Psychological Lab

It is a practical subject, but exam will be in Theory format only.

What is Psychology:

Systematic and Scientific study of Human Behaviour and Mental Processes.

The science of behaviour and cognitive processes.

Behaviour: Any observation and measurable action / reaction of a living organism. Includes overt
actions (say/ do) to subtle electrical activity occurring deep in our brain.

Cognitive Process: All aspects of human mind-thoughts, memories, mental images, reasoning,
decision making, etc.

Definitions:

- The study/ science of soul. This definition was in vogue for many centuries. Limitation:
Concept of soul was purely abstract and metaphysical in nature.
- The Study/ Science of Mind. This definition continued till end of last century. Limitation:
Concept of mind was equally abstract and metaphysical in nature.

Comes from – Philosophy.

Yoga and Psychology used to be under Philosophy. Later they became separate.

Contents:

1. Introduction
2. Psychological Testing
3. Introduction to Measurement Tools in Psychological Research
4. Questionnaire

Psychological Tests

Sr. Test-
Tests for: Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4 Remarks
No. 5
1 Human CFF Muller Depth
 Perception Lyer Perception
2 Human Dexterity Tapping Mirror Star
Performance Tracing
3 Higher Brain Tower of Card Memory IQ
Function London Sorting
4 Attention and P300
Concentration
5 Autonomic GSR HR Finger Respiration
Functions (HRV) Plathysmogram
Amplitude
6

Common Assumptions and Misconceptions:

1. Psychology of Mind Reading.

2. Assessing character of others.
3. Psychologist is an Authority on Spiritualism.
4. Capable of Telepathy, Fortune Telling, Black magic.

Misconceptions About Psychology ( A Myth) ???

A lot of people continue to be confused about psychology as a subject and do not understand
what exactly it entails. In India, psychology is not a subject that a lot of people take up, and is
still looked down upon by many. In fact, a lot of people think that psychologists only deal with
‘pagal log’. In such a situation, where people lack a grasp of the subject in general, there are
undoubtedly many misconceptions that people hold about the subject.

 Misconception #1: "There’s extremely limited scope after studying psychology –

Most people become therapists after studying psychology. The fact is that psychology is a
remarkably diverse field and offers a variety of interesting career options. While it is true
that a lot of psychology graduates practice therapy and see patients, psychology can find its
use in a lot of other fields as well. These include business and consulting, research field,
organizations, government, military, criminal justice systems, schools, universities, hospitals,
clinics and so on."

 Misconception #2:-" Psychology is only common sense."

While many things may appear to people to be common sense, it is crucial to remember that
psychology is based on extensive research. To arrive at findings, it employs systematic and
objective methods of observation and experimentation. Experimenters can study human
concerns objectively and fairly using scientific approaches.

 Misconception #3: "Psychology students or professional can read minds."

The most common reaction I receive when I tell people I am studying psychology is, “oh, so
can you tell what I’m thinking?” According to the American Psychological Association,
psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior but this does not mean that
psychologists can read minds or are analysing you. Through various assessments and
interactions, they can gauge a person’s mental state and understand them but reading a
person’s mind directly is not humanly possible.
 Misconception #4: "Those people take up psychology who have faced issues in their
personal lives."

This again, is not true at all. While a lot of people might take up psychology because they
want to help people or because of some personal interest in it, a lot of other people might
take up psychology just because they find it interesting or are inclined to study it.

 Misconception #5: "Psychology will take you away from your religious beliefs."

I personally haven’t heard this in a very long time but there are people who think this is true
when obviously it is not! Psychology is based on scientific knowledge and shares with us the
thoughts, ideas, and values that are derived from it. It aims to improve our understanding of
human beings without attempting to eliminate our religion or beliefs.

These were the several misconceptions about psychology, according to me. Anybody can
study psychology if they are willing enough, but first it is very necessary to have a proper
understanding of what you’re getting yourself into, and I therefore hope this can help clear
some basic facts about psychology for those who were previously unaware.

 Misconception#6:-"Psychology is the same as Psychiatry."

A graduate in a Psychology degree is called a Psychologist. However, a Psychiatrist is a

medical doctor who specializes in Psychiatry. Psychologists are not called doctors unless they
complete PhD and they focus on psychotherapy as compared to Psychiatrists who diagnose
and help manage mental illnesses through a range of therapies like pharmacotherapy.

 Misconception#7 :- "Psychology isn't a science."

It is commonly heard that Psychology is not a real science. Psychology indeed has its fair
share of pseudoscience, however, it does take a scientific approach and uses empirical
methods to understand human behavior. Psychologists use both qualitative research
methods such as interviews and focus groups as well as quantitative research methods such
as questionnaires and surveys to understand various behavioral and cognitive processes.

 Misconception #8:- "There isn't any statistics in Psychology."

One reason you might be surprised to know that Psychology also involves Mathematics and
Statistics is that psychology is so often associated with qualitative things like emotions and
feelings. However, Math classes, and statistics, in particular, are an important part of any
psychology program. You need to master one or more statistical software like Excel, SPSS, or
Jamovi to analyze the quantitative data and eventually deduce results in research projects.
Statistics allow psychologists to present data in ways that are easier to comprehend such as
using graphs, pie charts, and scatter plots.

 Misconception# 9:-"Mental illness is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain."

One survey in the US from a few years ago found that over 80 per cent of people believed
that mental illness is caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain. In fact, ask any
psychiatrist or neurologist and if they’re honest they’ll tell you that no one knows what the
“correct” balance of chemicals in the brain should be.

Part of the support for the imbalance idea comes from the fact that anti-depressant
medication alters levels of neurochemicals in the brain, but of course that doesn’t mean that
 a chemical imbalance causes the problems in the first place (any more than a headache is
caused by a lack of paracetamol).

The myth is actually endorsed by many people with mental health problems and by some
mental health campaigners, partly because they believe it lends a medical legitimacy to
conditions like depression and anxiety. However, research has shown that biological
accounts of mental illness (including the chemical imbalance theory) can increase stigma, for
example – by encouraging the idea that mental health problems are permanent.

 Misconception#10:-"Psychologists don’t care."

They’re doing this for money. Yeah, it’s easy to make this assumption, especially if you know
that psychologists earn a lot. But let’s reason about this one.

How long does an average university education take? Three years. How long does a full
psychology education last? Roughly eight years, minus all the training you may have to
acquire (different countries, different rules).

Would you waste eight years of your life just to get a higher salary? Even when there are
many other jobs that are able to provide you with a high pay without having to study for
eight years? I think the choice is clear. If you had to pick between receiving £10 right now or
£10 in a month, you’d very happily pick the sooner option.

‘Tricking’ a client into believing you care about them just for the sake of a higher pay simply
isn’t worth it.

Other Myths:

5. Opposites attract.

According to one study (McCutcheon, 1991), over three-quarters of undergraduates believe

this statement to be true, and this assumption continues to show up in TV shows and
movies. However, there is almost no research to support such an assertion. In fact, there are
many studies showing the opposite: similarity and attraction are closely linked, especially for
platonic attraction (e.g., Byrne, 1961; Singh, 1973; Newcomb, 1961; Montoya, Horton &
Kirchner, 2008). Experimental research shows that there is a positive linear relationship
between attitudes similarity and attraction (e.g., Byrne, 1961); for example, if people have
twice as many attitudes in common they will tend to like each other twice as much (e.g., gun
control, capital punishment, religion, etc.). Furthermore, an even stronger effect is that we
tend to dislike people who are dissimilar to us (e.g., Lundy, Barker, & Glenn, 2013). Think of
how unlikely it would be for married couples or best friends to occur in the following
combinations: a fundamentalist and an atheist, a Tea Party member and an extreme liberal,
an anti-intellectual and a passionate philosopher. As it relates to marriage outcomes, Smith,
Becker, Byrne, and Przybyla (1993) called the ‘opposites attract’ notion a “toxic belief”.

6. Lie detector tests are accurate.

The error rate found for these tests would not be tolerated in most areas of society but they
still persist, and often go unquestioned. Some estimates suggest error rates as high as 40%,
with the most common error being the labeling of innocent people as guilty (Lykken, 1998).
 People want to believe there is a quick fix for lie detection but no such test yet exists, nor is
it likely to happen in the forseeable future. Even the name is misleading; it should really be
called an “arousal-detector test”. The problem with such a test that measures several
physiological indicators of arousal is that there can be many different causes of arousal, with
guilt about lying being only one of them. Unfortunately, these tests remain popular among
the military and the government, as well as in movies and TV shows. Many Americans still
believe they are ‘reliable’ and ‘useful’ for detecting deception (Lilienfeld, Lynn, Ruscio, &
Beyerstein, 2010).

7. ESP has been shown to be exist.

By various estimates, 40-70% of Americans believe in some form of Extrasensory Perception
(e.g., Shermer, 1997). However, there is no reliable scientific evidence for any form of
paranormal ability. Psychologist and former magician, James Randi, once put up thousands
of dollars of his own money and offered it to anyone who could demonstrate psychic ability
in a scientific setting. Since that time, the pot of money for such a demonstration has grown
substantially, but no one has ever successfully won the money. Think about it this way: if
someone could predict the future (precognition), he or she would not need petty cash from
unsuspecting people, but could make a mint in sports bets or lotteries. Over 150 years of
paranormal research has failed to find any consistently strong evidence for such abilities in
people (Gilovich, 1991). One possible cause of the belief that there are is something greater
than ourselves is that we tend to underestimate how common coincidences are and
attribute such surprising events to paranormal sources. However, the scientific bar should be
set pretty high for something that likely would defy the known laws of space, time and
matter (Lilienfeld et al., 2010).

8. People use only 10% of their brain.

Many people have heard or even used this phrase. The idea that people only use a small
portion of their brain leaving a lot of untapped potential is a common theme in recent
movies such as Lucy (2014) and Limitless (2011). In general terms, letting 90% of one’s brain
go to waste would be a pretty inefficient biological strategy and would surely be selected
against across generations. Today scientists measure oxygen and glucose consumption of
brain tissue using imaging technology such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
and Positron Emission Tomography (PET). Scientists observe that all areas of healthy brains
are active all the time, even while people sleep or are in a coma. However, depending on the
task a person engages in, some areas of the brain become more active than others. Further
evidence from neuropsychological studies show that there is no area of the brain that can be
damaged in adults without some measurable loss of function.

9. People often repress traumatic childhood memories.

In the late 1890s, Sigmund Freud suggested the existence of a psychological mechanism that
actively suppresses traumatic experiences to protect against the potentially damaging
consequences of the memory. He further theorized that such repressed memories (e.g.,
childhood trauma) could cause emotional and behavioral disturbances in adulthood and
even be recovered through techniques in psychoanalysis and dream interpretation. Today
the overwhelming scientific evidence shows that traumatic events are remembered by both
patients suffering from psychological disorders and healthy individuals (Brewin, 2007).
Researchers have shown that patients suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
over-remember details of traumatic events, although they very often distort traumatic
memories (Brewin, 2007). The world-renowned memory researcher Dr. Elizabeth Loftus
 summarizes research on this topic in her 1994 book titled The Myth of Repressed Memory.
Dr. Loftus reports that almost without exception clinical cases of suspected repressed
memories don’t hold up to scientific scrutiny. Instead, Dr. Loftus has demonstrated in a
number of controlled experiments that false memories, which a psychotherapist might
interpret as repressed memories, can be induced in people with the very same therapy
techniques used to recover suspected repressed memories. Freud’s idea of repressed
memories continues to be used as a theme in literature, cinema, and television, which helps
perpetuate the myth. Recent studies show that, although belief in repressed memory has
decreased substantially among practicing clinical psychologists since the 1990s, the myth is
still held by many undergraduate students (Patihis et al., 2014).

10. Students benefit from teachers catering to different learning styles.

Many people believe that they have a preferred learning style or one that is optimal for
them. One person might believe that he or she is a visual learner and that he or she learns
best when information is presented in graphs and pictures. Another person might hold the
belief that he or she is an auditory learner and is best served by learning approaches that
present information verbally. The fact is that there is no empirical evidence that supports
the concept that people have a preferred or optimal learning style (Pashler et al., 2009). The
problem is that unsupported beliefs about learning styles often leads people to narrow their
learning strategies and approaches to fit the misconception. However, this is a potentially
damaging since evidence from scientific experiments have shown that learning is
accomplished best when we ‘go wide’ and try to engage as many of our senses and abilities
as possible (Gardner, 2006).

11. It is best to stick to your initial intuition on multiple choice questions.

When taking multiple choice exams, most test takers believe it is best to stick to your initial
response, instead of second-guessing yourself and changing to a new answer (Ballance,
1977). However, research demonstrates that this strategy is false and often leads to lower
test scores. In fact, when taking a multiple choice exam, someone who changes their answer
is much more likely to change their answer from an incorrect answer to a correct answer,
than they are from correct to incorrect (e.g., Copeland, 1972; Crocker & Benson, 1980;
Johnston, 1975; Schwarz, McMorris, & DeMers, 1991). Relying on the false belief that it is
always better to stick to your initial judgment is known as the first instinct fallacy (Kruger,
Wirtz, & Miller, 2005). When someone gets a question wrong on an examination, that
individual often experiences frustration and self-abasement, especially if the question was
answered correctly initially, but later changed to an incorrect answer. The presence of
negative emotions during an experience enhances the memory of that experience
(Kensinger, 2007). Therefore, because people are more likely to remember episodes where
they changed an answer and ultimately got that answer wrong, they are likely to believe that
those experiences occur more frequently, when in fact, the opposite is true (Gilovich,
Medvec, & Chen, 1995).

12. People who have psychological disorders are more prone to violence.
The myth that people who have psychological disorders are violent is perpetuated in several
areas of our society. In movies and television, it is rare to see a character with a
psychological disorder who is not also portrayed as being violent. In fact, research shows
that about 72% of characters with psychological disorders on television are portrayed as
being violent, whereas only 45% of characters without such disorders display violence
(Levine, 2001). Individuals with schizophrenia or psychotic disorders are often portrayed as
 especially dangerous perpetrators of random acts of violence toward strangers. These myths
carry over to news media and our national conversation about gun violence, which tend to
prominently connect gun violence, and especially mass shootings, to mental illness. A
common suggestion is that keeping guns away from people with psychological disorders is
the most effective way to prevent gun violence. Even police officers tend to view potential
encounters with mentally ill people as highly dangerous (Ruiz & Miller, 2004). In reality,
people with psychological disorders engage in violent criminal activity at similar rates to
people without psychological disorders. Recent research shows that only 4% of overall
violent crimes in the United States can be attributed to individuals with psychological
disorders (Friedman, 2014). Mass shootings by people with serious mental illness represent
less than 1% of all yearly gun-related homicides (Knoll & Annas, 2015). Studies have found
that while people who have psychotic illnesses like schizophrenia have a slightly higher rate
of homicides compared to the general population, the incidence is still extremely
uncommon – you are 15x more likely to be killed by a lightning strike than by someone with
a psychotic illness (Knoll & Annas, 2015).

Why then does this myth persist? In our general daily lives, it pays well to be able to process
information quickly so our brains have developed shortcuts – “heuristics” – that can help us
make simple decisions easily without getting overwhelmed by the mountains of information
at our fingertips. This process has given the human mind the tendency to pay the most
attention to information that is vivid, negative, and easily accessible in our memories – and
paying the least attention to information that is more factual, logical, rational, and based on
statistics. When we think of news reports, what information is the most vivid, negative, and
easily accessible? That’s right – terrifying stories about an innocent person who was
murdered on the street by an untreated schizophrenia patient, or gripping stories of school
shootings perpetrated by a psychologically disturbed lone wolf. Our minds can easily hold
these vivid stories and make us believe in an easy solution to a complex problem: “If we
could treat mental illness more effectively, our national problem with violence would
disappear”. It is much more difficult to grapple with the wide variety of factors that statistics
and research show are the root causes of our violent culture.

13. Negative reinforcement means using punishment to change behavior.

Operant conditioning is a learning process where consequences determine the likelihood of
future, similar behavior (Grison & Gazzaniga, 2017). To understand the components of
operant conditioning, we need to first decide what we want the behavioral outcome to be—
this will tell us if we’re dealing with reinforcement or punishment, two critical terms for
operant conditioning. If we want to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again,
we’re talking about reinforcement. If we want to decrease the likelihood of a behavior
occurring again, we’re talking about punishment.

Next, we think about how we will make those desired changes. If you add something, you’re
talking about positive. If you take something away, this is negative. Note that these terms
aren’t used in a punitive way—they’re only to denote the addition or subtraction of
something.

So what, then, is negative reinforcement? Start with the behavior change—reinforcement.

This word tells us that we want to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative means that
we will take something away—combine the terms and you’ll see that we’re taking
 something away to encourage behavior. Perhaps you did so well on your chores that your
parents take away chore duty for a day—this is negative reinforcement. Another example
would be the removal of a quiz for performing well on a homework assignment.

Psychologist:

- Psychology is a science.
- A Psychologist is a Scientist or practicenor who makes use of scientific
methods and information resulting from scientific investigation.

Origin:

- Psychology did not begin as Science.

- Mysticism of primitive ancestors (आदिम पूर्वजों का रहस्यवाद)
- Later became a branch of Philosophy.
- After more than 2000 years it has achieved a status of science.

Few Psychologist Who have Contributed to make Psychology as a Separate Subject (Imp for Exams –
Few Psychologists and their contribution):

- Plato:
- Aristotle:
- Descartes

Application/ Branches/ Fields of Psychology:

Psychological Theories

Psychological Theories are organised frameworks or models that seek to explain, predict, and
understand various aspects of human behaviour and mental processes. These Theories are
developed by Psychologists and researchers to provide a structured and systematic way of
interpreting and analysing the complexities of the human mind and behaviour.

Sr. Theory Name Associated Deals with Other Details Concept/

No with Model
. Name
1 Psychodynamic Sigmund These One well-known Freud's
Theories: focus on the Freud Theories concept is Freud's model of the
role of unconscious suggest that model of the mind
thoughts and desires in early mind, consisting
shaping behaviour. childhood of the conscious,
experiences unconscious, and
These Theories, rooted influence preconscious
in the works of Freud later levels.
and his followers, development
emphasise the role of and
Sr. Theory Name Associated Deals with Other Details Concept/
No with Model
. Name
unconscious processes behaviour.
in shaping behaviour.
Concepts like the id,
ego, superego, and
defence mechanisms
contribute to our
understanding of
personality, motivation,
and psychotherapy.
2 Behavioural Theories: B.F. Skinner These Skinner’s operant Skinner’s
emphasises observable Theories are conditioning operant
behaviours and their essential in Theory posits that conditioning
relationship with understandin behaviours are Theory
environmental stimuli. g how learned through
external reward and
These Theories factors shape punishment.
emphasise observable actions.
behaviours and how
they are learned
through interactions
with the environment.
Operant conditioning,
classical conditioning,
and social learning ideas
fall under this category.
They're essential in
behaviour modification,
addiction treatment,
and education.
3 Cognitive Theories: Jean Piaget Cognitive Piaget’s cognitive Piaget’s
explore mental approaches development cognitive
processes such as shed light on Theory describes developmen
thinking, memory, how how children's t Theory
perception, and individuals thinking evolves
problem-solving. process as they interact
information with their
These Theories examine and make environment.
mental processes, decisions.
including perception,
memory, reasoning, and
problem-solving. They
delve into how people
acquire, process, and
store information,
leading to our
understanding of
cognitive biases,
decision-making, and
Sr. Theory Name Associated Deals with Other Details Concept/
No with Model
. Name
cognitive development
across the lifespan.
4 Humanistic Theories: Abraham These
focus on individual Maslow and Theories
growth, self- Carl Rogers emphasise
actualisation, and the
personal experiences. importance
of meeting
These Theories focus on psychological
individual growth, self- needs and
actualisation, and realising
personal experiences. one's
They stress the potential for
importance of free will, psychological
self-awareness, and well-being.
pursuing one's
potential. Abraham
Maslow's hierarchy of
needs and Carl Rogers'
client-centered therapy
are prominent
examples.
5 Social learning Albert Bandura's Bobo Bandura's
Theories: Social Bandura doll experiment Bobo doll
learning Theories, demonstrated experiment
championed by Albert how children
Bandura, highlight the imitate
role of observational behaviours they
learning and modelling observe in others,
in shaping behaviour. illustrating the
influence of social
These Theories examine context on
how social interactions, learning.
institutions, and cultural
norms influence
behaviour and
Psychological Processes.
Social identity Theory,
cultural Psychology, and
Theories of prejudice
and discrimination fall
within this realm.
6 Biological Neuroscience The study of
Theories: Biological explains how genetics and
Theories examine the the brain and heritability also
relationship between nervous plays a role in
physiological processes system understanding
and behaviour. contribute to how traits are
Sr. Theory Name Associated Deals with Other Details Concept/
No with Model
. Name
thoughts, passed down
These Theories focus on emotions, across
the relationship and actions. generations.
between the brain,
nervous system, and
behaviour. They explore
how genetics,
neurotransmitters,
hormones, and brain
structures influence
psychological processes.
Neuroscientific
advancements have
provided insights into
schizophrenia,
depression, and anxiety
disorders.
7 Evolutionary This perspective
Psychology: Evolutionar suggests that
y Psychology proposes certain
that human behaviour behaviours,
and cognition have emotions, and
evolved to adapt to the cognitive
challenges of survival processes can be
and reproduction. understood as
products of
natural selection.
8 Trait Theories: Trait The Five-Factor
Theories focus on Model (Openness,
identifying and Conscientiousness
categorising consistent , Extraversion,
personality traits that Agreeableness,
influence behaviour. Neuroticism) is a
widely adopted
framework to
describe and
measure
personality traits.
9 Ecological systems
Theory: Proposed by
Urie Bronfenbrenner,
this Theory emphasises
the interaction between
an individual and their
environment,
recognising that
development is
influenced by multiple
Sr. Theory Name Associated Deals with Other Details Concept/
No with Model
. Name
layers, from immediate
family to broader
cultural contexts.
10 Developmental Jean Piaget's Jean Piaget's Jean Piaget's
Theories: These cognitive cognitive cognitive
Theories explore how developmen development and developmen
individuals change and t and Erik Erik Erikson's t and Erik
evolve over their Erikson's psychosocial Erikson's
lifetimes. psychosocial stages are iconic psychosocial
stages examples. These stages
Theories provide
insights into how
people learn,
mature, and
adapt from
infancy to old
age.