Snowmaking - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Snowmaking

Snowmaking
(Redirected from Artificial snow)
Snowmaking is the production of snow by forcing water
and pressurized air through a "snow gun", also known
as a "snow cannon". Snowmaking is mainly used at ski
resorts to supplement natural snow. This allows ski
resorts to improve the reliability of their snow cover and
to extend their ski seasons from late autumn to early
spring. Indoor ski slopes use snowmaking. They can
generally do so year-round as they have climate-
controlled environments.
Snow gun in operation at Camelback
The use of snowmaking machines has become more Mountain Resort in the Pocono Mountains
common as changing weather patterns and the popularity of Pennsylvania, United States
of indoor ski resorts create a demand for snow beyond
that which is provided by nature. Snowmaking machines
have addressed the shortage in the supply of snow; however, there are significant environmental
costs associated with the artificial production of snow.

According to the European Environment Agency, the length of snow seasons in the northern
hemisphere has decreased by five days each decade since the 1970s, thus increasing the demand
for the production of artificial snow. Some ski resorts use artificial snow to extend their ski seasons
and augment natural snowfall; however, there are some resorts that rely almost entirely upon
artificial snow production.[1] Artificial snow was used extensively at the 2014 Winter Olympics in
Sochi, the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang and the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing to
supplement natural snowfall and provide the best possible conditions for competition.[2]

The production of snow requires low temperatures. The threshold temperature for snowmaking
increases as humidity decreases. Wet-bulb temperature is used as a metric since it takes air
temperature and relative humidity into account. The bulb temperature is always below the outside
temperature. The damper the air, the less moisture it can absorb. The higher the atmospheric
humidity, the colder it must be to turn the small water droplets into snow crystals.

Examples:

0 °C (32 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 90% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature of
−0.6 °C (30.9 °F)
0 °C (32 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 30% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature of
−4.3 °C (24.3 °F)
+2.0 °C (35.6 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 90% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature
of +1.5 °C (34.7 °F)
+2.0 °C (35.6 °F) dry temperature and a humidity of 30% are equal to a wet-bulb temperature

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of −2.8 °C (27.0 °F)

To start a snowmaking system a wet-bulb temperature of −2.5 °C (27.5 °F) is required. If the
atmospheric humidity is very low, this level can be reached at temperatures slightly above 0 °C
(32 °F), but if the air humidity is high, colder temperatures are required. Temperatures around
freezing point are referred to as borderline temperatures or limit temperatures.[3] If the wet-bulb
temperature drops, more snow can be produced faster and more efficiently.

Snowmaking is an energy-intense process, and has environmental impacts, both of which

inherently limit its use.

History
Americans Art Hunt, Dave Richey, and Wayne Pierce invented the snow cannon in 1950,[4][5] but
secured a patent sometime later.[6] In 1952, Grossinger's Catskill Resort Hotel became the first in
the world to use artificial snow.[7] Snowmaking began to be used extensively in the early 1970s.
Many ski resorts depend heavily upon snowmaking.

Snowmaking has achieved greater efficiency with increasing complexity. Traditionally,

snowmaking quality depended upon the skill of the equipment operator. Today, computer control
supplements that skill with greater precision, such that a snow gun operates only when
snowmaking is optimal.

Operation
The key considerations in snow production are increasing
water and energy efficiency and increasing the environmental
window in which snow can be made.

Snowmaking plants require water pumps – and sometimes air

compressors when using lances – that are both very large and
expensive. The energy required to make artificial snow is about
0.6–0.7 kW h/m3 for lances and 1–2 kW h/m3 for fan guns.
The density of artificial snow is between 400 and 500 kg/m3
and the water consumption for producing snow is roughly A graph of air temperature against
equal to that number.[8] relative humidity: if conditions are
below the curve, snow can be made.
Snowmaking begins with a water supply such as a river or
reservoir. Water is pumped up a pipeline on the mountain
using very large electric pumps in a pump house. This water is distributed through an intricate
series of valves and pipes to any trails that require snowmaking. Most resorts also add a nucleating
agent to ensure that as much water as possible freezes and turns into snow. These products are
organic or inorganic materials that facilitate the water molecules to form the proper shape to freeze
into ice crystals. The products are non-toxic and biodegradable.

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The next step in the snowmaking process is to add air using an

air plant. This plant is often a building which contains electric
or diesel industrial air compressors the size of a van or truck.
However, in some instances air compression is provided using
diesel-powered, portable trailer-mounted compressors which
can be added to the system. Man fan-type snow guns have on- Pump house and air plant
combination
board electric air compressors, which allows for cheaper and
more compact operation. A ski area may have the required
high-output water pumps, but not an air pump. Onboard compressors are cheaper and easier than
having a dedicated pumping house. The air is generally cooled and excess moisture is removed
before it is sent out of the plant. Some systems even cool the water before it enters the system. This
improves the snowmaking process as the less heat in the air and water, the less heat must be
dissipated to the atmosphere to freeze the water. From this plant the air travels up a separate
pipeline following the same path as the water pipeline.

Ice nucleation-active proteins

The water is sometimes mixed with ina (ice nucleation-active) proteins from the bacterium
Pseudomonas syringae. These proteins serve as effective nuclei to initiate the formation of ice
crystals at relatively high temperatures, so that the droplets will turn into ice before falling to the
ground. The bacterium itself uses these ina proteins in order to injure plants.[9]

Infrastructure
The pipes following the trails are equipped with shelters
containing hydrants, electrical power and, optionally,
communication lines mounted.

Whereas shelters for fan guns require only water, power and
maybe communication, lance shelters usually need air hydrants
as well. Hybrid shelters allow maximum flexibility to connect
each snow machine type as they have all supplies available. The
typical distance for lance shelters is 100–150 feet (30–46 m),
Piping diagram
for fan guns 250–300 feet (76–91 m). From these hydrants
11⁄2–2 in (38–51 mm) pressure resistant hoses are connected
similar to fire hoses with camlocks to the snow machine.

The infrastructure to support snowmaking may have a negative environmental impact, altering
water tables near reservoirs and mineral and nutrient content of the soil under the snow itself.[10]

Snowmaking guns
There are many forms of snowmaking guns; however, they all share the basic principle of
combining air and water to form snow. For most guns the type or "quality" of snow can be changed

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by

Rear view of snow cannon at A snow making machine at Full blast snow cannon at The
Mölltaler Gletscher, Austria, Smiggin Holes, New South Wales, Nordic Centre, Canmore, Alberta,
showing the powerful fan Australia Canada

regulating the amount of water in the mixture. For others, the water and air are simply on or off
and the snow quality is determined by the air temperature and humidity.

In general there are three types of snowmaking guns: internal mixing, external mixing and fan
guns. These come in two main styles of makers: air water guns and fan guns.

An air water gun can be mounted on a tower or on a stand on the ground. It uses higher pressure
water and air, while a fan gun uses a powerful axial fan to propel the water jet to a great distance.

A modern snow fan usually consists of one or more rings of

nozzles which inject water into the fan air stream. A separate
nozzle or small group of nozzles is fed with a mix of water and
compressed air and produces the nucleation points for the
snow crystals. The small droplets of water and the tiny ice
crystals are then mixed and propelled out by a powerful fan,
after which they further cool through evaporation in the
Snowmaker in operation
surrounding air as they fall to the ground. The crystals of ice act
as seeds to make the water droplets freeze at 0 °C (32 °F).
Without these crystals the water would supercool instead of freezing. This method can produce
snow when the wet-bulb temperature of the air is as high as −1 °C (30 °F).[11][12] The lower the air
temperature is, the more and the better snow a cannon can make. This is one of the main reasons
snow cannons are usually operated in the night. The quality of the mixing of the water and air
streams and their relative pressures is crucial to the amount of snow made and its quality.

Modern snow cannons are fully computerized and can operate autonomously or be remotely-
controlled from a central location. Operational parameters are: starting and stopping time, quality
of snow, maximum wet-bulb temperature in which to operate, maximum windspeed, horizontal
and vertical orientation, and sweep angle (to cover a wider or narrower area). Sweep angle and
area may follow wind direction.

Internal mixing guns have a chamber where the water and air are mixed together and forced
through jets or through holes and fall to the ground as snow. These guns are typically low to
the ground on a frame or tripod and require a lot of air to compensate for the short hang time
(time the water is airborne). Some newer guns are built in a tower form and use much less air

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because of the increased hang time. The amount of water flow determines the type of snow
that is to be made and is controlled by an adjustable water valve.
External mixing guns have a nozzle spraying water as a stream and air nozzles shooting air
through this water stream to break it up into much smaller water particles. These guns are
sometimes equipped with a set of internal mixing nozzles that are known as nucleators. These
help create a nucleus for the water droplets to bond to as they freeze. External mixing guns are
typically tower guns and rely on a longer hang time to freeze the snow. This allows them to use
much less air. External mixing guns are usually reliant on high water pressure to operate
correctly so the water supply is opened completely, though in some the flow can be regulated
by valves on the gun.
Fan guns are very different from all other guns because they require electricity to power a fan
as well as an on-board reciprocating piston air compressor; modern fan guns do not require
compressed air from an external source. Compressed air and water are shot out of the gun
through a variety of nozzles (there are many different designs) and then the wind from the large
fan blows this into a mist in the air to achieve a long hang time. Fan guns have anywhere from
12 to 360 water nozzles on a ring on the front of the gun through which the fan blows air. These
banks can be controlled by valves. The valves are either manual, manual electric, or automatic
electric (controlled by logic controller or computer).

Snow lances are up to 12 meter long vertically inclined aluminum

tubes at the head of which are placed water and/or air nucleators.
Air is blown into the atomized water at the outlet from the water
nozzle. The previously compressed air expands and cools,
creating ice nuclei on which crystallization of the atomized water
takes place. The height and the slow rate of descent allow
sufficient time for this process. This process uses less energy than
a fan gun, but has a smaller range and lower snow quality; it also
has greater sensitivity to wind. Advantages over fan gun are: lower
investment (only cable system with air and water, central
compressor station), much quieter, half the energy consumption
for the same amount of snow, simpler maintenance due to lower
wear and fewer moving parts, and regulation of snowmaking is Snow lance used at
possible in principle. The working pressure of snow lances is Flottsbro in Stockholm
20-60 bar. There are also small mobile systems for the home user
that are operated by the garden connection (Home Snow).

Home snowmaking
Smaller versions of the snow machines found at ski resorts exist, scaled down to run off household
size air and water supplies. Home snowmakers receive their water supply either from a garden
hose or from a pressure washer, which makes more snow per hour. Plans also exist for do-it-
yourself snowmaking machines made out of plumbing fittings and special nozzles, or pressure
washer nozzles. Pressurized air is typically supplied from standard air compressors.

Volumes of snow output by home snowmakers depend on the air/water mixture, temperature,
wind variations, pumping capacity, water supply, air supply, and other factors. Using a household
spray bottle will not work unless temperatures are well below the freezing point of water.

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Extent of use
By the 2009–2010 ski season, it was estimated that around
88% of ski resorts belonging to the National Ski Areas
Association were using artificial snow to supplement natural
snowfall.[13] In the European Alps the proportion of ski slopes
that can be covered by artificial snow varies among countries
(Germany 25%, France 37%, Switzerland 53%, Austria 70%,
Italy 90%).[14] Since 1985, average aggregate temperatures in
the contiguous United States for the months of November
through February have consistently been above the average
Parsenn ski resort near Davos,
temperatures for those months measured between 1901 and Switzerland, compensating for low
2000.[15] See Figure 1. Such a trend both limits and encourages snowfall by producing artificial snow
the use of artificial snow. Rising temperatures will result in
greater snowmelt and decreased snowfall, thus forcing ski
resorts to depend more heavily upon the use of artificial snow. However, once temperatures
approach 6 °C (43 °F), snowmaking is not viable given the current technology. The image to the
right, Photo 1, demonstrates the use of artificial snow to supplement natural snowfall. The strip of
white going down the mountain is a ski slope that has been opened due to extensive use of
snowmaking technology.

As the use of artificial snow becomes more common and

efficient, developers may seek to build new or expand existing
ski resorts, as was the case with the Arizona Snowbowl ski
resort. Such an action could cause significant deforestation, the
loss of fragile and rare ecosystems, and cultural opposition. The
high costs associated with the production of artificial snow
serve as a barrier to entry for its use. It was estimated that in
2008 it cost approximately US$131,000 to purchase a snow
gun and develop the necessary infrastructure. Overall, Figure 1. Average winter
approximately US$61 million have been invested in temperatures for the contiguous
snowmaking technology in the French Alps, US$1,005 in United States[15]
Austria, and US$415 in Switzerland.[16] Furthermore, 50% of
the average American ski resort's energy costs are generated by
the production of artificial snow.[13]

Economics
Snowmaking machines allow ski resorts to extend their seasons and sustain their businesses in
times of low snowfall. With changing climate trends, snowfall is becoming increasingly
unpredictable, thus jeopardizing the economic success of ski resorts. Between 2008 and 2013,
American ski and snowboard resorts experienced annual revenues of about US$3 billion.[17] Such
high levels of revenue increase the demand for predictable and adequate amounts of snow cover,

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which can be achieved through artificial snowmaking practices.

While the economic benefit of ski resorts has been around
US$3 billion in recent years (see Figure 2), the additional
economic value of winter tourism in the United States is
estimated to be around US$12.2 billion per year.[17][13] These
additional benefits come in the form of spending at hotels,
restaurants, gas stations, and other local businesses.
Additionally, winter tourism supports around 211,900 jobs in Figure 2. Models trends in ski and
snowboard resort revenues[17]
the United States, which amounts to a total of approximately
US$7 billion paid in benefits and salaries, US$1.4 billion paid
in state and local taxes, and US$1.7 billion paid in federal taxes. The economic benefits of snow
sports are great, but also fragile. It is estimated that in years of lower snowfall, there is about a
US$1 billion decrease in economic activity.[13]

Environmental impact and future conditions

Mountain reservoirs
The implementation and use of artificial snow making
technologies requires the undertaking of major infrastructural
projects. These projects result in significant disruptions to local
ecosystems. A major infrastructural project associated with the
use of artificial snowmaking technology is the mountain
reservoir. Many mountain reservoirs are embankment dams A Water reservoir for snowmaking in
that feed underground water pipelines, and pose significant the Austrian Tyrol of the Stubai Alps

safety risks to nearby populations and ecosystems. In addition

to the hazards posed by conventional reservoirs and dams, mountain reservoirs are subject to a
variety of mountain-specific hazards. Such hazards include avalanches, rapid flows, and landslides.
Approximately 20% of mountain reservoirs are built on avalanche-prone sites, and about 50% are
prone to very high hazards. Additionally, mountain reservoirs expel water very quickly, causing
massive floods, and significantly jeopardizing public safety. The severity of these hazards is
augmented due to their potential impact on lower populations and properties.[18]

Water and energy use

Snowmaking machines generally require between 3,000 and 4,000 cubic meters of water per
hectare of slope covered.[18] Accordingly, it takes approximately 106 gallons (400 litres) of water to
produce one cubic meter of snow, and snowmaking machines use about 107 gallons (405 litres) of
water per minute.[16][19] A significant amount of this water is lost due to evaporation, and thus is
not returned to the water table.[20][21] Furthermore, it takes approximately 3.5 to 4.3 kWh of
energy to produce one cubic meter of snow; however, this number can be as high as 14 kWh, or as
low as 1 kWh per cubic meter of snow.[22] Snowmaking accounts for approximately 50% of the
average American ski resort's energy costs, which amounts to about $500,000.[13]

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Effects on ground and drinking water

Ski resorts often use mineralized water in the production of artificial snow, which has adverse
impacts on surrounding ecosystems and water tables. Mountain reservoirs are often filled with
highly mineralized water, and the runoff from these reservoirs affects the mineral and chemical
composition of groundwater, which in turn pollutes drinking water. Furthermore, mountain
reservoirs do not allow water to seep back into the ground, so water is only returned to the water
table through runoff.[18]

Environmental conditions and forecasts

As a result of changing weather patterns, snowmaking has become a major revenue-making
activity due to a shortage in the supply of natural snow. However, it poses significant
environmental threats that may serve to perpetuate the issue that resulted in an increased demand
for artificial snow in the first place.

The EPA forecasts temperatures to increase by between 0.28 °C (0.5 °F) and 4.8 °C (8.6 °F)
globally with a likely increase of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), and an average increase in temperatures in the US
of between 1.7 °C (3 °F) and 6.7 °C (12 °F) by 2100. Furthermore, scientists predict that snow cover
in the northern hemisphere will decrease by 15% by the end of the century with snowpack
decreasing and snow seasons shortening concurrently.[23] It's been projected that by the 2050s,
fewer than half of the 21 locations historically used for the Winter Olympics and Paralympics (up to
Beijing 2022) would still have reliable weather conditions.[24] These predicted changes in
temperature and snowfall patterns will induce ski resorts to rely more heavily upon artificial snow
which uses significant amounts of water and electricity. As a result, ski resorts will further
contribute to the production of greenhouse gases and the issue of water scarcity.

In addition to long-term environmental impacts, artificial snow production poses immediate

environmental challenges. Artificial snow takes around two to three weeks longer to melt than does
natural snow. As such, the use of artificial snow introduces new threats and challenges to local flora
and fauna. Furthermore, the high mineral and nutrient content of the water used to produce
artificial snow changes soil composition, which in turn affects which plants are able to grow.[20]

Secondary effects
In addition to the direct effects of the production of artificial snow, snowmaking practices result in
various secondary effects.

Positive
Positive externalities resulting from the production of artificial snow include positive impacts on
local economies, increased opportunities for physical activity, and improved competition
conditions. Furthermore, producing artificial snow allows ski resorts to extend the amount of time
that they are operational, thus increasing opportunities for people to participate in outdoor
physical activities.[25] Finally, the composition of snow produced using snow guns differs from that

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of natural snow, and as such provides for improved conditions for winter sports competitions.[2] It
is often favoured by professionals for being fast and "hyper-grippy" but also raises their fear of
falling on it.[26][27]

Negative
The most visible negative externalities resulting from snowmaking are the adverse environmental
impacts. However, in addition to environmental impacts, the production of artificial snow results
in significant negative cultural and social externalities. Such externalities include issues regarding
land use and land rights. Many ski resorts rent out mountains and slopes from the US Forest
Service, which raises questions surrounding how the land can and should be used, and who should
be the arbiter of determining appropriate uses.

A specific example of a negative cultural externality is the contention surrounding use of artificial
snow at Arizona Snowbowl, a ski resort in Northern Arizona. Arizona Snowbowl is situated in the
San Francisco peaks, which are one of the holiest sites for various Native American tribes in the
Four Corners area, including the Navajo Nation. In 2004, Arizona Snowbowl was renting its slopes
from the US Forest Service, and was looking to build new ski slopes and increase the production of
artificial snow. The proposed project would involve the clearing of approximately 74 acres (30 ha)
of forest, the use of reclaimed water to produce artificial snow, the construction of a three-acre
holding pond for reclaimed water, and the installation of an underground pipeline. A group of
plaintiffs made up of members from six Native American tribes and various other organizations
filed a lawsuit against the US Forest Service and Arizona Snowbowl. Plaintiffs alleged that
undertaking such a project would significantly alter and damage the cultural and spiritual nature of
the mountain. This legal challenge ultimately failed in 2009.[28]

Other uses
In Swedish, the phrase "snow cannon" (Snökanon) is used to designate the lake-effect snow
weather phenomenon. For example, if the Baltic Sea is not yet frozen in January, cold winds from
Siberia may lead to significant snowfall.

See also
Artificial ski slopes
Kern arc – optical display caused by snowgun ice crystal clouds
Pumpable ice technology
Snow grooming

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m/2014/02/04/science/an-olympian-snow-endeavor-in-sochi.html). The New York Times.
ISSN 0362-4331 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Retrieved 2018-03-04.
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artificial-snow-harming-alpine-environment-researchers-warn-a-548104.html). Spiegel Online.
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21. Grünewald, Thomas; Wolfsperger, Fabian (2019). "Water Losses During Technical Snow
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22. Rogstam, Jörgen; Dahlberg, Mattias (April 1, 2011). "Energy usage for snowmaking" (https://w
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fake snow for Olympics" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/nov/06/mounting-concern-o
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External links
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