nication.

Childress and Beauchamp introduced four basic principles of biomedical ethics:

respect for patient´s autonomy (Patient´s right to make own decisions and choices.
Medical professionals should help patients to make the right choice), beneficence
(do the best on behalf of patient), Non-maleficence (do not cause any harm to
a patient, similarly as it is stated in the Hippocratic Oath), justice (healthcare pro-
fessionals should be fair to the patients and treat the patients equally). Beside its
criticism, these four principles for sure serve as a useful guide for problem solving
and decision making in medical ethics and in medical practice. Ethical values in
the profession of a doctor are based on ethical principles. These principles pro-
vide a simple, accessible and neutral approach to ethical issues in medicine. This
approach (principilism) and above mentioned principles offer a common, basic,
moral, analytical framework and represent a common, basic moral language (Gil-
lon, 1994, p. 184). The principles provide only the guidelines (instructions) for an
action. These guidelines can be derived from ethical theories consisting of moral
rules, which are our “learned” values “, for example, sufficient patient informa-
tion, respect for man´s dignity, proper treatment of the patient and many others.
(Beauchamp & Childress, 1989, pp. 6-9). Ethical Code of Conduct of a Physician
consists of moral principles of physicians in relation to their patients and public,
but also to their colleagues. These principles also guide physicians in how to act
and treat their patients, how to communicate with them, their relatives and co
-workers.

We should not forget also the idea of Hippocratic physician as a “servant of the
healing art“. Expression „servant“, is far from something dishonouring, instead we
should understand it as humanity, sanctity and humility before life that a physician
saves, extends and improves. The art of healing includes the art of communication
as well (Linhartova, 2007, p.57). It is human to show respect and understanding to
other person, especially to a patient who suffers. Patients seek for physicians who
are caring, interested in their well being and willing to communicate and listen to

SPOŁECZEŃSTWO I EDUKACJA. Międzynarodowe Studia Humanistyczne

131
 Anna Macejová: Komunikácia medzi lekárom a pacientom...

them, physicians who respect and incorporate principles and rules from Code of
conduct into their practice and actions.

However, knowledge of the ethical principles and standards in the Code of Con-
duct does not guarantee that all physicians will act morally. It can definitely lead
them at least to think about these matters, or identify with these principles, adopt
them and act according to them as well as with one´s own conscience (Mátel, A.
et al., 2010, p.18). Continuous education in patient communication should be an
integral part of the exercise of medical professions, both from the professional
and ethical point of view. (Ptáček, Bartůněk et al., 2011, p. 45). Therefore, one of
the great positives of the deontological approach is that it requires from a person
unconditional respect for everyone without making distinctions. Patient should
never be seen as a mean or instrument, but always as an end. „Act so that you treat
humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and
never as a means only“(Kant, 1990, p 99). On that basis, it can be concluded that
a physician should respect each patient, make no differences, and offer the same
quality care to everyone. Kant emphasizes value of human beings and the fact that
their value is “above all price”. We show that we value and respect each other via
polite communication.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Very interesting is the fact, how differently physicians and patients observe most
important factors in their mutual communication. According to research de-
scribed by Paling (2004) physicians and patients were asked to describe their idea
of a good doctor. The physicians mentioned “diagnosis ability” as the most import-
ant quality of a good doctor. The patients considered doctor´s “listening ability”
as the most important. Moreover, physicians rated it as the least important aspect
of a good doctor (Berry, 2006, p.43). These findings are just as stated in an earlier
Delamonthe study (1998), where was found, patients´ choice of a good physician
influences the following factors. Firstly, how a physician communicates to a pa-
tient as well as how he cares about him. Next, how is a physician able to explain
medical and technical procedures in a simple and understandable way. Finally,
how a physician is able to listen and let a patient ask questions. As opposed to
physicians, who rated as the most important “years of practice” and “attendance
of well - known medical school” (Berry, 2006, p.43). The length of practice of the
physician is unfortunately not related with the quality of communication (Ptáček,
Bartůněk et al., 2011, p.43). As we can see patients highlighted physicians´ com-
munication abilities as most important. Whereas physicians length of their prac-
tice. Of course, practice is also very important in a profession of a doctor. There
are many problems, which physician and patient have to face and physician is that
one who creates atmosphere for calm dialogue, even when there is a complicated
patient, patient with difficult diagnosis or patient with problematic (aggressive)
behaviour. Therefore, physician should be more interested in the improvement
of their communication skills to manage every situation via polite and effective
communication, using gained communication skills.

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

132
 Społeczeństwo i Edukacja, ISSN: 1898-0171, 28 (1) 2018, s. 127-137

According to Devito, there are following general communication skills: ability to

present yourself, relationship building skills, presentation skills, ability to conduct
interviews and so gain information, ability to communicate in a small group and
leadership ability and finally media literacy (2008, s. 28)3. Further, we distinguish
four important communication skills of the individual: monitoring verbal and
non-verbal signals and speaking ability, active listening, providing a feedback and
assertive behaviour, and the art of speaking and presenting. Individual commu-
nication skills are very important for all healthcare positions. It is not possible to
determine, which one is the most important because they are mutually intercon-
nected (Fülöpova, 2011, pp. 28-29). Active listening is attentive listening aimed also
at observing verbal and nonverbal signals of another person. To be able to listen
effectively and actively, first we need to be interested in person who is speaking.
According to Szarkova, a part of effective active listening represents communica-
tion pattern of a good listener. This pattern consists of:
• effort to see the world and problems from the perspective of the others,
• ability to actively support the speaking person,
• ability to show interest in speaking person and problem being discussed,
• ability to tolerate opinions and attitudes of a partner,
• ability to be patient,
• ability to use empathy,
• ability to formulate and ask questions,
• ability not to invoke communication barriers (Szarkova, 2002, p.46).
Active listening is very powerful for effective communication. When we listen to
the others carefully, we appreciate them and show them our respect. Patient is
not interested, in what causes, physicians or other medical personnel act in such
a highly unprofessional manner. They are not interested in whether it is usual way
of communication of a physician or his reaction at present moment, associated
with some personal problems. We should understand expression professionalism
and professionally lead communication, in terms of the content (about what we
communicate) as well as its form (how we communicate). In the interest of profes-
sional behaviour, it would be essential to learn the desired model of behavioural
interview schemes, with some degree of sensitivity to the uniqueness of the situa-
tion, type of patient and the severity of their health condition. It is a problem of the
character, general relationship to humanity and to the occupation as such. (Lin-
hartova, 2007, p.57). Character plays an important role in expressing ourselves via
communication and speaking with each other. Positive fact about communication
is that communication skills can be learned, improved and used. They have heal-
ing effect if they are used in a correct way. As we can improve communication
skills, character can be formed, too. The willingness to want to make a change
and realize own minuses is the most important. Arrogance, rudeness or any other
negative characteristic trait should not be part of a professional behaviour of any
physician. On the other side, ability to apply empathy in mutual communication

3 See Devito (2008) for more detailed explanation of above mentioned communication skills.

SPOŁECZEŃSTWO I EDUKACJA. Międzynarodowe Studia Humanistyczne

133
 Anna Macejová: Komunikácia medzi lekárom a pacientom...

creates atmosphere for an effective and positive interview between physician and
patient. I believe it should be essential trait of a good physician.

Therefore, the ability to respond with empathy is also the key to building an effec-
tive therapeutic relationship.4 Empathy involves trying to empathize with another
person to understand her view. In medicine, empathy refers to purely cognitive
understanding of patient´s emotions – we speak of “a special professional de-
tached concern” (Halpern, 2007, p.696). Squier addressed the importance of em-
pathy in connection with adherence to a treatment - his findings are as follows:5
These findings are very beneficial for the physicians as well as for the patients.
Feeling to be understood strengthens the therapeutic connection in physician -
patient relationship and improves patients´ compliance with the prescribed ther-
apy (Berger, 2009, s. 49).

In order to become active listeners, we need to forget about our own viewpoint
and take into account another view of the communicating person. We should be
able to trust the other person, push aside our own thoughts, which is sometimes so
difficult. Whenever it succeeds, it is associated with a new value based view of the
issue (Motching & Nykl, 2011, p. 41). To build trust there are not more valuable
skills, than empathic listening and responding. Trust is the basis for the therapeutic
connection and effective therapeutic relationship (between physician - patient)
(Linhartova, 2007, p. 59). Without trust, even the most effective communication
will probably not achieve the desired effects. Trust increases when healthcare pro-
viders promote communication behaviour, and it may be disturbed by the use of
inappropriate behaviour (Berry, 2007, p. 40). I am in accordance with the authors
that for successful treatment and good physician - patient relationship, very im-
portant is to work on creation of trust between physician and patient that can be
achieved by open ethical communication and empathic attitude of both a physi-
cian and a patient.

Active listening also carries a risk. If we can do this, to empathize to the other per-
son feelings, to see the world through his eyes, we risk that it will change ourselves,

4 The expression of empathy comes from the German word Einfuhlung- means that we share
the feelings of another. By empathy, we understand targeted identification with the affec-
tive state of the individual. What empathy requires is courage. We must be open to the af-
fective experience of the individual. It is often a “painful” experience. Of course, we should
also be empathetic when it comes to pleasure, happiness and other (Berger, 2009, p. 52).
Empathy is a “perceptual” activity that operates alongside logical inquiry. So long as physi-
cians continue to exercise their skills of objective reasoning to investigate their empathic
intuitions, empathy should enhance medical diagnosis rather than detract from it. Further,
empathy enhances patient-physician communication and trust, and therefore treatment
effectiveness (Halpern, 2003, p.673).
5 Importance of Empathy in healthcare also brings many positive outcomes, there belong: 1. Pa-
tient is more adhered to a treatment, if a doctor allows him to express his feelings, distract
a fear from the illness and when he finds a time to answer the patient’s questions carefully.
2. Doctors who respond to patient´s feelings have the patients, who adhere to a treatment
and follow the recommendations; also, they are satisfied with their doctors.3. Patients
who perceive their doctors as caring and understanding follow the treatment plan and ask
for further recommendations and assistance if necessary. 4. Physicians, who support their
patients to express their feelings and concerns, allow their patients to participate in the
treatment plan, have the patients who comply with their recommendations for treatment
(Berger, 2009, p.49).

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

134
 Społeczeństwo i Edukacja, ISSN: 1898-0171, 28 (1) 2018, s. 127-137

too. Many perceive as “threatening” to give up their own meaning or point of view
and take the perspective of others. It is not easy to raise an attitude of profound
interest in another person. (Motching & Nykl, 2011, p. 47). Maybe we can realize
to identify ourselves easier with affective state of our relatives or people we know
well, not with people who are “foreign” to us. Physicians should not worry of being
too personal to their patients nor about empathic responding. Sometimes when
medicine does not help, empathy may cause a miracle in terms of right words,
hope and better understanding of the other´s feelings.

CONCLUSION
There is not a general “guide” for the physicians on how to behave to their patients.
First, it depends primarily on the fact, how a physician is prepared for his profes-
sion. Modern physician must be a psychologist a sociologist, a philosopher and
a professional in one person. Physician´s acting must be professional (educated),
creative and above all personalized to each patient, tailored to a patient and his
medical problem (Linhartova, 2007, p.59). Even though communication between
physician and patient is problematic sometimes, but it serves as an important clin-
ical tool, affecting the treatment process that from a physician requires the train-
ing of communication skills through systematic and targeted training, not just
gained experience or personality disposition (Ptáček, Bartůněk et al., 2011, p.44).
I am in accordance with the authors that the position of a physician is very difficult
today. It is not easy to be a professional in the field of medicine, also represent an
“ideal” and suit to all of the needs of different patients, in all of the circumstances.
To avoid the conflicts in physician - patient relationship, especially to minimize
the complaints associated with communication, physicians should be more inter-
ested in medical ethics, communication trainings and continuous development of
their individual professional as well as communication skills.

Nowadays medicine should be more humane in its attempt to reach the good of
the patient and his satisfaction. There has been a period change in recent years
and ethics, as well as medicine must reflect on it. With the change of the period,
the problems have changed as well. This move from paternalistic model of physi-
cian - patient relationship to present model of partnership also brings new issues
that need to be solved for the well-being of the patient and for mutual physician
- patient relationship. This move calls for the step to solve arising communication
problems in the mentioned relationship. Observing verbal and non - verbal signals
represents a part of active listening leads to formation of good therapeutic rela-
tionship. Ability to listen actively represents essential communication skill a good
physician should have. To pass communication skills training is not enough, if ac-
quired skills are not applied in practice. If a patient sees in his physician a partner,
who communicates with him effectively and respects his uniqueness and dignity,
it means he shows his respect to a patient as a human being. Sometimes this hu-
mane attitude, empathy and understanding in such a relationship are above all that
patient needs from his physician. Of course, it requires a lot of physician´s energy,
time, and sensitiveness - but on the other hand, the positive result may be his con-
sulting room full of the satisfied patients.

SPOŁECZEŃSTWO I EDUKACJA. Międzynarodowe Studia Humanistyczne

135
 Anna Macejová: Komunikácia medzi lekárom a pacientom...

LITERATURE:
• BARRIER, PATRICIA A., JAMES T.-C. LI & NORMAN M. JENSEN. (2003): Two Words
to Improve Physician - Patient Communication: What Else? In: Mayo Clinic Pro-
ceedings, Vol.78, Issue 2, pp. 211-214, [online] [retrieved January 20 2018] Avail-
able at: http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.org/article/S0025-6196(11)62552-
4/pdf
• BEAUCHAMP, T. L. – CHILDRESS, J. F. (1989): The Principles of Biomedical Eth-
ics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 470 p.
• BERGER, B., (2009). Communication Skills for Pharmacists. Building relationships,
Improving Patient Care. 3 rd Edition, Washington, D.C.: American Pharmacists As-
sociation. 254p.
• BERMAN, Anthony C., & CHUTKA, Daryl S., (2016): Assessing effective phy-
sician-patient communication skills: “Are you listening to me, doc?” In: Korean
Journal of Medical Education, Vol. 28 (Issue2), pp.243-249, [online] [retrieved
January 23 2018] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC4951737/pdf/kjme-2016-21.pdf
• BERRY, D., (2007). Health Communication: Theory and Practice. Maidenhead, En-
gland: Open University Press. 165 p.
• BORG, J., (2010): Body language: 7 easy lessons to master the silent language. Up-
per Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education, Inc., FT Press, pp. 94–95.,
244p.
• DEVITO, J. A., (2008). Základy medzilidské komunikace. /Fundamentals of Interper-
sonal Communication- 6th edition/ Praha: Grada, 512 p.
• DONOVAN, G. K., (2000): The Physician-Patient Relationship. In: The Health Care
Professional as Friend and Healer: Building on the Work of Edmund D. Pellegrino,
By David C. Thomasma; Judith Lee Kissell, Georgetown University Press, Wash-
ington, DC, pp.13-23/ 322 p.
• FŰLŐPOVÁ, A. (2011): Význam komunikačných zručností v zdravotníctve. /Im-
portance of Communication Skills in Healthcare/. In: Verejné zdravotníctvo (Online
Journal), Vol. 8, n.2, pp. 28-29 / [online] [retrieved February 2 2018] Available at:
http://casopis.fvszu.sk/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/201102.pdf
• GILLON, R., (1994 July). Medical Ethics: Four Principles plus Attention to Scope. In:
BMJ. Vol.309/ (6948): pp.184–188. [online] [retrieved December 22 2017] Available
at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2540719/pdf/bmj00449-0050.
pdf
• HALPERN, J., (2003): Empathy. In: J GEN INTERN MED (JGIM), Society of General
Internal Medicine 2003; 18. pp. 670–674. [online] [retrieved January 13 2018]
Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1494899/pdf/
jgi_21017.pdf
• HALPERN, J., (2007 February): Empathy and Physician - Patient Conflicts. In:
JGIM, Society of General Internal Medicine 2007; 22. pp. 696–700. [online] [re-
trieved January 13 2018] Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/arti-
cles/PMC1852904/pdf/11606_2006_Article_102.pdf
• HERRING, J., (2014): Medical Law and Ethics. 5th edition. NY, USA: Oxford Univer-
sity Press. 698 p.
• KANT, I., (1990): Základy metafyziky mravů. /Metaphysics of Morals/ Praha: Svo-
boda. 128p.
• LEEBOV,W., (2012): Working together for professionals in healthcare. Communica-
tion skills for collaboration and teamwork. USA: Wendy Leebov Group. 40p.
• LINHARTOVA, V., (2007). Praktická komunikace v medicine: pro mediky, lekáre
a ošetrujíci personál. /Practical Communication in Medicine: for medical stu-
dents, physicians and nursing staff/. Praha: Grada Publishing a.s. 152p.
• MOTSCHNIG, R. & NYKL, L., (2011). Komunikace zameraná na človeka. Rozumet
sobe i druhým. /Communication Aimed at the Human Being. Understanding self
and others/.Praha: Grada Publishing, 176p.
• MÁTEL, A. et al., (2010). Etika sociálnej práce. / Ethics of Social Work/. Bratislava:
Vysoká škola zdravotníctva a sociálnej práce sv. Alžbety, 183p.

Instytut Studiów Międzynarodowych i Edukacji HUMANUM www.humanum.org.pl

136
 Społeczeństwo i Edukacja, ISSN: 1898-0171, 28 (1) 2018, s. 127-137

• PTÁČEK, R., Bartůněk, P. et al. (2011): Etika a komunikace v medicíne. Edice ce-
loživotného vzdelávaní ČLK. /Ethics and Communication in Medicine/ Edition of
Lifelong Learning. ČLK. Praha: Grada Publishing a.s., 528 p.
• SZARKOVÁ, M. et al. (2002): Komunikácia v manažmente. /Communication in
Management/. Bratislava: EKONÓM. 198 p.

SPOŁECZEŃSTWO I EDUKACJA. Międzynarodowe Studia Humanistyczne

137