ENTOMOLOGY

MARITA S. LABE, Ph.D.

Professor, Department of Crop Protection

WHAT IS AN INSECT?

- it is classified under Phylum Arthropoda characterized by

1. having jointed legs or appendages
2. segmented body that bears varying number of paired and segmented
appendages
3. bilateral symmetry
4. sclerotized exoskeleton that contains the nitrogenous polysaccharide, chitin
5. various internal features such as open circulatory system, Malpighian
tubules (generally) and in most, a system of ventilatory tubules, tracheoles
and tracheae
having 2 subphyla
a. Chelicerata. (Characterized by a pair of appendages near oral opening)
spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions, horseshoe crabs
b. Mandibulata. (Characterized by a pair of grinding structures
associated with mouthparts) insects, centipedes, millipedes

- it is ranked under Class Insecta

CLASS INSECTA

- has several distinct traits

1. three well-defined body regions or tagmata, i.e. head, thorax and
abdomen
2. three pairs of legs in adult stage
3. commonly one or two pairs of wings, if any
4. single pair of segmented antenna on the head
5. a pair each of maxillae and mandibles
6. 2 kinds of eyes (compound and simple)
7.
Relatives of Insects (under Phylum Arthropoda)

Class Arachnida (spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions, etc.)

 Little evidence of external segmentation
 Tagmata: prosoma (cephalothorax) and opithosoma
 Prosoma: chelicerae, pedipalps and 4 pairs of legs; simple eyes present; no
antennae
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  Opisthosoma: without locomotor appendages
 Gonopore: hidden in anterior part of ventral surface of opisthosoma
(embryologically segment 2)

Class Crustacea (crayfish or crawfish)

 Tagmata: varied; head and thorax covered dorsallyby an unsegmented
carapace (shieldlike plate) and distinctly segmented abdomen
 Appendages: biramous (composed of 2 branches)
 Compound eyes on long stalk
 Head appendages: 2 pairs of antennae (feelers), 1 pair of mandibles and 2
pairs of maxillae
 Gonopores (external opening of reproductive tract): 1 pair located on the
base of posterior appendages of thorax

Class Chilopoda or Symphyla (centipede)

 External segmentation distinct
 Tagmata: head and trunk
 Head: 1 pair of antennae; mandibles; 2 pairs of maxillae
 Trunk: with only 12 pairs of legs; most segments with 1 pair of legs, some
without legs
 Gonopore: unpaired, on segment 4 of trunk in front of legs

Class Diplopoda (millipede)

 External segmentation plainly evident
 Tagmosis not pronounced; distinct head followed by a
segment enlarged dorsally (collum) which resembles those of the trunk; latter
composed of thorax and abdomen
 Thorax poorly differentiated from collum and abdomen;
distinguished from latter by the presence of only 1 pair of legs on each of the
three segments; legs moved forward on segments 1 and 2
 Abdomen, almost all apparent segments with 2 pairs of legs
 Gonopore paired, at base of the legs of segment 2 of thorax

SIGNIFICANCE OF INSECTS (2 standpoints)

1. Their extreme importance from human point of view, is that…

a. they are major rivals for domination
 destroy our food both before and after harvest
 damage the wooden structures of our houses
 transmit causal organisms of our most devastating diseases
 direct attacks causes irritation, blood loss and even death

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 b. also, insects are vital to our survival on earth
 pollinate our crops
 control many of our pests
 return much of our waste to the soil
 source of honey, beeswax, silk, shellac, cochineal dye
 serve as food for man and as feed to domesticated animals

2. Their tremendous success relative to the organisms other than humans is apparent
in the
a. number of extant species and their abundance
 1 – 3 M identified species (general estimate is 750,000 species)
 outnumber all other species of animals and all species of plants
combined
 most impressive example of insect abundance __ locust swarms
(several billions consume 3,000 tons of food daily)
 with regards span of geologic time traversed by group of organisms in
evolution, insects are relatively ancient, i. e. Collembola is
represented in Devonian era (400 M years ago), which is the same as
the first vertebrates, while mammals appeared only 230 M years ago;
even cockroaches, grasshopper and dragonflies occurred in the
Carboniferous Era which is at least 300 M years ago; thus insects,
ruled the air for 100 M years (i. e. as the only flying animals)
b. adaptability to various environmental conditions; they are organisms with
extreme structural and functional diversity

Note: Throughout, insects have proved to be phenomenally successful.

Their biological design (basic winged form), remaining unchanged is the
reason for their significance.

WHAT IS IT ABOUT THE BIOLOGICAL DESIGN THAT HAS MADE INSECTS SO SUCCESSFUL?
IS IT . . .
 Possession of rigid impermeable exoskeleton?
 Ability to fly?
 High reproductive potential?
 Small size?
 Adaptation of behavior, physiology, biochemistry to changing conditions?
 Varied developmental stages and types of development?
PROBABLY, ALL THESE THINGS AND MANY MORE . . .

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Entomology Defined

 Entomology is the scientific study of insects and related arthropods (Ross and Jacques,
1981).

Specialized Fields in Entomology

 Insect Morphology: deals with the study of comparative anatomy and the
development of an insect’s form and structure

 Insect Physiology: science which deals with the study of the physical and
chemical changes in the insect body or the functions of the forms and
structures

 Insect Ecology: study of insect which deals with the interrelationship to its
environment

 Insect Toxicology: deals on the study of how chemical drugs in agriculture

and medical practices affect the life of insects

 Forest Entomology: deals with the study of the insect communities in the
forest ecosystem

 Medical Entomology: deals with the study of insects that parasitize man and
domesticated animals, those that serve as vector of human and animal
diseases

 Economic Entomology: the part of the science that deals with the species
that is actually or potentially important in beneficial or injurious manner.

History of Philippine Entomology

The development of Philippine Entomology was recorded (in 1981) by the late Dr.
Bernardo P. Gabriel (Philippine Entomologist vol. 4(6): 495-501), a distinguished professor of the
Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines at Los Baños.
His accounts cover the period of the first recognizable written record of the Philippine
insect to the 70’s. He subdivided this span of time into 5, namely:
 Spanish Period (1521 – 1899: 6th –19th Century)
 Early American Occupation (1900 – 1920)
 Rise of the Filipino Entomologists (1922 –1940)
 War Setback and Rebuilding (1941 – 1960)

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  Developments and Directions in the Sixties and Seventies (1961 –
1979).
Spanish Period (1521 – 1899; 16th – 19th Century)

YEAR MILESTONE
1521 Pigafetta’s account of Palawan leaf insects __ the first recognizable written
record of a Philippine insect
1569 Earliest recorded account of locust swarm in the Philippines (Panay Island)
1593 Spanish Priest Padre Antonio Sedeno first planted mulberry and
introduced sericulture in the Philippines.
1616 Philip III of Spain promulgated laws of the Indies which prescribed the
work of churchmen, secular persons and the Royal Treasury in connection
with the extermination of locusts. Similar decrees were promulgated in
the following years __ 1774, 1819, 1858, 1866 and 1888.
1642 Ordinances of Good Government promulgated by Governor-General Don
Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera _ revised by Governor General Don Fausto
Cruzat y Gongora 1696 _ Ordinance provide that men and women must
be made to destroy locust under penalties imposed for neglect. Quota _
so many gantas of locust destroyed. Punishment for Alcalde _ Mayor and
Corregidor shall be deposition from office and change in their residences.
1780 Augustinian Missionary Father Manuel Galliana introduced sericulture for
the second time.
1781 Economic Society of Friends of the country (Sociedad Economico de los
Amigos del Pais) founded by Governor Jose Vasco y Vargas endeavored to
promote sericulture in the Camarines (part of the plan to encourage
agricultural production including tobacco, cotton, spices and sugar cane).
1816 Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz _ Russian entomologist; first entomological
investigator to visit the Philippines on the Russian Ship Rurik.
1826 Cochineal insect was first introduced and again in 1861, but did not
succeed.
1830 Opening of the port of Manila to the world’s commerce _ Foreigner other
than Spaniards were allowed to enter the country including foreign
explorers.
1831 Hugh Cuming _ English conchologist collected in many parts of Luzon
resulting in the publication of some important Philippines insects, e.g.
Promecotheca cumingii (Baly) 1858.
1837 Westwood, J. O. published characteristics of new insects from Manila,
collected by Mr. Cuming _ Proc. Zool. Soc. London 5:30.
1848 German savant Hans HermanBehr stayed in the Philippines for two years
collecting insects specifically Lepidoptera.
1849 Successful introduction of a starling, locally known as “Martinez” _
Aetheopsar cristatellus Linn. From Southern Chinato control locust. First
attempt at biological control of insects in the Philippines.
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 1851 Earliest known species of Philippines Hemiptera published by W. S. Dallas
derived from Cuming’s material which got into the British Museum.
1856, 1862 Pierre Joseph Michael Lorquin, famous
French entomologist visited the Philippines and also worked on
Lepidoptera.
1859 – 1865 The German entomologist, Carl Semper, collected insects in different
localities in the Philippines which resulted in several publications on
Philippines insects especially by his brother, George Semper.
1868 Brauer described Philippine Neuroptera and Libellulidae (Odonata).
1870 Hemiptera Insularum Philippinarum published by Carl Stal _ famous
Swedish entomologist (Father of Modern Hemipterology) _ From
materials collected by Carl Semper.
1870-1871 Earliest report on Philippine Hymenoptera by F. Smith.
1875 Candeze _ Belgian entomologist first described Philippine Elaterids
(Coleoptera).
1877 Stal published _ Orthoptera Nova ex Insulis Philippines _ first report on
Philippine Orthoptera also derived from Semper’s collection.
French baron Edmond de Selys Longchamps first report on Odonatainthe
Philippines _ also published more on Odonata in 1891.
1882 C. R. Osten-Sacken first report on Diptera from the Philippine Islands
brought home by Dr. Carl Semper.
1885 Ramon Jordana’s Bosquejo geografica e historico-natural del archipelago
Filipino published in Madrid _ a general work on Zoology which included
insects, the first of its kind by a resident worker.
1886 – 1892 George Semper, brother of Carl Semper, German entomologist published
Die Schmitterlings der Philippinischen der inseln; Rhopalocera. First
extensive publication on Philippine Lepidoptera.
1890 Domingo Sanchez y Sanchez _ assistant zoologist in the Government
Forestry Service _ published a paper on the coffee longhorn borer _ this is
the first published biological study of the insect pest.
1891 Odonates des Philippines by French Baron de Selys-Longchamps.
1894 – 1896 Boletin Oficial Agricola de Filipinas _ monthly issue on Agronomica Service
_ contains general articles on insects of economic importance.
1894 Jose Sanchez first study on the white grub, Leucopholis irrorata, as
published on monthly issue of the Agronomical Service.
1895 Francisco Alvarez _ ecology and control of migratory locust _ first
comprehensive description on locust ecology.
1895 – 1896 Publication of Dominican Father Castro de Elera _ Catalogo sistematico de
toda lafauna de Filipinas conocida hasta el presente (3 volumes) _ an
extensive work on Philippine Fauna which included several pages on
Philippine insects _ this is one of the two works done by local residents
during the period.

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 1896 Baer Catalogue of Philippine Coleoptera. Also from Semper Collection.
1896 – 1902 George Semper’s second publication on Philippine Lepidoptera:
Heterocera both milestones in Philippine entomology.
1899 Lepidopteran der Inseln Palawan by Otto Staudinger who sent collectors
to the Philippines for materials in this publication
Additional Notes Towards the end of the 19 th century, resident collectors appeared in the
persons of Alexander Schadenberg (one of the German founders of Botica
Boie), Regino Garcia, Francisco Sanchez, S. J., Ateneo professor and his
pupils Jose Rizal and Drs. Leon and Luis Guerrero. None of them
published but placed their collections on the hands of foreign specialists.

Early American Occupation (1900 – 1920)

YEAR MILESTONE
1902 Bureau of Agriculture organized. Control of migratory locust became one
of its important activities.
First time that a microbial agent, a fungus, was used for the control of
migratory locust.
Charles S. Banks _ an American, was the first government entomologist in
the Philippines _ published on various aspects of economic entomology
(including medical entomology and systematics). Also organized
entomology section in the Bureau of Government Laboratories (late
Bureau of Science, recently National Institute of Science and Technology.
Later became Department Head, Entomology Department, UPCA.
1903 – 1905 Father William A. Stanton and Father Robert E. Brown as sideline to their
regular duties in Manila Observatory published various notes on insects in
the monthly bulletin of the Weather Bureau.
1904 Pests of cacao published by Banks.
1906 Founding of the Philippine Journal of Science where most of the
taxonomic work on Philippine insects were published especially during the
early American period.
1907 Philippine Agricultural Review (later Philippine Journal of Agriculture
(1930) now Journal of Plant Industry (1963) founded. Most of the applied
work in entomology of the Bureau of Agriculture were published in this
journal.
1908 First extensive publication on mosquitoes of the Philippines by C. Ludlow.
1909 Department of Entomology established with the U.P. College of
Agriculture. First headed by E. M. Ledyard.
D. D. Mackie _ Chief entomologist of the Plant Pest Section of the Bureau
of Agriculture tested arsenical sprays for plant pest control.
1910 Entomology section of the Bureau of Agriculture organized. Plant Industry
Division first headed by C. R. Jones and then succeeded by D. B. Mackie.

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 1911 Philippine Agriculturist and Forester founded where entomological
findings by staff of the Department of Entomology at UPCA were
published.
F. O. Cevallos _ presented on of the earliest works on the use of chemicals
for pest control in this country. Insecticides tested were kerosene
emulsion, Resin wash, Bordeaux mixture, white arsenic, carbon
bisulphide.
1912 Second Philippine Legislature ended the first Plant Quarantine Law, Act
No. 2145.
Arrival of Charles F. Baker in the Philippines. Baker, who became Dean of
the College of Agriculture, UP in 1917. With the aid of the Cuban
collector, Julian Valdez, whom he paid out of his personal funds did more
than any other individual to augment our knowledge of Philippine insect
fauna. He collaborated with 115 world authorities resulting in the
publication of 400 papers on Philippines insects.
1913 Mitzmain, M. S., found that surra, a disease of carabao is striated,
transmitted by the common housefly, Tabanus stratus Fabricius. Mitzmain
was the first to establish veterinary entomology in the country.
Beekeeping using imported Italian bees first attempted in the Philippines _
C. H. Schultz.
1915 Locust Act No. 2472 _ enacted. This act conferred on the Bureau of
Agriculture the power of directing and supervising the locust campaign all
over the country.
First Filipino instructor in entomology _ Leopoldo B. Uichanco.
1916 – 1917 Catalogue of Philippine Coleoptera by W. Schultz published.
1917 Mackie developed a process of fumigating cigars in partial vacuum to
destroy beetles.
Introduction of Scolia manilae into Hawaii by Muir.
1918 L.B. Uichanco _ first Filipino M. S. in entomology UPCA.
Otanes _ elucidated biology of the beanfly _ still a serious pest of legumes.
1919 Plant Pest Section became a separate division of the Bureau of Agriculture
_ with Gonzalo Merino as the first chief. This was reorganized into 3
sections in 1924, namely: Plant Quarantine, Entomology and Plant
Pathology.
1921 (April 21) Hawaii Sugar Planter’s Association donated PhP4,000.00 to the
University to be utilized in the erection of an insectary in Los Baños for
furthering entomological work in the Philippines. First donation to the
University from a private source.
1921 – 1922 Woodworth, H. E. _ published the first comprehensive host-index of
insects injurious to Philippine crops.

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Rise of the Filipino Entomologists (1922 - 1960)

YEAR MILESTONE
1922 Uichanco, Leopoldo B. _ first Filipino to obtain a doctoral degree in
entomology.
Uichanco described new species of Psyllids _ first Filipino to describe
Philippine insects.
Cendana reported biology of banana weevil, a serious pest of banana in
the country.
1923 Use of soap as an effective contact insecticide for the control of migratory
locust. Soft yellow laundry soap found most effective.
Introduction of Opius humilis to control melon fly.
1924 (March 8) Locust Scouting Act (Act 3163) was passed by the Philippine
Legislature which provided PhP100,000.00 to locate and fight locusts _
later superceded by other acts to include other pests.
1925 First time airplane was utilized in the control of migratory locust.
1926 Report of G. O. Ocfemia on the transmission of the bunchy top of abaca
virus by an aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa.
First report of insect transmission of a plant virus in the country.
Insecticidal properties of Derris in the Philippines by Castillo.
1927 Use of Paris green as larvicide for mosquitoes by Manalang.
1928 – 1929 Introduction of biocontrol agents by UPCA, Dept. of Entomology.
1928 Distribution of life in the Philippines by Rickerson et al. recorded the
number of insects found in the Philippines at that time.
1929 Biology of the corn borer _ Ostrinia furnacalis, still the most serious pest
of corn in the country was studied by C. Bulligan.
Studies on the effect of dry heat on weevils in corn and corn seed by E. M.
Paller.
Dammerman’s Agricultural Zoology of the Malay Archipelago included
unpublished data of Philippine insects from the Department of
Entomology.
1931 De Mesa _ Wood borer and lumber industry. The Makiling Echo. 10(1):
15-19. First report on forest insects.
Extensive biological studies of the white grub Leucopholis irrorata done
separately by Uichanco and Otanes.
1932 Mutation studies on Philippine wild Drosophila by Clemente.
1933 First study on pesticide residue _ amount of residual arsenic on vegetable
crops dusted and sprayed with arsenicals _ J. N Samson.
1934 – 1935 Forest host plants of injurious insects in the Philippines. The Makiling
Echo 13(4): 245-250; 14(2): 93-99 by De Mesa.
1934 & 1936 Russel and Baisas published the first illustrated key to the Philippine
Anopheles

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 1934 First report on mites of crop plants in the Philippines by Fajardo and
Bellosillo.
Cendana, first Filipino trained in biological control of insects.
1936 Uichanco theory on locust outbreaks in relation to sun spot cycle.
1939 Report on the ecology of probable outbreak center of migratory locust by
Uichanco.
1941 Viado, first insecticide toxicologist in the Philippines.

War Setback and Rebuilding (1941 – 1960)

YEAR MILESTONE
1946 Introduction of organic insecticides in the Philippines with DDT used
against houseflies and migratory locust.
1947 Cendana and Baltazar reported on the cotton leafhopper _ Empoasca
bigutulla. First published report on entomology after World War II.
C. R. Baltazar, first Filipina with college degree major in entomology.
Committee headed by Dr. S.M. Cendana to look into the postwar activities
of Philippine entomology.
1949 Phil. Agriculture Vol. 1 _ by Uichanco and Sacay. Contain information on
Philippine insect pests of crops.
1951 Checklist of ants of Asia by Chapman and Capco.
1952 U.P. Los Baños _ Cornell contract started with three American visiting
professors detailed in succession from 1954 to 1959 at the Department of
Entomology (J. G. Mathyssee, R. W. Dean and B. V. Travis) _ Work were
largely on economic entomology specifically chemical control. Young
Filipinos were sent for graduate training abroad (1954 – 1960).
1954 First studies conducted on plant resistance to insects by S. M. Cendana _
using corn hybrid, and inbred strain against corn earworm and corn borer.
1959 Extensive bibliography of Philippine entomology compiled for the first
time by R. M. Ela.
A list of plant pests of the Philippines with special reference on field crops,
fruit trees and vegetables by S. R. Capco.
Developments and Directions in the 60’s and 70’s (1961 – 1979)

YEAR MILESTONE
1960 Entomology research in the Philippines further boosted especially on
insects affecting rice with the establishment of the International Rice
Research Institute.
1961 L. C. Rimando, first Filipino acarologist spearheaded research on mites in
the Philippines.

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 1962 July 22 _ Founding of the Philppine Entomological Society (now Philippine
Association of Entomologists, Inc.), the first entomological organization in
the Philippines with S. M. Cendaña as the first President.
1964 B. P. Gabriel, first Filipino insect pathologist.

International Symposium on the major insect pests of the rice pest by the
International Rice Research Institute.
1966 Publication of the Catalogue of Philippine Hymenoptera (with a
bibliography 1758 – 1963) by C. R. Baltazar. The first catalogue of a major
insect order done by a Filipino.
Delfinado published the first monographic treatment of Philippine
mosquitoes except Aedes.
1967 First National Meeting of the Philippine Association of Entomologists held
at the U.P. College of Agriculture _ August 12.
First National Symposium in Philippine Entomology _ Nov. 25.
1968 Founding of the Philippine Entomologist, the first journal of entomology
in the Philippines by the Association of Philippine Entomologists (L. C.
Rimando, first editor).
1970 Illustrated keys to the Anopheles mosquitoes of the Philippine islands by
Cagampang and Darsie. A comprehensive key on the important group of
insects of medical importance.
1971 Mosquito Fauna of the Philippines by R. G. Basio _ An extensive treatment
on all mosquito species reported in the Philippines with notation on the
bionomics and vector status of each species.
1976 National Crop Protection Center founded with Dr. F. F. Sanchez as first
Director.
1978 First Regional Meeting of the Philippine Association of Entomologists in
Davao City _ February 17.

These developments led to what entomology is today in the Philippines.

External Insect Morphology

The Insect's Head

In most insects, the head capsule is a sturdy compartment that houses the brain, a
mouth opening, mouthparts used for ingestion of food, and major sense organs
(including antennae, compound eyes, and ocelli). Embryological evidence suggests that
the first six body segments (three pre-oral and three post-oral) of a primitive worm-like
ancestor may have fused to form the head capsule of most present-day insects.

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 The surface of the head is divided into regions (sclerites) by a pattern of shallow grooves
(sutures). The uppermost sclerite (dorsal surface) of the head capsule is known as the
vertex. A coronal suture usually runs along the midline of the vertex and splits into two
frontal sutures as it extends downward across the front of the head capsule. The
triangular sclerite that lies between these frontal sutures is called the frons. The
epistomal suture is a deep groove that separates the base of the frons from the clypeus,
a rectangular sclerite on the lower front margin of the head capsule.

The genae ("cheeks") are lateral sclerites that lie behind the frontal sutures on each side
of the head. Below each gena there may be another sclerite (the subgena), separated
from the gena by a subgenal suture. A pair of compound eyes, sockets for two
antennae, and one or more ocelli (simple eyes) also may be found on the front, top, or
sides of an insect's head.

Near the back of the head, an occipital suture circumscribes the head capsule at the
posterior margin of the vertex and genae. This suture marks the location of an internal
sclerotized ridge (apodeme) that strengthens this part of the head capsule. Just behind
the occipital suture lie the occiput and postgenae, tiny sclerites that are probably
remnants of the fifth primitive segment that fused to form the insect's head. At the
posterior-most margin of the head, a vestige of the sixth primitive segment is marked by
a faint postoccipital suture and a thin, band-like sclerite (the postocciput) that adjoins
the neck membrane.

The insect's neck is known as the cervix. This is a membranous area that allows
considerable freedom of movement for protraction and retraction of the insect's head.
The cervical membrane extends from the posterior portion of the postocciput to the
prothorax, and it represents a transitional zone between the head and thorax. Small
cervical sclerites serve as points of attachment for muscles that control head
movements.

Eyes

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 Insects have two kinds of eyes: the compound eyes and the simple eyes or ocelli
(singular, ocellus). Most adults and many nymphs have large, prominent compound eyes
that give insects a broad visual field. Many adult insects and larvae as well as immatures
of hemimetabolous insects have dorsal ocelli in addition to compound eyes. The ocelli
appear to enhance light detection by the compound eyes and to register cyclical changes
in light intensity that correlate with diurnal behavioral rhythms.

The compound eyes, located on each side of the head, consist of many hexagonal
elements called facets or corneal lenses. These facets number from only a few as in the
springtails to as many as 28,000 as in the dragonflies. Each lens represent the outer
portion of a single eye element or ommatidium. Sometimes the upper facets are much
larger than the lower and occasionally, the eyes are divided into separated dorsal and
ventral parts. They may show a pattern of bands or patches of contrasting colors in life.
The interfacetal junctions are often provided with fine hairs which may be dense
enough to give the eyes a distinctive appearance.

Three ocelli, typically arranged in an isosceles triangle on the vertex, are present in so
many insects. Each lateral (or posterior) ocellus has a single lens, but differs from an
ommatidium of a compound eye in that the lens covers a number of internal eye
elements. The median ( or anterior) ocellus was apparently formed from two separate
ocelli which became fused together, and it is innervated from both sides of the
deutocerebrum.

Vision in insects is based on the Theory of Mosaic Vision. Each facet of the compound
eye accommodates only that part of the image projected at a specified angle from the
object. The entire vision depends on a simultaneous functioning of all facets in which
the image is perceived. If some of these facets are damaged, the object as seen by the
insect will have missing parts corresponding to the loss of vision due to the
nonfunctional lenses.

Antennae

The antennae are a pair of sense organs located near the front of an insect's head
capsule. Although commonly called "feelers", the antennae are much more than just
tactile receptors. They are usually covered with olfactory receptors that can detect odor
molecules in the air (the sense of smell). Many insects also use their antennae as
humidity sensors, to detect changes in the concentration of water vapor. Mosquitoes
detect sounds with their antennae, and many flies use theirs to gauge air speed while
they are in flight.

Although antennae vary widely in shape and function, all of them can be divided into
three basic parts:

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 1. scape -- the basal segment that articulates with the head
capsule. It contains intrinsic muscles and is generally
larger than the other segments
2. pedicel -- the second antennal segment; nearly always
contain a sensory organ called Johnston organ which
respond to the movement of the distal part of the
antennae relative to the pedicel.
3. flagellum or clavola -- all the remaining "segments" (individually called
flagellomeres); multisegmented but may be reduced or variously modified.

The antennae may be reduced or absent in some larval insects. The details of the
clavola are useful in differentiating between some representative groups of insects and
sometimes between male and female of the same species.

Types of Antennae

Name/Description Appearance Example(s)

Setaceous (bristle- like) –

segments becoming more Dragonflies
slender dorsally

Filiform (thread-like) - Ground beetles

segments nearly uniform and
in size, usually cylindrical Cockroaches

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Moniliform (bead-like) -
segments similar in size, Termites
more or less cylindrical

Serrate (saw-toothed) -
segments particularly the
Female giant click beetle
distal half, more or less
triangular

Clavate (gradually
clubbed) - segments Butterflies
gradually increase in size

Capitate -- abruptly
Carrion beetles
clubbed

Lamellate -- nested plates Scarab beetles

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 Pectinate (comb-like) - Fire-colored beetles,
most segments with long, Male glow-worms and
slender lateral processes Male giant click beetles

Plumose (brush-like or
feathery) - segments with Male mosquitoes
whorls of long hairs

Geniculate (elbowed) -
first segment long,
following segments small Bees and Ants
and going at an angle to
the first

Aristate (pouch-like with

usually dorsal bristle) -
Houseflies
last segment usually
Syrphid flies
enlarged and bearing a
conspicuous arista

Stylate - the last segment

bearing an elongate
terminal finger-like Robber fly
process called style

Mouthparts

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Mouthparts are some of the most distinctive features of insects and their structure
tells a great deal about the feeding habits of a species. In all insects the mouthparts
have evolved from a basic or primitive type (chewing type) exemplified by the
grasshopper.

Mouthparts are greatly varied, but their primitive form include a labrum (upper lip), a
pair of chewing mandibles (jaws), a pair of maxillae (second jaws), and a labium (lower
lip). These structures surround the mouth and form the pre-oral cavity. In addition, a
central tongue-like hypopharynx drops from the membranous floor of the cranium,
behind the mouth, and bears the opening of the salivary ducts.

The general description of the structures are based on the mouthparts adapted for
biting and chewing as follows:

The labrum is normally a movable plate attached to the lower margin of the clypeus
with its outer surface generally strongly sclerotized and its distal margin sharply defined.
The interior or ventral surface of the labrum, called epipharynx, is membranous and
equipped with small tactile hairs and taste organs. A pair of small sclerites, the tormae,
may be present at the basolateral angles of the labrum. The labrum forms the roof of
the pre-oral cavity and the mouth and covers the base of the mandibles.

The mandibles are a pair of strongly sclerotized, unsegmented jaws situated

immediately posterior to the labrum. Except in Archeognatha, the mandibles primitively
articulate with a process of the clypeus anteriorly by a ginglymus (hinge) joint and with
the gena posteriorly by a condyle (ball). The mandibles move sideways and are
operated by the most powerful muscles in the head. The mandibles are the principal
feeding organs, being used primitively to bite off and chew food.

The maxillae are paired segmented structures, lying posteroventral to the mandibles
and anterodorsal to the labium. The basal segment, the cardo, is attached to the head
proximally and to a longer 2nd segment, the stipes, distally. The stipes bear two lobes,
the lateral galea and the mesal lacinia. Attached laterally to the distal part of the stipes
is the usually1 – 7 segmented maxillary palps or palpus. Sometimes, the galea is 2-
segmented and the lacinia may be spined or toothed on its mesal border.
The maxillae serve as accessoty jaws. The laciniae help to hold the food when the
mandibles are extended and also assist in mastication. The galea and palp assist in
selecting the food by touch and taste.

The labium consists of the fused 2 nd maxillae. It is attached to the ventral surface of the
cranium, bilaterally symmetrical and divided into the postmentum proximally;
prementum more distally; 2 distal processes articulated to the prementum on each
side, the glossa mesally and paraglossa laterally; and a pair of 1 – 4 segmented labial
palps arising from a lateral part of the prementum which is sometimes differentiated as

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 the palpiger. When the prementum is divided transversely into 2 parts, the distal
portion bearing the glossae and paraglossae is known as the ligula.

The hypopharynx is a median, unpaired, tongue-like organ projecting forward from the
back of the pre-oral cavity and dividing it into a dorsal cibarium serving as a food pouch,
and a ventral salivarium where the salivary ducts open. The primitive hypopharynx has
an elaborate complement of sclerites and bear a pair of lateral lobes called
superlinguae.

The mouthparts in insects are variously modified. In addition to the chewing type of
mouthparts, insects have types that include piercing-sucking, rasping-sucking, siphoning,
sponging and chewing lapping. The type of mouthparts an insect possesses determines
how it feeds and what sort of damage it inflicts to its host.

The piercing-sucking mouthparts are very common among insects. The mouthparts are
modified to pierce the epidermis of plants or the skin of animals and to suck up sap or
blood. This type is characterized by the presence of a tubular, usually jointed beak
enclosing several needle-like stylets. In plant feeders such as the aphids and whiteflies
(Homoptera) the piercing-sucking needle is formed from 4 hairlike stylets fitted closely
together. The outer stylets are derived from mandibles and the inner ones from the
maxillae. The maxillary stylets are double-grooved on the inner side. When held
together, they form 2 channels. One of the channels serve as passage of saliva into the
plant to facilitate food flow and digestion. The other channel is used for the uptake of
plant juices. The labium forms a protective sheath for the stylets. In blood-feeding
insects like mosquitoes (Diptera) there are 6 stylets. The stylets are formed from the
mandibles and maxillae and an additional pair is modified from the hypopharynx and
labrum-epipaharynx which forms a food channel. The stylets are enclosed by a
protective sheath formed from an elongated labium. The back of the food channel is
closed by the hypopharynx with its salivary duct which carries saliva containing enzymes
and anticoagulants that reduce blood clotting in the host and improve the flow of blood
into the mosquito. The maxillary and mandibular stylets work together as a needle to
penetrate the host’s skin.

The rasping-sucking mouthparts, characterized as a short, stout, assymetrical conical

structure located ventrally at the rear of the head, are a primitive form of the piercing-
sucking type. These are found in thrips (Thysanoptera). The mouthparts have a cone-
shaped beak formed from the clypeus, labrum, parts of the maxillae and the labium.
The beak contains the maxillae, hypopharynx and the left mandible which together
form a stylet. The thrips use the beak to make superficial wounds on the host tissues
and take up liquid food through the stylet.

The siphoning mouthparts are a highly specialized type, modified for the uptake of
flower nectar and other liquids. This type is found in practically all adult moths and
butterflies (Lepidoptera). The galea of the maxillae are greatly elongated and joined to
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 form a slender hollow tube called proboscis through which food passes and held in
coiled-spring fashion when not in use. The proboscis is not capable of piercing tissues
except in rare instances. Feeding is accomplished by uncoiling the tube and projecting
its tip into exposed liquid such as nectar and then sucking up through the food channel
running full length through the proboscis.

The mouthparts of a common housefly represent the sponging type of mouthparts

which are also highly specialized structures. The mandibles and the maxillae are
nonfunctional and the remaining parts form a proboscis whose end is expanded into a
fleshy lobe with a series of furrows or tiny channels called labella. Liquid food is
“mopped up” by the capillary action of the fleshy lobe acting like a sponge. If food is
not liquid, salivary secretions through the mouthparts make it so.

In the chewing-lapping mouthparts like in the bees and wasps ((Hymenoptera), the
mandibles and the labrum are similar to the chewing type and are used for grasping
prey, molding wax and manipulating nest materials. The maxillae and the labium
developed into a series of flattened elongated structure forming a sort of a lapping
tongue through which saliva is discharged and nectar is drawn up as the bee probe deep
into the blossoms.

The Thorax

The second (middle) tagma of an insect's body is called the thorax. This region is almost
exclusively adapted for locomotion -- it contains three pairs of walking legs and, in many
adult insects, one or two pairs of wings.

Structurally, the thorax is composed of three segments: prothorax, mesothorax, and

metathorax. These segments are joined together rigidly to form a "box" that houses the
musculature for the legs and wings. Each segment has a dorsal sclerite, the notum
(pronotum, mesonotum, and metanotum) which may be further subdivided into an
anterior scutum and a posterior scutellum. The ventral sclerite of each segment is the
sternum (prosternum, mesosternum, and metasternum). The side of each segment is
called the pleuron -- it is usually divided by a pleural suture into at least two sclerites:
an anterior episternum and a posterior epimeron.

The pleural suture marks the location of an internal ridge of exoskeleton (an apodeme)
that strengthens the sides of the thorax. Ventrally, this apodeme forms a point of
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 articulation with the basal leg segment (the coxa). In thoracic segments that bear
wings, the pleural apodeme runs dorsally into the pleural wing process, a finger-like
sclerite that serves as a pivot or fulcrum for the base of the wing.

Legs

Most insects have three

pairs of walking legs --
one pair on each
thoracic segment.
Each leg contains five
structural components
(segments) that
articulate with one another by means of hinge joints:

1. Coxa
2. Trochanter
3. Femur
4. Tibia
5. Tarsus

The term pretarsus refers to the terminal segment of the tarsus and any other structures
attached to it, including:

ungues -- a pair of claws

arolium – a lobe or adhesive pad between the claws
empodium -- a large bristle (or lobe) between the claws
pulvilli -- a pair of adhesive pads at the base of the claws

Normally, all three pairs of legs are used for running and walking. The middle
legs usually remain relatively simple in structure but the fore and hind legs may
become extremely modified and specialized to fit the mode of life of the insect.

Leg Adaptations and Striking Modifications

Type/Characteristic Appearance Example(s)

Ground beetles
Cursorial/gressorial (adapted for
and
running and walking)
Cockroaches

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Raptorial (adapted for catching
and grasping prey) - forelegs
Praying mantids
armed with sharp opposing
spines and spurs

Natatorial (adapted for Diving bugs

swimming)- segments of forelegs and
flattened and with long hairs Water beetles

Fossorial (adapted for digging in

soil) - forelegs with scraper- like Mole crickets
parts

Saltatorial (adapted for jumping)

Grasshoppers
- enlarged hind femur

Assembling/pollen gathering leg

- hind tibiae with hairs (pollen Bees
basket)

Clinging leg - the end of the

tarsus of prothoracic leg is a
Lice
hook-like structure used for
clinging to host

Wings

Functional wings exist only during the adult stage of an insect's life cycle. The wings
develop embryologically as evaginations of the exoskeleton -- they may be membranous,
parchment-like, or heavily sclerotized. Most insects have distinct two pairs of wings --
one pair on the mesothorax and one pair on the metathorax (never on the prothorax).
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 Wings serve not only as organs of flight, but also may be adapted variously as protective
covers (Coleoptera and Dermaptera), thermal collectors (Lepidoptera), gyroscopic
stabilizers (Diptera), sound producers (Orthoptera), or visual cues for species recognition
and sexual contact (Lepidoptera).

In most cases, a characteristic network of veins runs throughout the wing tissue. These
veins are extensions of the body's circulatory system. They are filled with hemolymph
and contain a tracheal tube and a nerve. In membranous wings, the veins provide
strength and reinforcement during flight. Wing shape, texture, and venation are quite
distinctive among the insect taxa and therefore highly useful as aides for identification.

Wing adaptations and modifications:

Characteristic Appearance Order(s)

Elytra -- hard, sclerotized front

Coleoptera
wings that serve as protective
and
covers for membranous hind
Dermaptera
wings

Hemelytra -- front wings that

are leathery or parchment-like Hemiptera:
at the base and membranous Heteroptera
near the tip

Tegmina -- front wings that are Orthoptera,

completely leathery or Blattodea,
parchment-like in texture and Mantodea

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Halteres -- small, knob-like
hind wings that serve as
Diptera
gyroscopic stabilizers during
flight

Fringed wings – margins of

slender front and hind wings Thysanoptera
with long fringes of hair

Hairy wings -- front and hind

Trichoptera
wings clothed with setae

Scaly wings – membranous

front and hind wings covered Lepidoptera
with flattened setae (scales)

Hamuli -- tiny hooks on hind

wing that hold front and hind Hymenoptera
wings together

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Frenulum -- Bristle near base
of hind wing that holds front Lepidoptera
and hind wings together

The Abdomen

An insect's abdomen is the third functional region (tagma) of its body; the abdomen is
located just behind the thorax. In most insects, the junction between thorax and
abdomen is broad, but in some groups, the junction is very narrow (petiolate) giving the
appearance of a "wasp-waist".

Entomologists generally agree that insects arose from primitive arthopod ancestors
with eleven-segmented abdomens. Some present-day insects (e.g. silverfish and mayflies) still
have all of these segments (or remnants of them), but natural selection in more advanced (or
specialized) groups has contributed to a reduction in the number of segments -- sometimes to
as few as six or seven (e.g. beetles and flies).

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Each segment of the abdomen consists of a dorsal sclerite, the tergum, and a ventral
sclerite, the sternum, joined to one another laterally by a pleural membrane. The front
margins of each segment often "telescope" inside the sclerites of the preceding
segment, allowing the abdomen to expand and contract in response to the actions of
skeletal muscles.

In many adult insects, there is a spiracle (opening to the respiratory system) near the
pleural membrane on each side of the first eight abdominal segments. Some spiracles
may be permanently closed, but still represented by a dimple in the sclerite.

At the very back of the abdomen, the anus (rear opening of the digestive system) is
nestled between three protective sclerites: a dorsal epiproct and a pair of lateral
paraprocts. A pair of sensory organs, the cerci, may be located near the anterior margin
of the paraprocts. These structures are tactile (touch) receptors. They are usually
regarded as a "primitive" trait because they are absent in the hemipteroid and
holometabolous orders.

The insect's genital opening lies just below the anus: it is

surrounded by specialized sclerites that form the external
genitalia. In females, paired appendages of the eighth and
ninth abdominal segment fit together to form an egg-
laying mechanism called the ovipositor. These
appendages consist of four valvifers (basal sclerites with
muscle attachments) and six valvulae (apical sclerites
which guide the egg as it emerges from the female's
body). In males, the genital opening is usually enclosed
in a tube-like aedeagus which enters the female's body
during copulation (like a penis). The external genitalia
may also include other sclerites (e.g. subgenital plate,
claspers, styli, etc.) that facilitate mating or egg-laying.
The structure of these genital sclerites differs from species to species to the extent that
it usually prevents inter-species hybridization and also serves as a valuable identification
tool for insect taxonomists.

Other abdominal structures may also be present in some insects. These include:

 Pincers -- In Dermaptera (earwigs), the cerci are heavily sclerotized and forceps-
like. They are used mostly for defense, but also during courtship, and sometimes to
help in folding the wings.
 Median caudal filament -- a thread-like projection arising from the center of the
last abdominal segment (between the cerci). This structure is found only in
"primitive" orders (e.g. Diplura, Thysanura, Ephemeroptera).

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  Cornicles -- paired secretory structures located dorsally on the abdomen of
aphids. The cornicles produce substances that repel predators or elicit care-giving
behavior by symbiotic ants.
 Abdominal prolegs -- fleshy, locomotory appendages found only in the larvae of
certain orders (notably Lepidoptera, but also Mecoptera and some Hymenoptera).
 Sting -- a modified ovipositor, found only in the females of aculeate Hymenoptera
(ants, bees, and predatory wasps).
 Abdominal gills -- respiratory organs found in the nymphs (naiads) of certain
aquatic insects. In Ephemeroptera (mayflies), paired gills are located along the sides
of each abdominal segment; in Odonata (damselflies), the gills are attached to the
end of the abdomen.
 Furcula -- the "springtail" jumping organ found in Collembola on the ventral side
of the fifth abdominal segment. A clasp (the tenaculum) on the third abdominal
segment holds the springtail in its "cocked" position.
 Collophore -- a fleshy, peg-like structure found in Collembola on the ventral side
of the first abdominal segment. It appears to maintain homeostasis by regulating
absorption of water from the environment.

Metamorphosis

Each time an insect molts, it gets a little

larger. It may also change physically in
other ways -- depending on the type of
metamorphosis it undergoes: ametabola
(no metamorphosis), paurometabola
(gradual), hemimetabola (incomplete), or
holometabola (complete).
Ametabolous insects undergo little or no
structural change as they grow older.
Immatures are called young; they are
physically similar to adults in every way
except size and sexual maturity. Other
than size, there is no external
manifestation of their age or reproductive
state. The feeding habits of the young
and the adult are the same. (Collembolla, Thysanura, Protura, Diplura)
Paurometabolous Development

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Paurometabolous insects exhibit simple gradual changes in body form during
morphogenesis. Immatures are called nymphs. The nymphs and adult are similar in
appearance except in size and extent of wing and development of the genitalia. The
nymphs possess rudimentary wings or wing pads which develop progressively until they
are fully developed and functional in the adult stage. Developmental changes that occur
during gradual metamorphosis are usually visible externally as the insect grows, but
adults retain the same organs and appendages as nymphs (eyes, legs, mouthparts, etc.).
The nymphs and adults have the same feeding habit and type of food and occupy the
same habitat. (Hemiptera, Homoptera, Orthoptera, Thysanoptera, Psocoptera,
Embioptera, Dermaptera, Isoptera, Arallophaga, Anoplura)

Hemimetabolous insects undergo incomplete

metamorphosis. The immatures are called
naiads, and are aquatic and have gills for
respiration. The naiads look differently from
the adults which have wings and are
terrestrial and winged. The naiads and adults
feed on different kind of food. (Odonata,
Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera)

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 Holometabolous insects have
immature forms called larvae
that look very different from
adults. The changes that
holometabolous insects undergo
are significant. Larvae are
"feeding machines", adapted
mostly for consuming food and
growing in size. They become
larger at each molt but do not
acquire any adult-like
characteristics. When fully
grown, larvae molt to an
immobile pupal stage and
undergo a complete transformation. Larval organs and appendages are broken down
(digested internally) and replaced with new adult structures that grow from imaginal
discs, clusters of undifferentiated (embryonic) tissue that form during embryogenesis
but remain dormant throughout the larval instars. The larval stage is the main feeding
stage. The pupal stage does not feed and is quiescent. The adult stage, which usually
bears wings, may or may not feed and is mainly adapted for dispersal and reproduction.
Sometimes, the feeding habits and type of food of larva and adult are entirely different,
e. g., larva of Lepidoptera chews off solid food while adult sucks up nectar, or may be
similar as in some beetles.(Neuroptera, Coleoptera, Strepsiptera, Mecoptera,
Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Siphonaptera and Hymenoptera)

Most larvae can be grouped into one of five categories based on physical appearance.
Common
Appearance Larval Type Description Examples
Name

Body cylindrical
with short
thoracic legs and Moths and
Eruciform Caterpillar
2-10 pairs of butterflies
fleshy abdominal
prolegs

Campodeiform Crawler Elongated, Lady

flattened body beetle,
with prominent lace
antennae and/or wing
cerci. Thoracic
legs adapted for

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 running

Body robust and

June
"C"-shaped with
beetle,
Scarabaeiform White grub no abdominal
dung
prolegs and short
beetle
thoracic legs

Body long,
smooth, and Click
cylindrical with beetle,
Elateriform Wireworm
hard exoskeleton Flour
and very short beetle
thoracic legs

Body fleshy,
worm-like. No House fly,
Vermiform Maggot
head capsule or flesh fly
walking legs

Pupae can be grouped into one of three categories based on physical appearance:

Pupal Common
Appearance Description Examples
Type Name

Developing appendages
(antennae, wings, legs,
etc.) held tightly against
Butterflies
Obtect Chrysalis the body by a shell-like
and moths
casing. Often found
enclosed within a silken
cocoon.

All developing appendages Beetles,

Exarate None
free and visible externally Lacewings

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 Body encased within the
Coarctate Puparium hard exoskeleton of the Flies
next-to-last larval instar

LIFE PROCCESSES IN INSECTS

Maintenance of Life in Insects

Digestive System
 composed of buccal cavity, salivary glands and alimentary canal (gut)
 made up of a single layer of cell and supporting nerves and tracheoles, suspended in
cavity by connective tissue to integument, and muscles to assist digestion and
absorption of food (longitudinal and circular)
 divided into three, namely the foregut, midgut and hindgut
Stomodaeum

An insect's mouth, located centrally at the base of the mouthparts, is a muscular valve
(sphincter) that marks the "front" of the foregut. Food in the buccal cavity is sucked
through the mouth opening and into the pharynx by contractile action of cibarial muscles.
These muscles, located between the head capsule and the anterior wall of the pharynx,
create suction by enlarging the volume of the pharynx (like opening a bellows). This
"suction pump" mechanism is called the cibarial pump. It is especially well-developed in
insects with piercing/sucking mouthparts.

From the pharynx, food passes into the esophagus by means of peristalsis (rhythmic muscular
contractions of the gut wall). The esophagus is just a simple tube that connects the pharynx to
the crop, a food-storage organ. Food remains in the crop until it can be processed through the
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remaining sections of the alimentary canal. While in the crop, some digestion may occur as a
result of salivary enzymes that were added in the buccal cavity and/or other enzymes
regurgitated from the midgut. In some insects, the crop opens posteriorly into a muscular
proventriculus. This organ contains tooth-like denticles that grind and pulverize food particles.
The proventriculus serves much the same function as a gizzard in birds. The stomodeal valve, a
sphincter muscle located just behind the proventriculus, regulates the flow of food from the
stomodeum to the mesenteron.

Mesenteron. The midgut begins just past the stomodeal valve. Near its anterior end, finger-
like projections (usually from 2 to 10) diverge from the walls of the midgut. These structures,
the gastric caecae, provide extra surface area for secretion of enzymes or absorption of water
(and other substances) from the alimentary canal. The rest of the midgut is called the
ventriculus -- it is the primary site for enzymatic digestion of food and absorption of nutrients.
Digestive cells lining the walls of the ventriculus have microscopic projections (microvilli) that
increase surface area for nutrient absorption.

The midgut is derived from embryonic endoderm so it is not protected by an intima. Instead,
the midgut is lined with a semipermeable membrane secreted by a cluster of cells (the cardial
epithelium) that lie just behind the stomodeal valve. This peritrophic membrane consists of
chitin fibrils embedded in a protein-carbohydrate matrix. It protects the delicate digestive cells
without inhibiting absorption of nutrient molecules. The posterior end of the midgut is marked
by another sphincter muscle, the pyloric valve. It regulates the flow of material from the
mesenteron to the proctodeum.

Digestion Defined
It is a series of activities and hydrolytic reactions (involving enzymes) that convert
complex substances (foodstuffs that insect eats like proteins, carbohydrates, fats and lipids) to
simpler ones (amino acids, fatty acids, glycerols, sugars)

Foregut – has a cuticle with spines (intima), hair or teeth

1. Pharynx – basically for ingestion of food; possess elaborate muscle
2. Esophagous – narrow tube that leads to the crop
3. Crop – dilatation of posterior part of foregut; food storage as well as defensive
substances; in some insects, crop may be in the form of a diverticula; main seat
of digestion for Orthoptera, Calliphora, Coleoptera and Aphoidea, but for
caterpillars, housefly, tse tse fly and Musca, it serves as food storage
4. Cardiac Sphincter – is just an invagination of foregut into midgut; in some, it
could be an elaborate structure known as proventriculus, “gizzard” (teethlike);
regulates the passage of food from foregut to midgut

Midgut – lined with peritrophic membrane

1. Gastric caeca – end of foregut and beginning of midgut

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 2. Peritrophic membrane – a temporary lining that is delicate and perforated
membrane that serves to protect the midgut from particles or food coming from
the foregut; secreted by specialized cells in midgut; made-up of protein, chitin
and mucopolysaccharides; enclosed foodstuffs go directly to hind gut, thus
ensures that midgut cells are protected from abrasions; have goblet cells
(modified midgut cells); it may have a purely mechanical effect. NOTE: goblet
cells are degenerative cells that help pump out excess potassium from
hemolymph
3. Midgut cells classification
a. Regenerative – cells involved in production of enzymes and secretion, as well
as absorption of digested food
b. Degenerative

4. Pyloric sphincter – demarcation line between midgut and hindgut, furnished with
muscles to regulate deposition of waste to hindgut

Feeding Mechanisms – processes used by insects to secure the food, gain access to, or to select
the ingestible parts, modify them if necessary and transfer them into a storage or processing
part of the gut. The structures involved are mouthparts and their muscles, salivary system, food
pumps, and skeletal and muscular components.

Types of Mouthparts
1. Chewing, Cutting
2. Piercing-Sucking
3. Other Modifications

Components of Chewing, Cutting Feeding Process

1. The food has to be held or secured relative to the mouthparts.
2. The pieces have to be detached from the food source.
3. The detached pieces have to be further reduced for ingestion.
4. The food particles must be brought to the functional mouth and retained there for
swallowing.
5. The particles must be moved from the mouth to the lumen of the gut for digestion and
absorption.
6. There should be a lubricating fluid to be applied to the food and mouthparts.

Components of Piercing-Sucking Feeding Process

- They should be able to penetrate or pierce through protective barriers.
1. Purchase. Mechanical connection with the food source must be made, to allow forces
generated by the insect to host penetration by the mouthparts.
2. Initial Puncture. Superficial layers of the food source often differs structurally and
mechanically from underlying layers (e.g. bark, skin, seed coats must be penetrated
which may demand a specialized structure or apparatus like stylets.

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 3. Deep Penetration. There may be considerable non-nutritive material layer to traverse
before liquid food is reached and may mean a different mechanism to be adapted in
particular, and may be necessary to allow mouthparts to be protracted for considerable
differences, and to be controlled.
4. Recognition of Target. Insect will need appropriate signals to inform the insect when the
food has been reached.
5. Uptake of Food. A structure is necessary to convey the food to the mouth of the insect.
This food canal may need to resist considerable pressure differences and have a minimal
resistance of fluid flow.
6. Pumping. Devices will be needed to create a pressure graedient to supply energy
necessary for movement of food along food canal.
7. Lubrication. Saliva or special secretions may be needed to assist penetration of
mouthparts either by their lubrication or by chemical breakdown of tissues, to make
food material liquid. Devices will be needed to convey the saliva to appropriate site.
8. Sheathing of Mouthparts. Specialized structures are needed to enclose the piercing-
sucking mouthparts when not in use or may need mechanical support during
deployment.

Other Feeding Process Modifications

1. Insects feeding on free liquids (no barrier like nectar, pulp from decaying or rotting food,
feces). Insects can drink but others have specialized systems to counteract surface
tension and to penetrate flower structures.
a. Siphoning – tube-like proboscis for nectar feeding in Lepidopteran adults
b. Sponging type in housefly
c. Lapping – bee for honey and nectar
2. Catching mobile prey. Dragonfly larvae are aquatic like frogs; the labium has evolved
into a hinged extensible device equipped with terminal pincers.
3. Filter feeding for aquatic insects, wherein their feeding mechanisms have evolved in
which suspended particles are filtered from water and concentrated before ingestion like
fish; for others, they use cuticle, cuticular filters for mosquitoes and black fly larvae
while caddis flies have silk nets.

Enzymes are proteins that can catalyze reactions and are produced in
salivary glands, gastric caeca and midgut cells

Saliva –
 is a clear, watery neutral fluid that have several functions:
1. moistening of food
2. sugar dissolving
3. moistening of mouthparts and cleaning between feeding
4. for active enzyme constituents
 basically composed of amylase and invertase (sucrase)

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Physiological Adaptations/Specializations
1. Feeding Habits (depending on food source) e.g. siphoning, lapping and filter feeding
2. Presence of Microorganisms in gut which is used for feeding and digestion
 Bacterial fermentation chamber in hindgut for wood vegetable and bacteria,
stored for weeks, digested and lyzed by midgut, and then nutrients are absorbed
from bacteria
 Protozoans for cellulose digestion
3. Presence of Fungus Gardens in ants and termites sometimes called “ambrosia gardens”
to take care of the young.
4. Stylet Sheaths (aphids, whiteflies, Dysdercus) are produced when insects feed on the
rice plants. Saliva is hardened to form stylet sheaths then filtered off to prevent sap to
exude to the exterior and thus, stylets are not affected.
5. Filter Chamber. Physical association between foregut and terminal midgut to shorten the
distance so that there is no dilution of fluid. The filter chamber aims to remove the fluid
as soon as possible as not to dilute the hemolymph and thus easily concentrate the food
for digestion.
6. Food Storage. Insects have internal stores in the
 Fat body
 Insect crop, in termites they have external stores like honeybees in their cell
7. Extraintestinal Digestion. High hyaluronidase in saliva of carnivorous insects and attacks
(digest) mucopolysaccharides in connective tissues, and also acts as spreading agents for
other enzymes (proteases), once enzyme have acted upon the food substance, they suck
liquid.
 For plant sucking homopterans, their saliva have pectinase or galacturonidase
(enzymes which can digest middle lamella of plant cell wall) thus aid in tissue
penetration by stylets
 For silkworm, it uses an enzyme from the midgut (protease) that will attack silk
so the insect can emerge from the cocoon
In blowflies or flesh flies, liquefy meat partially prior to ingestion
8. Digestion of Unusual Food like cellulose, beeswax and keratin.
9. Hematophagous Insects include the blood-sucking hemipterans and dipterans. The diet
is highly unbalanced, containing 7% protein and part of this is sequestered in
hemoglobin (RBC). The mouthparts are piercing-sucking capable of piercing RBC and
therefore liberate hemoglobin. Blood suckers have anti-coagulants and in the case of
Glossina, it is identified as Plasminogen activator. Once blood reaches crop, coagulation
is rapid and thus it is ready for regular digestion.

Excretory System

Hindgut – lined with cuticle but more permeable to water; cells are larger, striated and have
microvilli
 Functions for water, salt and amino acid absorption
 Serves as storage for cellulose digestion in termites and Scarabaeid beetles
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  Have respiratory functions in Anisoptera (dragonflies) larvae
 Modified into rectal pads for water, amino acid and salt reabsorption

Proctodaeum. The pyloric valve serves as a point of origin for dozens to hundreds of Malpighian
tubules. These long, spaghetti-like structures extend throughout most of the abdominal cavity
where they serve as excretory organs, removing nitrogenous wastes (principally ammonium
ions, NH4+) from the hemolymph. The toxic NH4+ is quickly converted to urea and then to uric
acid by a series of chemical reactions within the Malpighian tubules. The uric acid, a semi-
solid, accumulates inside each tubule and is eventually emptied into the hindgut for elimination
as part of the fecal pellet. The rest of the hindgut plays a major role in homeostasis by
regulating the absorption of water and salts from waste products in the alimentary canal. In
some insects, the hindgut is visibly subdivided into an ileum, a colon, and a rectum. Efficient
recovery of water is facilitated by six rectal pads that are embedded in the walls of the rectum.
These organs remove more than 90% of the water from a fecal pellet before it passes out of the
body through the anus. Embryonically, the hindgut develops as an invagination of the body wall
(from ectodermal tissue). Just like the foregut, it is lined with a thin, protective layer of cuticle
(intima) that is secreted by the endothelial cells of the gut wall. When an insect molts, it sheds
and replaces the intima in both the foregut and the hindgut.

1. Rectal pads – cuticle is thinner and has depressions wherein the epicuticle is
also thin; hindgut cells of rectal pads have a lot of folds and mitochondria;
membrane stacks are also present to increase surface area for secretory or
absorption function
2. Potassium (K) ions – are active electrolytes, responsible for pumping amino
acid, salt and water reabsorption back to hemolymph

Cryptonephridial arrangement is the whole complex of rectum and Malpighian tubules

within a membrane, i. e. having the distal ends of the Malpighian tubules closely associated
with the rectum. This modification of the hindgut is exhibited by caterpillars and stored
product pests (some beetles) and is concerned with improving water uptake from the rectum
in the latter, and in caterpillars, it is primarily concerned with ionic regulation.

Circulatory System

Insects, like all other arthropods, have an open circulatory system which differs in both
structure and function from the closed circulatory system found in humans and other
vertebrates. In a closed system, blood is always contained within vessels (arteries, veins,
capillaries, or the heart itself). In an open system, blood (usually called hemolymph) spends
much of its time flowing freely within body cavities where it makes direct contact with all
internal tissues and organs. The circulatory system is responsible for movement of nutrients,
salts, hormones, and metabolic wastes throughout the insect's body. In addition, it plays
several critical roles in defense: it seals off wounds through a clotting reaction, it encapsulates
and destroys internal parasites or other invaders, and in some species, it produces (or
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sequesters) distasteful compounds that provide a degree of protection against predators. The
hydraulic (liquid) properties of blood are important as well. Hydrostatic pressure generated
internally by muscle contraction is used to facilitate hatching, molting, expansion of body and
wings after molting, physical movements (especially in soft-bodied larvae), reproduction (e.g.

insemination and oviposition), and evagination of certain types of exocrine glands. In some
insects, the blood aids in thermoregulation: it can help cool the body by conducting excess
heat away from active flight muscles or it can warm the body by collecting and circulating heat
absorbed while basking in the sun.

A dorsal vessel is the major structural component of an insect's circulatory system. This tube
runs longitudinally through the thorax and abdomen, along the inside of the dorsal body wall.
In most insects, it is a fragile, membranous structure that collects hemolymph in the abdomen
and conducts it forward to the head.

In the abdomen, the dorsal vessel is called the heart. It

is divided segmentally into chambers that are
separated by valves (ostia) to ensure one-way flow of
hemolymph. A pair of alary muscles are attached
laterally to the walls of each chamber. Peristaltic
contractions of the these muscles force the hemolymph
forward from chamber to chamber. During each
diastolic phase (relaxation), the ostia open to allow
inflow of hemolymph from the body cavity. The
heart's contraction rate varies considerably from
species to species -- typically in the range of 30 to 200
beats per minute. The rate tends to fall as ambient
temperature drops and rise as temperature (or the
insect's level of activity) increases.

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In front of the heart, the dorsal vessel lacks valves or musculature. It is a simple tube (called
the aorta) which continues forward to the head and empties near the brain. Hemolymph
bathes the organs and muscles of the head as it emerges from the aorta, and then haphazardly
percolates back over the alimentary canal and through the body until it reaches the abdomen
and re-enters the heart.

To facilitate circulation of hemolymph, the body cavity is divided into three compartments
(called blood sinuses) by two thin sheets of muscle and/or membrane known as the dorsal and
ventral diaphragms. The dorsal diaphragm is formed by alary muscles of the heart and related
structures; it separates the pericardial sinus from the perivisceral sinus. The ventral diaphragm
usually covers the nerve cord; it separates the perivisceral sinus from the perineural sinus.

In some insects, pulsatile organs are located near the base of the wings or legs. These
muscular "pumps" do not usually contract on a regular basis, but they act in conjunction with
certain body movements to force hemolymph out into the extremities.

About 90% of insect hemolymph is plasma: a watery fluid -- usually clear, but sometimes
greenish or yellowish in color. Compared to vertebrate blood, it contains relatively high
concentrations of amino acids, proteins, sugars, and inorganic ions. Overwintering insects
often sequester enough ribulose, trehalose, or glycerol in the plasma to prevent it from freezing
during the coldest winters. The remaining 10% of hemolymph volume is made up of various
cell types (collectively known as hemocytes); they are involved in the clotting reaction,
phagocytosis, and/or encapsulation of foreign bodies. The density of insect hemocytes can
fluctuate from less than 25,000 to more than 100,000 per cubic millimeter, but this is
significantly fewer than the 5 million red blood cells, 300,000 platelets, and 7000 white blood
cells found in the same volume of human blood. With the exception of a few aquatic midges,
insect hemolymph does NOT contain hemoglobin (or red blood cells). Oxygen is delivered by
the tracheal system, not the circulatory system.

In summary…
 Open system because the body cavity houses most of the insect blood
 Poorly developed in insects compared to human beings and this is somehow consistent
with elaborate tracheal system and neurohemal systems; inspite of this, food
distribution is efficient as well as waste product removal
 Aims to bathe all tissues inside the insect body and to supply nutrients in all the cells
(nothing excluded)

Dorsal Vessel
 Found in the pericardial sinus and is cut off by the periviscera and by the dorsal
diaphragm
 Made up of a single layer of muscle cells, and enclosed with connective tissues at both
sides, and innervated by nerves and tracheoles to supply stimuli and oxygen

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  Supporting the dorsal vessel will be the alary muscles closely associated with the dorsal
diaphragm, converging with the body wall and basically attached to the tergum

Morphological Types of Dorsal Vessel

1. Straight Tube – mostly without segmental swellings, diverticula and other special
structures (e.g. Dermaptera, Thysanura, Coleoptera, Diptera)
2. Dilatations – vessel may have series of large segmentally arranged bulbous
structure (e.g. Orthoptera, Ephemeroptera, other Coleoptera)
3. Tubular Extensions – vessel may have either cephalic or post-cephalic tubular
extensions; in some species may be present in abdomen (e.g. Lepidoptera, Other
Diptera and Orthoptera)
Note: Within the 3 major types there are special configurations; some species may
have loops or kinks, or tight coils.

To help in circulation, there are

ACCESORY PULSATILE ORGANS. These are muscles, connective tissues, filaments or
ampulla (“kulani”), located in the thorax especially the meso- and meta- thoraces or in the
appendaged, and they help in blood circulation.

INNERVATIONS (nerves that supply the heart)

1. Recurrent nerve on the ganglia of ventral nerve cord
2. Stomatogastric nerve system suuply heart via the occipital and ingluvial
ganglionic nerves
3. Esophageal nerves
The circulatory system is well innervated and thus, plays a vital role in insect
survival

HEMOLYMPH is the blood of insects…

 it is the extracellular fluid, usually clear or colored, with green and yellow pigments
coming from food
 it is circulated by the heart or dorsal vessel, contains blood cells, salts, proteins, amino
acids and minerals
 90% of hemolymph is water
 it is responsible for 16-20% of insect weight
 its pH is 6 to 8.2 with specific gravity of 1.012 to 1.07
 its carbon dioxide is of limited amount and in equilibrium with the bicarbonate

Composition of Hemolymph (mg %)

INSECTS HUMANS
Total N2 1400-1700 3000-3700
Protein N2 700-900 1000-1265
Total Protein 4375-5625 6500-8200
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Non-protein N2 300-500 25-35
Free Amino Protein 200-300 5-8
Urea N2 1-10 10-15
Uric Acid 12-14 2-3.5
K 160-180 (foliage) 178
Na 20-40 (omnivorous) 178
20-60 (adult parasite) 330
Mg 10-25 1-3
P (total) 64-245 34.9
Cl 50-100 450-500
Reducing Substance (glucose) 0-25 (1000 in honeybee) 70-100
Glycogen 24 5.5
Trehalose 700-850 Glucose
Lipids 398 652

Functions of the Hemolymph (Importance for insect survival)

1. transport mechanism for nutrients (digestive system), hormones (endocrine glands),
waste products (dumping ground); also transport cells, blood cells, to get access of
nutrients
2. storage site for water (major) and also for substances important in molting and
reproduction, and serves as metabolic pool
3. hydraulic medium, thus it is important for its hydrostatic pressure (needed in molting),
by controlling contractions of insect body for performance of insect function
4. thermoregulation (allows changes in hemolymph circulation patterns to increase body
temperature) and frost protection
5. protection and defense against hazards

Three Forms of Hazards to Insects

1. Physical Injury – like damage to integument can be helped by blood clotting which seals
the wounds and facilitates repair, hence, lessening infection
2. Entry of Foreign Bodies, Compounds or Microorganisms (–this includes also insecticides)
if it go through the hemolymph, there are detoxifying enzymes
3. Predation - defense by reflexive bleeding. This wards off predator

How is blood circulated? (See Diagram below)

 From posterior to anterior via perforations or ostia
 The dorsal vessel serves as the propeller mechanism for continuous blodd
circulation
 The perineural sinus (frontal) facilitates for the circulation in the legs (posterior to
anterior) and antenna (anterior to posterior)
 For the perivisceral sinus, all organs facilitate
 For the pericardial sinus, the accessory pulsatile organs acts as siphon; wings
(anterior to posterior)
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Organs and Tissues Associated with the Circulatory System
1. Pericardial Cells and Other Nephrocytes – are large cells scattered along the dorsal vessel
and alary muscles whose functions are to serve as major site for metabolism of
unwanted proteins from blood, absorb colloidal particles like chlorophyll from
hemolymph and serve as source of cardiac accelerator
2. Fat Body – is basically a loose meshwork of lobes invested in connected tissue and the
purpose is in connection with blood; consists of ADIPOCYTE, aggregated to form a lobe;
functions for intermediary metabolism of protein, carbohydrate and fats
3. Oenocytes (in association with fat bodies) – found underneath epidermis and are the
large cells that produce constituents of that cuticle, lipoprotein (cuticulin layer); also for
intermediary metabolism like fat body

Respiratory system
Insects are aerobic organisms -- they must obtain oxygen (O 2) from their environment in order
to survive. They use the same metabolic reactions as other animals (glycolysis, Kreb's cycle,
and the electron transport system) to convert nutrients (e.g. sugars) into the chemical bond
energy of ATP.

During the final step of this process, oxygen atoms react with hydrogen ions to produce water,
releasing energy that is captured in a phosphate bond of ATP.

The respiratory system is responsible for delivering sufficient oxygen to all cells of the body and
for removing carbon dioxide (CO2) that is produced as a waste product of cellular respiration.
The respiratory system of insects (and many other
arthropods) is separate from the circulatory system. It is
a complex network of tubes (called a tracheal system)
that delivers oxygen-containing air to every cell of the
body.

Air enters the insect's body through valve-like openings in

the exoskeleton. These openings (called spiracles) are
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located laterally along the thorax and abdomen of most insects -- usually one pair of spiracles
per body segment. Air flow is regulated by small muscles that operate one or two flap-like
valves within each spiracle -- contracting to close the spiracle, or relaxing to open it.

After passing through a spiracle, air enters a longitudinal tracheal trunk, eventually diffusing
throughout a complex, branching network of tracheal tubes that subdivides into smaller and
smaller diameters and reaches every part of the body. At the end of each tracheal branch, a
special cell (the tracheole) provides a thin, moist interface for the exchange of gasses between
atmospheric air and a living cell. Oxygen in the tracheal tube
first dissolves in the liquid of the tracheole and then diffuses into
the cytoplasm of an adjacent cell. At the same time, carbon
dioxide, produced as a waste product of cellular respiration,
diffuses out of the cell and, eventually, out of the body through
the tracheal system.

Each tracheal tube develops as an invagination of the ectoderm

during embryonic development. To prevent its collapse under
pressure, a thin, reinforcing "wire" of cuticle (the taenidia) winds
spirally through the membranous wall. This design (similar in
structure to a heater hose on an automobile or an exhaust duct
on a clothes dryer) gives tracheal tubes the ability to flex and stretch without developing kinks
that might restrict air flow.

The absence of taenidia in certain parts of the tracheal system allows the formation of
collapsible air sacs, balloon-like structures that may store a reserve of air. In dry terrestrial
environments, this temporary air supply allows an insect to conserve water by closing its
spiracles during periods of high evaporative stress. Aquatic insects consume the stored air
while under water or use it to regulate buoyancy. During a molt, air sacs fill and enlarge as the
insect breaks free of the old exoskeleton and expands a new one. Between molts, the air sacs
provide room for new growth -- shrinking in volume as they are compressed by expansion of
internal organs.

Small insects rely almost exclusively on passive diffusion and physical activity for the movement
of gasses within the tracheal system. However, larger insects may require active ventilation of
the tracheal system (especially when active or under heat stress). They accomplish this by
opening some spiracles and closing others while using abdominal muscles to alternately expand
and contract body volume. Although these pulsating movements flush air from one end of the
body to the other through the longitudinal tracheal trunks, diffusion is still important for
distributing oxygen to individual cells through the network of smaller tracheal tubes. In fact,
the rate of gas diffusion is regarded as one of the main limiting factors (along with weight of the
exoskeleton) that prevents real insects from growing as large as the ones we see in horror
movies

In summary…

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  Is made up of the tracheal system
 Involves both physical (gas exchange and ventilation) and chemical (metabolic
respiration)
 In small insects, simple diffusion will allow oxygen to reach the spiracle, then the cells;
while in big insects, ventilation ensures that pumping strokes provided by abdomen and
air sacs will reach the cells
 In general, spiracles will flutter to let air in
 Once oxygen reaches the cells, it will undergo chemical respiration (O 2 = ATP energy)
 Reaction is C6H1206 + O2 = CO2 + H2O + ATP

CO2 will move out (evaporate) out of the tubes through the spiracles. Some will diffuse
through the cuticle, others will be dissolved or excreted through the hemolymph via the
Malpighian tubule-rectum system

How is gaseous CO2 released through the spiracles?

 BURST THEORY for cyclic release of CO 2; i.e. spiracles flutter continuously (serves to
conserve water), open completely for a second, and then burst.

Spiracle Opening is dependent on the high level of CO 2 and low level of O2 and water imbalance
which leads to muscular contraction.

Respiratory Adaptations
 CLOSED TRACHEAL SYSTEM (non-functional spiracles) – oxygen gets in via
1. Cutaneous Respiration – wherein insects have very thin cuticle with the
trachea lying just beneath the cuticle; in this situation, O 2 is diffused (e.g.
Protura, Collembola and Endoparasitic insects)
2. Tracheal Gills – found in many aquatic larval insects, wherein tracheal
network is found in close association with gills and also has a very thin
cuticle; structures do not have high metabolic activity which can pick up O 2
from the water and transport it to the different tissue by overcoming the
boundary layer of water. Based on location tracheal gills can be classified:
a. Lateral abdominal gills – e.g. ephemeropteran larvae
b. Caudal gills – e.g. damselfly larvae
c. Rectal gills – e.g. dragonfly larvae

 OPEN TRACHEAL SYSTEM

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 1. Spiracular Adaptations (for terrestrial) – presence of atrium with valves for
closure made possible by muscles; hence, water loss is regulated. Spiracles
can also be covered with hairs, bristles, sieve plate. It may contain hydrofuge
structures that will not allow water entry.
2. Functional Tracheal System (for aquatic) – gets oxygen from the atmosphere
by frequently surfacing; may also have gas gills; other sources of O 2 include
air from aquatic plants i. e. air spaces from arenchyma

Ways by which water will not enter

1. Spiracles can have oily secretion from peristigmatic glands that will render the spiracle
the condition of hydrofuge (dry), e.g. dipteran larvae
2. Some have hydrofuge hairs surrounding spiracles which may open or close to prevent or
allow water entry.
3. Others have posterior abdominal discs through which spiracles open into a respiratory
siphon. This could be withdrawn or extended when ready for O2 intake

Terminologies in relation to
Spiracle Numbers and Arrangements

Polypneustic – at least 8 functional spiracles on each side

Holopneustic 10 spiracles 2 thoracic 8 abdominal Crickets
Peripneustic 9 spiracles 1 thoracic 8 abdominal Gall midges
Hemipneustic 8 spiracles 1 thoracic 7 abdominal Fungus gnat
Oligopneustic – 1 or 2 functional spiracles on each side
Amphineustic 2 spiracles 1 thoracic 1 post-abdominal Moth flies
Metapneustic 1 spiracle 1 post abdominal Mosquito larva
Propneustic 1 spiracle 1 mesothoracic Mosquito pupa
Apneustic – no functional spiracles

Movement of Insects

Nervous System

An insect's nervous system is a network of

specialized cells (called neurons) that serve as an
"information highway" within the body. These
cells generate electrical impulses (action
potientials) that travel as waves of depolarization

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along the cell's membrane. Every neuron has a nerve cell body (where the nucleus is found)
and filament-like processes (dendrites, axons, or collaterals) that propagate the action potential.
Signal transmission is always unidirectional -- moving toward the nerve cell body along a
dendrite or a collateral and away from the nerve cell body along an axon.

Neurons are usually divided into three categories, depending on their function within the
nervous system:
1. Afferent (sensory) neurons -- these bipolar or multipolar cells have dendrites that are
associated with sense organs or receptors. They always carry information toward the
central nervous system.
2. Efferent (motor) neurons -- unipolar cells that conduct signals away from the central
nervous system and stimulate responses in muscles and glands.
3. Internuncial (association or inter-) neurons -- unipolar cells (often with several
collaterals and/or branching axons) that conduct signals within the central nervous
system.

Individual nerve cells connect with one another through

special junctions, called synapses. When a nerve impulse
reaches the synapse, it releases a chemical messenger
( neurotransmitter substance) that diffuses across the
synapse and triggers a new impulse in the dendrite(s) of
one or more connecting neurons. Acetylcholine, 5-
hydroxytryptamine, dopamine, and noradrenaline are
examples of neurotransmitters found in both vertebrate
and invertebrate nervous systems.

Nerve cells are typically found grouped in bundles. A

nerve is simply a bundle of dendrites or axons that serve
the same part of the body. A ganglion is a dense cluster of
interconnected neurons that process sensory information
or control motor outputs.

The Central Nervous System.

Like most other arthropods, insects have a relatively simple central nervous system with a
dorsal brain linked to a ventral nerve cord that consists of paired segmental ganglia running
along the ventral midline of the thorax and abdomen. Ganglia within each segment are linked
to one another by a short medial nerve (commissure) and also joined by intersegmental
connectives to ganglia in adjacent body segments. In general, the central nervous system is
rather ladder-like in appearance: commissures are the rungs of the ladder and intersegmental

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 Side view of body showing relative position of connectives are the rails. In more
circulatory (yellow), digestive (green), and "advanced" insect orders there is a
nervous (blue) systems. tendency
for individual ganglia to combine (both
laterally and longitudinally) into larger
ganglia that serve multiple body
segments.
An insect's brain is a complex of six fused
ganglia (three pairs) located dorsally
within the head capsule. Each part of
the brain controls (innervates) a limited
spectrum of activities in the insect's body:

Protocerebrum: The first pair of ganglia

are largely associated with vision; they
innervate the compound eyes and ocelli.
Deutocerebrum: The second pair of ganglia process sensory information collected by the
antennae.
Tritocerebrum: The third pair of ganglia innervate the labrum
and integrate sensory inputs from proto- and deutocerebrums.
They also link the brain with the rest of the ventral nerve cord
and the stomodaeal nervous system (see below) that controls the
internal organs. The commissure for the tritocerebrum loops
around the digestive system, suggesting that these ganglia were
originally located behind the mouth and migrated forward
(around the esophagus) during evolution.
Located ventrally in the head capsule (just below the brain and
esophagus) is another complex of fused ganglia (jointly called the
subesophageal ganglion). Embryologists believe this structure
contains neural elements from the three primitive body
segments that merged with the head to form mouthparts. In
modern insects, the subesophageal ganglion innervates not only
mandibles, maxillae, and labium, but also the hypopharynx,
salivary glands, and neck muscles. A pair of circumesophageal
connectives loop around the digestive system to link the brain
and subesophageal complex together.

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In the thorax, three pairs of thoracic ganglia (sometimes fused) control locomotion by
innervating the legs and wings. Thoracic muscles and sensory receptors are also
associated with these ganglia. Similarly, abdominal ganglia control movements of
abdominal muscles. Spiracles in both the thorax and abdomen are controlled by a pair
of lateral nerves that arise from each segmental ganglion (or by a median ventral nerve
that branches to each side). A pair of terminal abdominal ganglia (usually fused to form
a large caudal ganglion) innervate the anus, internal and external genitalia, and sensory
receptors (such as cerci) located on the insect's back end.

The Stomodaeal Nervous System. An insect's internal organs are largely innervated by a
stomodaeal (or stomatogastric) nervous system. A pair of frontal nerves arising near
the base of the tritocerebrum link the brain with a frontal ganglion (unpaired) on the
anterior wall of the esophagus. This ganglion innervates the pharynx and muscles
associated with swallowing. A recurrent nerve along the anterio-dorsal surface of the
foregut connects the frontal ganglion with a hypocerebral ganglion that innervates the
heart, corpora cardiaca, and portions of the foregut. Gastric nerves arising from the
hypocerebral ganglion run posteriorly to ingluvial ganglia (paired) in the abdomen that
innervates the hind gut.

In comparison to vertebrates, an insect's nervous system is far more de-centralized. Most overt
behavior (e.g. feeding, locomotion, mating, etc.) is integrated and controlled by segmental
ganglia instead of the brain. In some cases, the brain may stimulate or inhibit activity in
segmental ganglia but these signals are not essential for survival. Indeed, a headless insect
may survive for days or weeks (until it dies of starvation or dehydration) as long as the neck is
sealed to prevent loss of blood!

Brain – lies dorsally in the head above the oesophagus and has 3 recognizable distinct areas
within it: (a) PROTOCEREBRUM which extends laterally to the optic lobes and compound eyes,
(b) DEUTOCEREBRUM which receives input from the antennae, and (c) TRITOCEREBRUM – from
which the circumoesophageal connectives extend to the suboesophageal ganglion (formed by
the fusion of the ganglia of the mandibular, maxillary and labial segments) that sends nerves to
the mouthparts.

Nerve Cell (neuron) – is the basic unit of the nervous system that comprise a cell body with
basically two projections: (a) DENDRITE – which receives a stimulus from the environment or
other nerve cells and causes a change in the electrical potential across the nerve cell membrane
and leads to the production of short-lived changes in electrical potential known as impulses or
spikes, which travel along the second projection known as the (b) AXON. This is usually very
long, and have terminal branches which transmits information chemically via synapses to the
dendrite of another nerve cell or to an effector organ, usually a muscle.

Note: Chemical transmission involves acetylcholine while neuromuscular transmissions

uses glutamate.

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Blood-brain Barrier – a sheath of connective tissue and perineurial glial cells surrounding the
CNS, forming a barrier between the nerve cells and the haemocoele, and thus, ensures that the
nerve cells function in a constant environment, unaffected by variations in the haemolymph.

Muscular System

This system is made up of contractile units, known as myosin filaments, each surrounded by a
ring of six (non-visceral) or 12 (visceral) actin filaments. These are aligned across a muscle fibre
in sarcomeres, separated by Z discs, giving the muscle a striated appearance.

Muscle contraction is facilitated by the arrival of a nerve impulse at the nerve-muscle junction.
Insect muscles differ from those of the vertebrates in that the change in the muscle membrane
rapidly decays and does not spread over the whole membrane. As such, insect muscles are
characterized by the presence of numerous nerve endings derived from the branching of a
single axon (multiterminal innervation).

Movement of most skeletal muscles is controlled by pairs of antagonistic muscles, one inserted
on each side of the articulation. Jumping is produced by a relatively slow build up of tension by
distortion of some part of the cuticle by a powerful muscle. The sudden release of this tension
is produced by some secondary mechanism and involves the rapid shortening of the power
muscle and the restoration of the cuticle to its normal, unstressed state.

Sense Organs

All insects have sense organs that allow them to see, smell, taste, hear, and touch their
environment. Since these are the same five senses we humans experience, it is tempting to
conclude that insects see what we see, hear what we hear, smell what we smell, etc. But
experimental evidence has shown that an insect's sensory capabilities are very different (both
qualitatively and quantitatively) from those of humans and other vertebrates.

All sense organs (receptors) act as transducers -- converting light energy, chemical energy, or
mechanical energy from the environment into electrical energy of nerve impulses in sensory
neurons. Signals generated by insect sensory receptors travel to the brain or ventral nerve cord
where they stimulate appropriate behavioral responses: finding resources (e.g. food, mate,
etc.), avoiding danger, or reacting to changes in the environment. All sensory receptors are
derived from embryonic ectoderm and are integral parts of the insect's exoskeleton. They can
be grouped into one of three categories, depending on function:

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 Category Function Examples

Tactile receptors
Detect movements, vibrations, or other
Mechanoreceptors Proprioceptors
mechanical disturbances
Sound receptors

Detect the presence of chemical substances in Taste buds on palps

Chemoreceptors the air (smell) or on substrates (taste) Antennal sensilla

Photoreceptors or Detect the presence and quality of incident Compound eyes

Thermoregula light (electromagnetic radiation) Ocelli
tors

“Colors" of Light Color Vision. The chemical basis of vision depends upon the
<380 nm absorption of light (electromagnetic radiation) by special
Ultraviolet 380-450 pigments in the eye. These pigments are transducers : they
Violet convey electromagnetic energy into the chemical energy that
450-500
can initate (stimulate) an impulse within a nerve cell
Blue 500-520 (neuron). In human eyes, the visual pigments are
Blue-green 520-550 manufactured and stored in the rods and cones of the
Green 550-570 retina. In insects, all visual pigments are manufactured by
Yellow-green 570-600 retinula cells; they are stored in the rhabdoms of the
Yellow 600-630 compound eyes and ocelli.
Orange Not all visual pigments are alike. Rhodopsin, the pigment found
630-680
in human rods, absorbs a wide range of electromagnetic
Red >680 frequencies (colors) from blue to yellow. There are three types of
Infra-red cone pigments (iodopsins) that are somewhat more selective --
each has an absorbance maximum that correspond to one of the
three "primary" colors: blue, green, or red.

Our ability to discriminate a full range of color is based on the additive response of all three
receptor types.

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Colorblindness occurs when one or more of the cone pigments is defective. A colorblind person
still has a range of color perception, but lacks the ability to discriminate a complete
spectrum of colors. Most insects have only two types of visual pigments. One pigment
absorbs green and yellow light (550 nm); the other absorbs blue and ultraviolet light (<480
nm). Insects cannot see red. (Does this mean they don't get angry?) These insects have
only limited color vision -- much like that of colorblind humans but with their frequency
response shifted into the ultraviolet.

Bichromatic insects (those with only two types of color pigment receptors) are often unable to
discriminate pure colors from mixtures of colors. For example, light at 500 nm (blue-green)
would be absorbed equally by both the yellow and UV pigments and stimulate an equivalent
response in both receptor types. Yet both receptors could also be equally stimulated by
mixtures of light (say 450 nm and 550 nm) -- the insect could not discriminate between this
mixture and a single color at 500 nm. Honeybees, bumblebees, and many diurnal butterflies
have true vision. They have three visual pigments (Figure 3) with absorption maxima at 360 nm
(ultraviolet), 440 nm (blue-violet), and 588 nm (yellow). These trichromatic insects can
perceive a complete spectrum of colors (within the range color of their spectral sensitivity) and
can also discriminate between single colors and mixtures of colors. A combination of UV and
yellow (opposite ends of the insect's visual spectrum) would look "blue-green" to a bichromatic
insect because both receptor types are stimulated. But that same color combination would be
distinctive to a trichromatic insect because the "blue-violet" receptor is NOT stimulated.

Behavioral studies confirm that bees perceive the UV-yellow combination as a unique "color".
So what do you call a "color" that is a UV-yellow combination? It is the equivalent of "purple"
in the human color scheme, so we call it "bee-purple" in the bee's color scheme.

In summary,
1. Mechanoreception
a. Touch– monitored by hair sensilla, innervated by a single neuron
b. Hearing
i. perception of aerial vibrations by long slender trichoid sensilla
ii. air causes a membrane, tympanum (backed by a large air-sac), to vibrate
which eventually are perceived by chordotonal organs (made up of
scolopidia); Johnston’s organ inserted into the base of the antennal
flagellum, present in all adults
2. Chemoreception
a. Taste – contact chemoreceptors prevalent in mouthparts, but also present on
antennae and tarsi; sensilla are usually hairs or cones which possess 4 neurons
b. Smell – perceived by olfactory sensilla characterized by the presence of
numerous, small pores
3. Thermoreception
a. Vision –
i. Compound eye – made up of ommatidia
ii. Ocelli
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 iii. Stemmata

Sound Production Mechanisms

1. Banging part of the body against a substratum
2. Forcing air out of the alimentary canal or tracheal system
3. Rubbing one part of the body, a scraper, against another part known as the strigil or file
(frictional methods)
4. Vibrating a membrane by direct muscular activity

Survival of Species

Reproductive System

The reproductive organs of insects are similar in structure and function to those of vertebrates:
a male's testes produce sperm and a female's ovaries produce eggs (ova). Both types of
gametes are haploid and unicellular, but eggs are usually much larger in volume than sperm.

Most insect species reproduce sexually -- one egg from a female and one sperm from a male
fuse (syngamy) to produce a diploid zygote. But there are also many species that reproduce by
parthenogenesis, asexual reproduction in which there is growth and development of an
unfertilized egg. Some species alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction (not all
generations produce males), others are exclusively parthenogenetic (no males ever occur).

Males. The male's reproductive system contains a pair of testes, usually located near the back of
the abdomen. Each testis is subdivided into functional units (called follicles) where sperm
are actually produced. A typical testis may contain hundreds of follicles, generally aligned
parallel to one another. Near the distal end of each follicle, there are a group of germ cells
(spermatogonia) that divide by mitosis and increase in size to form spermatocytes. These
spermatocytes migrate toward the basal end of the follicle, pushed along by continued cell
division of the spermatogonia. Each
spermatocyte undergoes meiosis: this yields
four haploid spermatids which develop into
mature spermatozoa as they progress further
along through the follicle.

Mature sperm pass out of the testes through short

ducts (vasa efferentia) and collect in storage
chambers (seminal vesicles) that are usually little
more than enlarged sections of the vasa. Similar
ducts (vasa deferentia) lead away from the seminal
vesicles, join one another near the midline of the
body, and form a single ejaculatory duct that leads
out of the body through the male's copulatory
organ (called an aedeagus).
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One or more pairs of accessory glands are usually associated with the male's reproductive
system. These are secretory organs that connect to the reproductive system by means of short
ducts -- some may attach near the testes or seminal vesicles, others may be associated with the
ejaculatory duct. The glands have two major functions:

1. Manufacture of seminal fluid, a liquid medium that sustains and nourishes mature
sperm while they are in the male's genital system.
2. Production of spermatophores, pouch-like structures (mostly protein) that encase the
sperm and protect them as they are delivered to the female's body during copulation.

Females. The female's reproductive system contains a pair of ovaries. When the insect is
actively reproducing, these organs swell with developing eggs and may nearly fill the abdomen.
Each ovary is subdivided into functional units (called ovarioles) where the eggs are actually
produced. A typical ovary may contain dozens of ovarioles, generally aligned parallel to one
another. Near the distal end of each ovariole, there are a group of germ cells (oogonia) that
divide by mitosis and increase in size to form oocytes. During active oogenesis, new oocytes are
produced on a regular schedule within each ovariole. These oocytes migrate toward the basal
end of the ovariole, pushed along by continued cell division of the oogonia. Each oocyte
undergoes meiosis: this yields four cells -- one egg and three polar bodies. The polar bodies
may disintegrate or they may accompany the egg as nurse cells.

As developing eggs move down the ovariole, they grow in size by absorbing yolk (supplied by
adjacent nurse cells or accessory cells). Thus, each ovariole contains a linear series of eggs in
progressive stages of maturation, giving the appearance of a "chain of beads" where each bead
is larger than the one behind it. By the time an egg reaches the base (calyx) of the ovariole it
has reached full size -- often growing up to 100,000 times larger than the original oocyte.

Mature eggs leave the ovaries through short lateral oviducts. Near the midline of the body,
these lateral oviducts join to form a common oviduct
which opens into a genital chamber called the bursa
copulatrix. Female accessory glands (one or more pairs)
supply lubricants for the reproductive system and secrete
a protein-rich egg shell (chorion) that surrounds the
entire egg. These glands are usually connected by small
ducts to the common oviduct or the bursa copulatrix.

During copulation, the male deposits his spermatophore

in the bursa copulatrix. Peristaltic contractions force the
spermatophore into the female's spermatheca, a pouch-
like chamber reserved for storage of sperm. A
spermathecal gland produces enzymes (for digesting the
protein coat of the spermatophore) and nutrients (for

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sustaining the sperm while they are in storage). Sperm may live in the spermatheca for weeks,
months, or even years!

During ovulation, each egg passes across the opening to the spermatheca and stimulates
release of a few sperm onto the egg's surface. These sperm swim through the micropyle (a
special opening in the egg shell) and get inside the egg. Fertilization occurs as soon as one
sperm's nucleus fuses with the egg cell's nucleus. Oviposition (egg laying) usually follows
closely after fertilization.

Once these processes are complete, the egg is ready to begin its embryonic development.

Integumentary System

The integument of the insect forms not only its main interface with the environment but
has, perhaps, a more profound effect on its life than does the skin in any other animals.
1. it provides a rigid exoskeleton as well as allowing articulation at the joints
2. it is the external covering of the body and must resist abrasion and be waterproof
3. it consists of hardened sclerotized plates jointed together by thin unsclerotized strips
which provides rigidity with flexibility

Parts of the Integument

1. Epidermis – is a single-layered continuous sheet of cells beneath the cuticle; it
secretes the greater part of the cuticle and is involved in wound repair; it produces
the moulting fluid which contains proteinases and chitinases to digest the old
endocuticle
2. Procuticle – is divided over most of the body into three regions: endo-, exo- and
epicuticle; the exocuticle and endocuticle together are called the procuticle and
consist primarily of a protein-chitin complex
a. Endocuticle – is about 10 -200 m thick and is untanned; it can be
reabsorbed and thus can be thought of as a food reservoir
b. Exocuticle – is what forms the exuvium at moulting
3. Epicuticle – is the thin complex outer layer secreted by the epidermis, dermal glands
and oenocytes; it lacks chitins but contains proteins, lipids and polyphenols; its
outermost covering is often a cement layer, followed by highly polymerized lipids;
the major layer is the protein epicuticle which is a homogenous layer about 1 m
thick and composed of lipid protein complexes; when the epicuticle is first laid down
on the surface of the epidermal cells prior to ecdysis, it is deeply folded which are
later straightened out after ecdysis (made possible by the insect’s swallowing air).
4. Pore Canals – are the passageways of secretions by the epidermis from the inside to
the outside; these are originally cytoplasmic filaments extending from the epidermis,
but may later be filled with cuticular material; the epidermal secretions make
possible the repair of cuticle, wax secretion and release of tanning agents; the pores

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 are less than 1 m in diameter and are often twisted, following the helicoidal
arrangement of the chitin fibers in the cuticular lamellae

Chitin, which can account for up to 60% of the dry weight of the
cuticle, is a high molecular weight polysaccharide consisting mainly
of N-acetyl glucosamine units joined by -1, 4 links that are very
resistant to hydrolysis. The chitin chains are long and consist of

Section of typical insect cuticle (Modified from Wigglesworth, 1972)

Regulation of Life Processes

Endocrine Systems

Some of the hormonal secretions by insects is presented below:

Hormones Function
Ecdysiotropin , Prothoracotrophic Brain hormone produced by the cerebral
Hormone neurosecretory cells and released from the corpora
cardiaca
Juvenile Hormone Synthesized by neurosecretory cells; Secretions from
the corpora allata that control metamorphosis and
regulation of reproductive development such as
synthesis of yolk precursors or vitellogenins
Ecdysone Released from the prothoracic glands; Initiates tanning
Bursicon A neurosecretion released from the thoracic ganglia
which controls the tanning of the exocuticle and post-
moult deposition of the endocuticle
ARF (Anterior Segment Retraction Involved in pupariation; cerebral neurosecretions
Factor) released from peripheral nerve endings; involved in the
production of DOPA1-decarboxylase
PTF (Puparium Tanning Factor) Involved in pupariation; cerebral neurosecretions

1
di-hydroxy phenyl alanine
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 released from peripheral nerve endings; regulates the
synthesis of enzyme at the transcriptional level
necessary for the hydroxylation of tyrosine

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 Schematic Illustration of the Endocrine Control of
Reproduction in 5 Insects (Mordue et al.,1980

Environmental Cues

Mating

Feeding
Spermathecal Factor

Cerebral
Neurosecretion

Neurosecretory Cells

Corpora Cardiaca Pre-vitellogenic

Growth

Corpora Allata

JH
Protein
Synthesis
Vitellogenin Yolk
VITELLOGENESIS

Ovary
Ecdysone

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In summary, the main activities of insects are:

1. Maintenance. The insects need food, not only just food, but essential food for their
nutrition. This food should be digested and assimilated via Digestion and Absorption,
then transported to the different cells via the Circulatory System. Next, the nutrients
will be transformed into body building and energy-producing substances for energy and
intermediary metabolism. With the aid of oxygen from Respiration, the waste products
will be transformed and metabolism are taken out of the system through Excretion or
regulation of salt water balance.

2. Movement. To find food and mate, the Neuromuscular processes and Sense organs to
recognize them, must function.

3. Survival of Species, is the utmost reason for being. There must be production of
offspring, that is the main thrust of Reproduction. Support and protection is the
function of the Integumentary System.

4. Regulation of development, the Endocrine System plays the vital role of supplying
necessary biochemicals to ensure coordination of all life systems.

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INSECT SYSTEMATICS AND TAXONOMY

Taxonomy is fundamental to entomology as it involves the accurate naming and

identification of species. Once we know which particular species we are dealing with,
we can retrieve information about it. For example, if we have identified a particular fruit
fly from a crop, we can find out what is known about its life cycle, host plants,
distribution and many other aspects of its biology, and find ways by which to manage it.

Systematics is the scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of any and
all relationships among them (Mayr and Ashlock, 1991). The term comes from the
Greek word “systema’ as applied to the systems of classification. It involves ordering
and ranking of taxa.

Insects are generally classified into orders, families, genera and species. Described
insects have both common and scientific names. An example of the major categories for
the corn aphid shows the following classification:

Phylum Arthropoda
Class Insecta
Order Homoptera
Family Aphididae
Genus Rhopalosiphum
Species Rhopalosiphum maidis

Note that each category consists of only one word except the species category. The
scientific name of a species is binomial, i. e., it is composed of 2 names, a genus and a
specific name or a specific epithet. Unlike all the other categories, the specific name
cannot stand alone, thus, it must be used with the genus name.

The system of binomial nomenclature used today for classification was advanced by
Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus. Linnaeus first used the system in 1758.

Scientific names are usually Latinized. The scientific name of a species is always printed
in italics or, if handwritten, is underlined to indicate italics. The names of the genera and
the higher categories begin with a capital letter, but the species and subspecies names
always begin with a lowercase letter.

Arthropod Phylogeny

The first arthropods probably diverged from their primitive annelid (worm-like)
ancestors about 600 million years ago. The entire phylum may have developed from a
single common ancestor (monophyletic hypothesis) or animals with arthropod-like traits
may have had several independent origins (polyphyletic hypothesis). In any case, these
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 first arthropods were distinctive because they had a chitinous exoskeleton, jointed
appendages with claws, and a well-defined head capsule with specialized feeding
appendages.

There are three main branches on the arthropod's family tree:

 Trilobita -- marine arthropods that were abundant in prehistoric times but

became extinct about 245 million years ago. Very little is known about their
ecology.
 Chelicerata -- includes spiders, ticks, mites, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs.
These are predatory animals with fang-like mouthparts (chelicerae) that contain
a poison gland.
 Mandibulata -- includes crustaceans, myriapods, and insects. These animals
have mandibles and maxillae among their mouthparts. They represent a wide
range of ecological adaptations.

One group of Mandibulata (class Crustacea) became adapted to marine life -- they
currently populate a wide range of habitats throughout the world's oceans. Another
group, the ancestors of myriapods (e.g. millipedes and centipedes) became adapted for
life on land. Gradual reductions in the number of trunk segments and walking legs
eventually led to the appearance of six-legged animals (hexapods) with three distinct
body regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. This group includes all of the insects (class
Insecta) and three other closely related classes (Protura, Diplura, and Collembola: also
regarded as orders).
The most primitive living insects (Archaeognatha and Thysanura) are wingless as adults
(apterygote) and undergo no metamorphosis as they grow (ametabolous
development). The immatures are similar in appearance to the adults. The more
advanced insects (e.g., Odonata and Ephemeroptera) undergo incomplete
metamorphosis (hemimetabolous and paurometabolous development); they have
wings which develop gradually as they mature (exopterygote), but the wings cannot be
folded down against the body (Palaeoptera).
In more advanced insects (Neoptera), the wings can be folded against the body when at
rest. The most primitive neopterans are the stoneflies (Plecoptera) and the
webspinners (Embioptera). Early in the Carboniferous period, this branch of the insect's
family tree diverged into three major lineages:

The Blattoid-Orthopteroid line includes ten living insect orders that have relatively
unspecialized mouthparts. Most of these insects (except Mantodea) are herbivores or
scavengers.

 Blattodea -- cockroaches
 Isoptera -- termites
 Mantodea -- praying mantids

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  Dermaptera – earwigs
 Orthoptera -- grasshoppers and crickets
 Phasmatodea -- walking sticks
 Plecoptera
 Grylloblattodea -- rock crawlers
 Embioptera
 Zoraptera – zorapterans
 Grylloblattodea -- grylloblattids

The Hemipteroid line includes four orders with mouthparts that exhibit some degree of
specialization for rasping or piercing/sucking. Most of these are herbivores, but some
have adopted a lifestyle of predation or parasitism.

 Psocoptera -- booklice and barklice

 Thysanoptera – thrips
 Phthiraptera -- parasitic lice
o suborder Mallophaga – biting lice
o suborder Anoplura – sucking lice
 Hemiptera
o suborder Heteroptera -- true bugs
o suborder Homoptera -- cicadas, leafhoppers

The Endopterygota includes all insects that undergo complete metamorphosis

(holometabolous development). These insects have four stages in the life cycle (egg,
larva, pupa, and adult). Larvae are quite different in appearance from adults. Wings
and other adult structures develop internally during the pupal stage. The ten
holometabolous orders include about 4/5 of all living insect species. These insects
represent a wide range of ecological diversity -- scavengers, herbivores, predators, and
parasites.

Panorpoid Orders

 Mecoptera -- scorpionflies
 Diptera -- true flies
 Siphonaptera -- fleas
 Trichoptera -- caddisflies
 Lepidoptera -- butterflies and moths

Neuropteroid Orders

 Neuroptera -- lacewings, antlions, and dobsonflies

 Coleoptera -- beetles and weevils
 Strepsiptera -- twisted-wing parasites

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  Megaloptera – alderflies

Hymenopteroid Orders

 Hymenoptera -- ants, bees, wasps, and sawflies

Student Activity: Make a tree showing the relationship of
the different rankings (from phyla to order level).

Orders of Insects (After Mackerras, 1970)

Class and Order Collembola Lubbock 1870

 Collembola or springtails are usually small, elongate to globular hexapods;
body is soft, without distinct sclerites but clothed with hairs and sometimes
scales. Its most distinctive feature is the ventral tube or
collophore on the first abdominal segment; 3rd abdominal
segment with a ventral tenaculum; 4 th abdominal segment
usually with a ventral furcula; gonopore on venter of
abdominal segment 5. Antennae well-developed, usually
4-segmented but may be subdivided into 5 or 6 segments; compound eyes
absent, but usually 1 to 3 simple eyes.

Class and Order Diplura Boerner 1904

 Diplurans are usually small insects with many segmented antennae and
elongate body. Antennae long moniliform; compound eyes and ocelli absent.

Class and Order Protura Silvestri 1907

 Proturans are minute, whitish hexapods, 0.6 to 1.5 mm; antennae, compound
eyes and ocelli absent. Adult abdomen 12-segmented, with a pair of short
fingerlike processes called styli on each of the 3 basal segments between
sternum and laterotergite; comblike structure, pectin, present on
caudolateral border of sternum 8.

Class Insecta Linnaeus 1758

 refer to the attributes of insects

Order Archaeognatha (bristletails)

 Elongate, grayish-brown, wingless, with three long tail-like
appendages at the end of the abdomen, body laterally
compressed and compound eyes large and touching.
Bristletails are active jumpers and occur in leaf litter and
under bark and stones.
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Order Thysanura Latreille 1796 (fishmoths, silverfish)
 Elongate, silvery, wingless, with three long tail-like
appendages at the end of the abdomen, body dorsoventrally
flattened and compound eyes small and widely separated.
Fishmoths are often encountered in the houses where they
feed on starch-containing compounds such as paper and
linen, and may cause severe damage to books and documents.

Order Ephemeroptera Haeckel 1896 (mayflies)

 Mayfly nymphs live in water (aquatic), have abdominal gills,
and two or three long filaments (cerci) at the tip of the
abdomen. Adults are delicate, short-lived insects,
characterized by two or three long cerci on the abdomen.
Nymphs may be found clinging to rocks in pristine streams
and are good indicators of water quality. Adults do not feed and often form
large mating swarms.

Order Odonata Fabricius 1793 (dragonflies, damselflies)

 Nymphs are aquatic and predacious, with a unique extendible
labium modified for capturing prey. Adults have two pairs of
similar clear wings with many veins. The wings are held
outstretched (dragonflies) or over the body (damselflies)
when at rest. Odonata have large eyes and tiny bristle-like
antennae. They are good fliers and are usually brightly coloured.

Order Blattodea Brunner 1882 (cockroaches)

 Cockroaches may be winged or wingless, and are
dorsoventrally flattened. Antennae are very long and thread-
like and the head is usually concealed by a large shield-like
pronotum. Legs are adapted for running. They run actively
and feed on organic matter. Cockroaches are often pests in
houses where they can contaminate food and often emit an unpleasant
odour.

Order Mantodea Burmeister 1838 (praying mantids)

 Mantids are usually green or brown, with an elongated
prothorax, and are easily recognized by their raptorial
forelegs. Eggs are laid in a hard sponge-like ootheca. Both
adults and nymphs are voracious predators.

Order Phasmatodea Jacobi and Bianchi 1905 (stick insects, or

walking sticks)

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  Phasmids are very long, slender insects that resemble sticks. They are highly
cryptic and are seldom seen. Some species have well-developed wings. They
are all vegetarians and some lay beautifully sculptured eggs.

Order Dermaptera Leach 1815 (earwigs)

 Earwigs may be winged or wingless. Their main characteristic
is a pair of forceps-like cerci at the end of the abdomen. They
are elongate, flattened and usually dark-brown to black.
Dermaptera usually live under logs or stones and feed upon organic matter.

Order Embioptera Shipley 1904 (webspinners)

 Webspinners are small. Elongate,brown insects that live in silk-
lined tunnels. Silk is produced by the foretarsi which are
characteristically swollen. They feed on dead plant material.

Order Plecoptera Burmeister 1839 (stoneflies)

 Nymphs live on rocks in fresh water. Adults are elongate,
dorsoventrally flattened and brownish, with 2 pairs of similar,
membranous wings. Adults and nymphs have a pair of cerci
on the tip of the abdomen. They feed mostly on plant
material and detritus, but the larvae of a few species are
predators.

Order Zoraptera Silvestri 1913 (zorapterans)

 Very small insects, often wingless and seldom collected. Zorapterans
resemble elongate termites. They occur worldwide but are not well-known.

Order Psocoptera Shipley 1904 (booklice, psocids)

 Small, soft-bodied insects, with or without wings. When present, wings are
held roof-like over the abdomen when at rest. Booklice have large mobile
heads with bulging ‘faces’ and hair-like antennae. They feed on dry organic
matter and often damage books and insect collections.

Order Phthiraptera (lice)

 Lice are small, dorsoventrally flattened, wingless insects that
are ectoparasitic on birds and mammals, including humans.
The mouthparts are either adapted for chewing or for sucking.
Phthirus pubis (crab louse) and Pediculus humanus (body and
head lice) are two sucking forms that infest humans.
Suborder Mallophaga Nitzsch 1818 (biting lice)
Suborder Anoplura Leach 1815 (sucking lice)
Suborder Rhynchophthirina (not occurring in the Philippines)

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Order Orthoptera Olivier 1789 (crickets, grasshoppers, locusts)
 Orthopterans generally have two pairs of wings, with the
front pair thickened and known as tegmina. The hind legs
are modified for jumping, and the mouthparts are adapted
for biting and chewing. The capacity for producing sound is
well-developed in this order. There are two suborders:
Caelifera __ the short-horned grasshoppers; Ensifera __
long-horned grasshoppers and crickets. Locusts are the
most notorious members of this order. They form huge
swarms that are capable of destroying crops and pastures
over wide areas.

Order Isoptera Brulle 1832 (termites)

 Termites are small, soft-bodied, social insects. The
antennae are short and bead-like. Wings of alates are
elongate, similar and without crossveins. Workers are
wingless. They live in mounds (termitaria), underground or
in wood. Each nest is a highly organized society with
separate castes (queen, king, workers, soldiers and alates)
that perform specific functions such as reproduction,
defense and foraging. Termites are very destructive to
timber. Some feed on grass and cause considerable damage
to grazing areas.

Order Hemiptera Linnaeus 1758 (bugs, aphids, scale insects)

 All bugs have mouthparts modified into a beak or rostrum.
Two pairs of wings are usually present in adults, while some
are wingless and sessile (e.g. scale insects). Many bugs
damage crops with their piercing and sucking mouthparts,
and some are also vectors of plant virus diseases. A few are
beneficial as predators of pests, or control agents of alien
invasive weeds.

Suborder Heteroptera Latreille 1810 (true bugs)

Suborder Homoptera Leach 1815 (cicadas, treehoppers,

leafhoppers, spittlebugs, lanternflies, jumping
plant lice, whiteflies, aphids, mealybugs, scales)

Order Thysanoptera Haliday 1836 (thrips)

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  Thrips are usually small, elongate, blackish insects, often with two pairs of
narrow, hair-fringed wings. Thetips of the tarsi are swollen and bladder-like.
Mouthparts are assymetrical, forming a short triangular piercing beak. Some
are important pests of crops such as Citrus, and they also transmit diseases.

Order Megaloptera Latreille 1802 (alderflies)

 Alderfly larvae are aquatic predators and live in mountain streams or ponds.
Adults are soft-bodied, dull-brown insects with 2 pairs of similar membranous
wings and long filamentous antennae. The two pairs of wings are usually
wrapped around the body when folded.

Order Neuroptera Linnaeus 1758 (lacewings, antlions and owlflies)

 Characterized by two pairs of membranous wings, with
numerous crossveins, held roof-like over the body when at
rest. Antennae are variable but always conspicuous, and
mouthparts of adults are adapted for biting and chewing.
Larval mouthparts are unique among insects, and are usually
stout and curved, adapted for piercing and sucking. Larvae
of all families are predacious, and are significant in
agriculture and the environment as predators of other
insects.

Order Mecoptera (Packard 1886) Comstock 1895 (scorpionflies,

hangingflies)
 Adults have very long legs and two pairs of similar wings.
The head is modified into an elongate rostrum. Adults are
usually found in damp, shaded habitats and have elaborate
courtship behavior. They are predacious insects.

Order Trichoptera Kirby 1813 (caddisflies)

 The larvae are aquatic and many live in cases that they
construct from small stones and twigs. They feed on water-
borne detritus. Adults are soft-bodied, hairy, have long
antennae and resemble moths.

Order Siphonaptera Latreille 1825 (fleas)

 Fleas are small, lack wings and are laterally flattened. They
jump well and are parasitic on birds and mammals, including
humans. They transmit several diseases, such as bubonic
plague.

Order Diptera Linnaeus 1758 (flies)

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 Flies are characterized by only one pair of wings, with the
hind pair modified to form halteres. Many are
secondarily wingless. Mouthparts are usually adapted for
sucking or piercing. The larvae are maggot-like and true
thoracic legs are never present. Flies are highly
adaptable and have evolved a great variety of lifestyles,
often bringing them into direct conflict with man. Many
are important agricultural pests, some parasitize other
insects and many families are vectors of diseases in
animals and humans.

Order Lepidoptera Linnaeus 1758 (butterflies, moths)

 Adults have two pairs of wings that are covered in scales,
and the mouthparts are modified into a long tube which is
usually coiled at rest. Larvae are generally caterpillars with
a heavily sclerotized head capsule and chewing mouthparts.
Three pairs of segmented legs are present on the thorax,
and the abdomen has a series of prolegs bearing crochets
(hooks). The larvae damage crops and are important
agricultural pests. Beneficial Lepidoptera include
Cactoblastis, a biocontrol agent of prickly pear, and the silkworm.

Order Coleoptera Linnaeus 1758 (beetles)

 Coleoptera have two pairs of wings, with the front pair
thickened to form sclerotized elytra, which cover the
membranous hind wings and the abdomen. Mouthparts
are adapted for biting and chewing. Larvae have a well-
developed head capsule with chewing mouthparts, and
usually three pairs of thoracic legs. A large number of
beetle species are pests. They feed on fruits and leaves, or
bore into plants, and many species damage stored products,
timber and furniture.

Order Hymenoptera Linnaeus 1758 (ants, bees, wasps)

 Adults usually have 2 pairs of membranous wings, and the base
of the abdomen has a marked constriction. Mouthparts are
generally chewing. Many female Hymenoptera have a defensive
sting. Social behavior is often highly developed in this order.
Larvae usually lack legs and develop in nests or as parasites of
other insects. A few Hymenoptera are pests whereas majority
are beneficial insects. Many species are parasitic on other insects and are
important biocontrol agents, while bees produce honey and pollinate crops.

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Etymology of Order Names

Insect Order Meaning

Protura Prot = first; ura = tail
Collembola Coll = glue; embola = a bolt or wedge (referring to the collophore)
Diplura Dipl = two; ura = tail
Thysanura Thysan = bristle or fringe; ura = tail
Ephemeroptera Ephemero = for a day/ short-lived; ptera = wings
Odonata = from the Greek, meaning tooth (referring to the teeth or mandibles)
Orthoptera Ortho = straight; ptera = wings
Dermaptera Derma = skin; ptera = wings
Isoptera Iso = equal; ptera = wings
Embioptera Embio = lively; ptera = wings
Plecoptera Pleco = folded or plaited; ptera = wings (referring to the fact that the
anal region of the hind wings is folded when the wings are at rest)
Zoraptera Zor = pure; aptera = wingless. Only wingless individuals where known
when this order was described and their wingless condition was thought
to be a distinctive feature of the order.
Psocoptera Psoco = rub small; ptera = wings (referring to the gnawing habits of
these insects)
Mallophaga Mallo = wool; phaga = eat
Anoplura Anopl = unarmed; ura = tail
Thysanoptera Thysano = fringe; ptera = wings
Hemiptera Hemi = half; ptera = wings (referring to the fact that the front wings
usually have the basal portion thickened and the distal portion
membranous)
Homoptera* Homo = alike; ptera = wings
Neuroptera Neuro = nerve (referring to the wing veins); ptera = wings
Coleoptera Coleo = sheath; ptera = wings (referring to the elytra)
Strepsiptera Strepsi = twisted; ptera = wings
Mecoptera Meco = long; ptera = wings
Trichoptera Tricho = hair; ptera = wings
Lepidoptera Lepido = scale; ptera = wings
Diptera Di = two; ptera = wings
Siphonaptera Siphon = a tube; aptera = wingless
Hymenoptera Hymeno = god of marriage (referring to the union of front and hind
wings by means of hamuli); ptera = wings
Heteroptera* Hetero = different wings; i.e. forewings half membranous; ptera = wings

*
treated as a suborder of Hemiptera
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SOME INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS

1. RICE

a. Rice whorl maggot – Hydrellia philippina

(Diptera: Ephydridae)

Damage characteristics: Degenerated tissue along the inner margins of merging leaves. As
leaves expand, yellow damaged areas become conspicuously visible.

b. Green leafhopper (GLH) – Nephotettix virescens, N. nigropictus, N.malayanus

(Homoptera: Cicadellidae)

Damage characteristics: Stunted plant growth as a result of sucking of sap from leaves and
tillers. GLH are important vectors of viruses causing tungro disease.

c. Brown planthopper (BPH) – Nilaparvata lugens (Homoptera: Delphacidae)

Damage characteristics: Drying and browning of tillers due to removal of sap (hopperburn).
BPH are vectors of ragged and grassy stunt viruses in rice.

d. Rice stemborers

Striped stemborer – Chilo suppresalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Dark headed stemborer – Chilo polychrysus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Yellow stem borer – Scirpophaga incertulas (Lepidoptera: Shoenobiidae)

White stem borer – S. innonata

Pink stem borer – Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Damage characteristics: Unfolding, browning and drying of the central leaf whorl as a result
of larvae feeding within the stem. If plants are attacked before the flowering stage the
damage is called deadheart; if plants are attacked after flowering stage, unfilled grains or
dried panicles which remain straight and whitish results (whiteheads).

e. Rice bug –Leptocorisa oratorius

(Hemiptera: Alydidae)

Damage characteristics: Rice grains with darkened spots as a result of adult and
nymphal feeding. Feeding during the milk stage results in empty grains; feeding
during the soft dough stage results in lower grain quality and broken grains.
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 f. Leaffolder/ Leaf roller – Cnaphalocrosis medinalis
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Damage characteristics: Edges of leaves fastened together forming a tube where

pupation occurs.

g.Common cutworm – Spodoptera litura

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Damage characteristics: Young rice plants are often cut at ground level while
older plants are defoliated as a result of larval feeding. Newly hatched larvae
usually feed together on the leaf surface while older ones are found in the soil
around the base of the plants.

2.CORN

a. Corn earworm – Helicoverpa armigera armigera

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Damage characteristics: Rows of feeding holes on leaves after they unfold at

whorl stage; cut silk and hole at opening of ears from silking to soft dough stage.

b. Corn borer – Ostrinia furnacalis (Lepidoptera)

c. Corn seedling maggot – Atherigona oryzae
(Diptera: Muscidae)

Damage characteristics: Yellowing of younger leaves and rotting of tissues.

d. Corn aphids – Rhopalipsiphum maidis

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

Damage characteristics: Stunted growth due to removal of sap if attacked 2-3

weeks before tasseling; seedlings may wither and die if infested at early growth
stages; leaf surface with sooty molds due to heavy deposits of honey dew.

e. Corn semilooper – Chrysodeixis chalcites

(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Damage characteristics: Leaf blades of younger plants eaten up with only the
midrib and parallel veins left; corn silk cut.

f. Common cutworm – Spodoptera litura

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 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Damage characteristics: Leaves including veins and midribs almost consumed;

young plants completely defoliated.

g. Oriental migratory locust – Locusta migratoria manilensis

(Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Damage characteristics: Leaves are irregularly chewed. In serious cases, whole

plants sometimes stripped bare

3. SWEET POTATO

a. Sweet potato weevil – Cylas formicarius formicarius

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Damage characteristics: Tubers are tainted with disagreeable odor and

bitter taste due to secondary infection by microorganisms on tubers bored or
tunneled by larvae.

b. Hornworm - Agrius convulvoli

(Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Damage characteristics: Leaves of plants entirely consumed by the larvae.

c. Sweet potato bug – Physomerus grossipes

(Hemiptera: Coreidae

Damage characteristics: Stunted plants as a result of piercing of the stem

and sucking by both the nymphs and adults.

d. Tortoise beetles – Laccoptera tredecimpunctata, L. philippinensis

Cassida circumdata
Aspidomorpha miliaris
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Damage characteristics: Irregular holes on leaves and if they occur in

large numbers, plants are defoliated leaving only the stalks and midribs (both
larvae and adult feed).

4. CUCURBITS (ampalaya, squash, melon, patola, upo,kundol, cucumber,

chayote)

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 a. Cucurbit beetle – Aulacophora indica
(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Damage characteristics: Tender tissues of leaves and flowers of hosts are

scraped by the adults, leaving a shredded appearance of leaves. Larvae bore into
the roots or any portion of the plant close to the ground.

b. 28-spotted lady beetle – Epilachna vigintisexpunctata

philippinensis
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Damage characteristics: Succulent portions of leaves are scraped off, the

epidermis and veins, due to voracious feeding by both the larvae and adults.
When pest is numerous, defoliation may result.

c. Ampalaya/melon fruitfly – Bactrocera cucurbitae

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Damage characteristics: Stem and fruit rot due to maggots/larvae feeding

on the stems and fruits. Severe cases lead to many fruit drops or decay of
immature fruits.

d. Tobacco whitefly – Bemisia tabaci

(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)

Damage characteristics: Vector of plant viruses

e. Melon/Cotton aphid – Aphis gossypii

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

Damage characteristics: Leaves of young plants are cupped and distorted.

Drops of honeydew and/ or patches of sooty molds are found on the upper sides
of the leaves.

5. CRUCIFERS (Cabbage, Pechay, Cauliflower, Brocolli, Kale, Brussel sprouts)

a. Diamond-back moth (DBM) – Plutella xylostella

(Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)
(Most serious pest of cabbage)
Damage characteristics: Newly hatched caterpillar crawl underside the
leaf, penetrate the epidermis and feed on the leaf tissue. Later instars feed on
the underside of leaf causing “windows” or holes right through it.

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 b. Cabbage worm – Crocidolomia binotalis
(Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae)

Damage characteristics: Non-formation of heads in cabbage and

perforations on leaves of non-head forming crucifers.

c. Green peach aphid – Myzus persicae

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

Damage characteristics: Plant parts cease to grow in size, curl and

crumple and lose color due to continuous sucking of sap.

d. Striped flea beetle – Phyllotreta striolata

Coleoptera:Chrysomelidae

Damage characteristics: Young plants have round holes on cotyledons

and leaves. This is often referred to as “shot-hole effect.” The seedlings may be
killed if severe damage occurs.

e. Cabbage webworm – Hellula undalis

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Damage characteristics: Silken webbing on the surface of their leaves and

stalks and surrounding regions have feeding holes.

f. Common cutworm – Spodoptera litura

Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Damage characteristics: Soft epidermal tissues of leaves eaten by young

larvae. While leaf tissues eaten by full-grown larvae, starting along the midribs
towards the margins of leaves.

6. SOLANACEOUS (tomato, eggplant, pepper)

a. Eggplant shoot and fruit borer – Leucinodes orbonalis

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
(Most serious pest of eggplant)

Damage characteristics: The internal tissues of the fruit are devoured by

the larvae. Shoots, midribs, petioles and flowers are also attacked.

b. Tomato fruitworm – H. armigera armigera

(Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)
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 Damage characteristics: Fruits dry up and subsequently fall because
larvae bore into the fruit and feed voraciously on the tissues.

c. Sweet pepper fruitfly – Bactrocena sp.

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Damage characteristics: Maggots feed on the tissues of the fruits. Fruit

eventually rot.

d. 28-spotted lady beetle – Epilachna vigintisexpunctata philippinensis

(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Damage characteristics: Succulent portions of leaves are scraped off

leaving the epidermis of tissue and veins due to voracious feeding by both the
larvae and adults. When pest is numerous, defoliation may result.

7. LEGUMES

a. Bean fly – Ophiomyia phaseoli

(Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Damage characteristics: Attacked plants are stunted and yellow; often

many are dead. Stems just above the soil level are thickened and usually cracked.

b. Bean pod borer – Etiella zinckenella

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Damage characteristics: Larvae feed and make tunnels on the pods,

causing stems to be partially stained dark and filled with pulpy excrement.

c. Black bean aphid – Aphis craccivora

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

Damage characteristics: Some wilting results from the sap-sucking by the

aphids. This is a vector of many plant viruses.

d. Bean lycaenid – Euchrysops cnejus

(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

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 Damage characteristics: Larva lives in the interior of flowers and feed on
the seed pods It also feeds on the young buds but the body remains outside
while feeding on succulent tissues.

e. Green soldier bug – Nezara viridula

(Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Damage characteristics: Feeding punctures on developing fruits cause

local necrosis resulting to spotting, deformation, or if attacked when very young,
fruit shedding results.

f. Leafminer – Stomopteryx subsecievella

( Diptera: Gelechiidae)

Damage characteristics: Larva mines and feeds on tissues of the leaves.

As a result of feeding, only silvery membrane remains and the larvae are visible
externally. Heavy infestation causes premature dropping of leaf.

8. STORED PRODUCT PESTS

a. Bean weevil – Callosobruchus chinensis

(Coleoptera: Bruchidae)

b. Rice weevil – Sitophilus oryzae

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

c. Corn weevil – Sitophilus zeamays

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Damage characteristics: Larvae bore into the seeds and feed in the
interior of the grains. Severe infestation renders the grains unusable for human
consumption and for seedling purposes.

9. BANANA

a. Banana aphid – Pentalonia nigronervosa

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

Damage characteristics: Important as the vector of virus which causes

bunchy top disease. This aphid also transmits 3 other plant viruses.

b. Banana weevil – Cosmopolites sordidus

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
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 Damage characteristics: Irregular tunnels in the rhizome and pseudo
stem at ground level are bored by the larvae. The tissue at the edge of the tunnel
turns brown and rots. Infected plants are easily blown over. Larva tunnels may
extend up to the leaf petioles to a height of a meter or more.

c. Banana leafroller – Erionota thrax

(Lepidoptera: Hespiriidae)

Damage characteristics: Larvae feed in the direction of the midrib, cutting

and rolling the leaf with a white web. The rolls eventually wilt and the affected
leaf is no longer functional.

d. Banana thrips – Thrips florum

(Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Damage characteristics: Flowers and young fruits are attacked by the

insects. Infested young fruits develop spotted skins upon maturity.

10. CITRUS

a. Citrus psyllid – Diaphania citri

(Homoptera: Psyllidae)

Damage characteristics: Vector of citrus greening MLO.

b. Citrus butterflies – Papilio spp.

( Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

Damage characteristics: Feeding by the larvae on the flush and mature

leaves causes tree defoliation.

c. Wooly whitefly – Aleurothrixus floccosus

(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)
Damage characteristics: Larvae and adults suck the sap of leaves which
later turn yellowish. Honeydew secreted by larvae and adults favors the growth
of sooty molds that interfere with photosynthesis. A dense mat of wooly material
secreted by the larvae persist for months on the leaves.

d. Citrus aphids – Toxoptera spp.

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

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 Damage characteristics: Important vectors of citrus tristeza virus.

e. Citrus green locust – Melicodes tenebrosa

(Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Damage characteristics: Nymphs and adults feed on fruit and foliage.

Nymphs being gregarious feed together and may defoliate a twig.

11. MANGO

a. Mango leafhoppers – Idioscopus niveosparsus

(Homopterta: Cicadellidae)

Damage characteristics: Both nymph and adults suck juices on the leaves,
inflorescence and flower stems causing them to wither, dry and fall-off, thereby
preventing fruit formations. Sticky substance known as honeydew is secreted on
which sooty molds develop which interfere with the photosynthetic activity of
the leaves.

b. Mango twig borers – Niphonoclea albata

N. capito
(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Damage characteristics: Twigs are girdled resulting to drying and an

eventual withering and death. Infested leaves do not have a chance to bloom and
fruit production is reduced accordingly.

c. Oriental fruitfly – Bactrocera sp.

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Damage characteristics: Maggots which hatch from the eggs laid/

inserted into the fruits, feed and destroy the tissue of the fruit.

d. Mango pulp weevil (Palawan only) – Sternochetus frigidus

( Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Damage characteristics: No visible damage can be observed from the

outside as the wound inflicted by the larva upon entry into the fruit immediately
heals. The weevil completes its development inside the fruit. Infected fruits when
sliced open show pupal cells or chambers filled with frass, dead or live weevils,
pupae or larvae. The presence of dark-brown, soil-like frass, moving larvae &
weevils makes the fruits unfit for human consumption.

e. Mango seed borer – Deanolis albizonalis

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 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Damage characteristics: Tissues beneath the skin of the fruits are fed
upon by developing larvae which enter the fruit by boring on the apex or narrow
tip of the fruit. The damage area collapses causing the apex to burst. Infected
fruits fall to the ground. The seed is entirely consumed and destroyed.

12. COCONUT

a. Rhinoceros beetle – Oryctes rhinoceros

(Coleoptera: Dynastidae)

Damage characteristics: The adults feed on the coconut or growing bud

of the coconut such that emerging fronds display a characteristic triangular
pattern or geometric cuts as if the component leaflets had been cut with scissors.
(Only the adult id destructive) Entry holes of the beetles can be recognized by
the presence of chewed-up tissues.

b. Asiatic palm weevil – Rhynchoporus ferrugineus

(Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Damage characteristics: Larvae bore into the tissues or crown and tunnel
in all directions and eventually hallow out a fairly large cavity. The only inidication
of attack are small holes found in the stem where pieces of chewed fibers
protrude and brownish liquid oozes. Young crown usually wilts when the cabbage
is totally destroyed by the larvae (both larvae and adults are destructive).

c. Coconut scale – Aspidiotus destructor

(Homoptera: Diaspididae)

Damage characteristics: Yellowing of leaves due to sucking up of plant

sap.

d. Coconut leaf beetle - Brontispa longissima (Gestro)

(Coleoptera)

13. OTHER FRUIT TREES

a. Chico blossom moth – Eustalodes anthivora

(Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

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 Damage characteristics: Larvae enter and consume the contents of the
ovary of newly opened flower, thus, preventing fruit-setting. Infested flowers dry
up.

b. Nangka fruitfly – Bactrocera umbrosa

(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Damage characteristics: Fruitfly maggots penetrate into the tissues of

maturing fruits where they feed and develop and in the process cause fruits to
rot, at least at the infested portions.

c. Nangka fruitborer – Diaphania caesalis

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Damage characteristics: Larvae feed on the tissues of the outer portions

of the developing fruit.

d. Atis fruitborer – Heterographis bengalella

(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Damage characteristics: Larvae bore into the immature fruit where it

develops and feeds, destroying the fruit in the process. Young infested fruits dry
up; older ones dry up in parts only but are useless.

e. Spiraling whitefly on guava – Aleurodicus disperses

(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)

Damage characteristics: The insects suck the sap of the leaves. Leaves are
infected with sooty molds which interfere with photosynthesis. Leaves may dry
up and curl.

f. Atlas moth on santol and other fruit trees like atis,

guyabano & avocado - Attacus atlas
(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

Damage characteristics: Larvae feed on the foliage. Defoliation of a

branch may result where a number of larvae feed.

g. Blister mites on santol – Eriophyes sandorici

(Eriophyidae: Alcarina)
Damage characteristics: Mites feed on the surface of tender foliage,
stems and fruits, which causes the plant to form felt-like outgrowth and blister-
like galls on leaves.

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 h. Mealybugs on Guyabano
and other fruit trees- Planococcus lilacinus
(Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

Damage characteristics: The insects suck the sap of the fruits. Honeydew
secreted by them favors the growth of sooty molds which covers the leaves and
interfere with photosynthesis.

i. Lacewing Bug on Guyabano – Stephanitis typicus

(Homoptera: Tingidae)

Damage characteristics: Young and adults feed together on the underside

of the leaves. Infested leaf loses its shiny green luster, become yellowish, often
falling off the tree prematurely. Heavily infested trees are stunted in growth and
become unproductive.

j. Aphids on Papaya – Aphis gossypii, A. craccivora

(Homoptera: Aphididae)

Damage characteristics: These species do not colonize the crop but these
are important vectors of the non-persistent papaya ringspot virus.

14. ORNAMENTALS

Spider mites on roses :Tetranychus urticae, Oligonychus biharensis

Acari:Tetranychidae

Control of Insect Pests

The history of pest control probably began with the first

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Bedbug
human who ever swatted a mosquito or picked off a louse. From the fossil record, we know
that all major taxa of biting flies and external parasites already existed by the time Homo
sapiens first appeared on earth. Phthirus and Pediculus, the two genera of lice that feed on
humans, have a host range that is limited to primates (apes and monkeys). And we suspect
that human fleas (Pulex irritans) and bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) adopted cave-dwellers as
hosts because these insects are most closely related to other species that live on bats. But
since our primitive ancestors were hunters and gatherers, they probably found that insects were
more useful as food than they were troublesome as pests. (Even today, people in some
primitive cultures eat the lice they pick from one another's hair). It was probably not until the
dawn of organized agriculture, when insects attacked the plants we grew for food, that we first
recognized them as a potential threat to our own survival.

Pest control tactics were mentioned occasionally in writings of the ancient Chinese, Sumerian,
and Egyptian scholars. Many of these tactics were
embedded in religion or superstition, but a few had real
scientific merit. Predatory ants, for example, were used
in China as early as 1200 B.C. to protect citrus groves
from caterpillars and wood boring beetles. Ropes or
bamboo sticks tied between adjacent branches helped
the ants move easily from place to place. A passage in
Homer's Iliad (8th century B.C.) describes the use of fire
to drive locusts into the sea, and the ancient Egyptians
organized long lines of human drovers to repel swarms of
invading locusts. Pythagorus, a Greek philosopher and
mathematician, was credited with clearing malaria from a
Sicilian town during the 6th century B.C. by instructing its
residents to drain the marshes. Chemical substances that purportedly killed or repelled insects
were in common usage. Many of these were of questionable value, but some worked, and a
few are still in use today. Some of the inorganic compounds, such as sulfur and arsenic, have
well-established insecticidal activity. And modern science has only recently come to recognize
that many plant extracts used by ancient apothecaries (e.g, lemon oil, wormwood, hellebore,
fleabane, etc.) do indeed contain compounds with useful activity against insects.

There was very little progress in pest control during the dark ages. Ignorance and superstition
abounded. For what it was worth, St. Bernhard excommunicated the flies of his parish in 1121.
In a book entitled "Natural History", Ferrante Imperato (1599) gave a prescription for
eliminating flies from a dwelling:

"... draw the image of a fly ... on a copper plate during the second half
of the constellation of Pisces ... then bury it in the center of your house
(during) the first half of the constellation of Taurus."

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 With the Renaissance, people began to view insects less as a
punishment from God and more as members of a natural world
that could be studied and controlled. A renewed interest
developed in insects both as organisms and as pests. More
accurate observations of natural history and behavior led to more
inventive control practices. Hand labor was used extensively in
early pest control, but cultural, physical, and chemical practices
also evolved. Franz Ernst Brückmann, a German physician who
lived in the early 1700's, designed the first mechanical traps for
various insects. His fly traps consisted of a wooden box baited
with a sweet attractant and equipped with a spring-loaded lid.
When several flies had settled inside the trap, the lid was snapped shut to trap the flies inside.
The volume of the trap
was then decreased by sliding the ends of the box together and
squashing the flies against their bait. Brückmann also designed flea
traps. They were hollow, perforated cylinders, baited with blood or
honey, and worn around the neck as a pendant. For a time, these
flea traps, crafted from ivory or silver and often ornate in design,
were popular fashion accessories worn by the aristocracy of western
Europe.

Since the late 1800's, entomologists and chemists have made

outstanding progress in the technology of pest control. Today's
arsenal of weapons is large and diverse, encompassing legal,
cultural, physical, genetic, and biological tactics, in addition to the
well-known chemical pesticides. In general, all of these tactics
work in at least one of the following ways:

 They kill the pest directly -- usually by exposing it to lethal Victorian

substances or unsuitable environmental conditions. flea trap
 They reduce the reproductive potential of a pest population (circa 1840)
-- often by modifying its environment (biotic or abiotic) or by
restricting its movement.
 They modify the pest's behavior to make it less troublesome (attract it, repel it, confuse
it, exclude it, mislead it).

Most of the control tactics that are commonly used today can be grouped into two broad
categories: natural controls and artificial controls. By definition, a natural control may be any
environmental factor that keeps a pest population below its economic injury level. Examples
might include geographic barriers, cold temperatures, or natural enemies that keep population
growth in check. Artificial controls, on the other hand, employ products or processes of human
origin to modify a pest's distribution, behavior or physiology. Fly swatters and insecticides are

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two obvious examples. But as is often true in biology, there are some control strategies that
seem to straddle the line, exhibiting characteristics of both groups or not fitting neatly into
either category. In fact, some of our most effective tactics are natural controls that we can
improve, enhance, accelerate, or augment by appropriate human intervention.

During the Greek and Roman Empires, the plant derived chemicals were used sporadically (e.g.
pyrethrum, arsenic and sulfur). In the latter half of the 19 th century, more sophisticated use of
pesticides evolved; Bordeaux mixture and Paris Green were found effective against mildews and
other diseases that then threatened the grape industry. Paris green (arsenic and copper) kills
also a spectrum of insect pests. The World War II brought with it an increasing use of chemical
control against arthropod pests and plant diseases.

“Miracle pesticides” such as DDT were discovered in the 1940’s. The long lasting effect,
incredible effectiveness even at low dosages, lethality to unprecedented spectrum of insect
pests, combined with the ease of application and low cost made it popular. The chlorinated
hydrocarbons followed as “miracle pesticides” which include lindane, dieldrin, methoxychlor,
chlordane and heptachlor. Around the same time in Germany, organophosphates followed (e.g.
parathion, malathion), then the carbamates.

The birth of modern herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides and other pest control chemicals
followed, and still the search for the ultimate control is still being done. Mindless use, was and
still is, the root of evils in the pesticide effects.

The post World War II era produced a whole generation of entomologists, plant pathologists,
weed scientists and pest managers who were less educated about the bioecology of the target
pest organism and were often unaware of the natural control factors operating in the treated
ecosystem or of the nature and identity of other non-target organisms who are usually the
casualties of their biocidal assault.

The modern insecticides fallibility was the development of resistance in insects exposed to toxic
materials which led to
 Development of insect resistance
 Revolution of a whole new spectrum of arthropods whose prior population
have been small or moderate
 Environmental contamination, and
 Killing of wildlife.

Major Events in the History of Insect Pest Control

DATE EVENT

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400,000,000 BC First land plants
350,000,000 BC First insects
250,000 BC Appearance of Homo sapiens
12,000 BC First record of insect in human society
8,000 BC Beginnings of Agriculture
4,700 BC Silkworm culture in China
2,500 BC First records of insecticides
1,500 BC First descriptions of insect pests
950 BC First descriptions of cultural control (burning)
300 AD First record of use of biological control (predatory ants used in citrus
orchards in China
1650 – 1780 Burgeoning of insect descriptions (after Linnaeus and biological discoveries in
Renaissance)
1750 – 1880 Agricultural revolution in Europe
Early 1800s Appearance of first books and papers devoted entirely to pest control
1880 First commercial pesticide spraying machine
1888 First major biological importation success ( (vedalia beetle for control of
cottony cushion scale)
1890s Introduction of lead arsenate for insect control
1912 U. S. Plant Quarantine Act
1915 Control of disease-vectoring mosquitoes allowed completion of Panama
Canal
1921 First aircraft spray in Ohio for catalpa sphinx
1929 First area-wide eradication of an insect pest ( Mediterranean fruitfly in
Florida)
1939 Recognition if insecticidal properties of DDT
1940 Use of milky disease to control Japanese beetle ( first successful use of insect
pathogen for control)
1940s Organophosphates developed in Germany , carbamates in Switzerland
1942 First successful breeding program for insect pest resistance in crop plants
(release of wheat strain resistant to Hessian fly)
1946 First report of insect resistance to DDT (housefly in Sweden)
1950s, 1960s and Widespread development of resistance to DDT and other pesticides
1970s
1950s First Application of systems analysis to crop pest control
1959 Introduction of concepts of economic thresholds, economic levels and
integrated control
1960 First insect sex pheromone isolated, identified and synthesized (gypsy moth)
1962 Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (realization of unintentional pesticide
movement and its effect on ecological systems was brought to fore by the
book). The book led to a public outcry in the US for environmentally safe
approaches to pest control)

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 1972 Banning of DDT in United States

Pest Control Tactics

The modern arsenal of pest control weapons is large and

diverse. It encompasses not only the methods that cause direct
mortality, but also a variety of other tactics that reduce the
reproductive potential of a pest population or modify its
behavior.

Cultural Control

Cultural or ecological control involves purposeful manipulation of the environment to make it

unfavorable for pest development and survival. It involves the manipulation of the crop and
land which are designed to adversely affect the pest. This method also involves alteration of the
environment to encourage the survival of natural enemies and/or put stress on pest survival.
Such tactics can be grouped into:

Crop manipulation
 multiple cropping
 cover cropping
 pruning for air and light penetration
 trellising
 defruiting
 plant spacing

Land manipulation
 tillage
 no tillage
 irrigation
 flooding
 fallow
 soil-less culture (hydrophonics)
 proper drainage

Cultural management
 mulchcing
 early planting
 late planting
 fertilization

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  adjust time of harvest
 crop rotation
 use of trap crops

Sanitary measures
 removal and burning of infested part
 weeding
 farm waste decomposition
 destruction of plant residues
 elimination of breeding sites
 use of clean seeds/planting materials

Biological Control

Biological control relies upon other living organisms (parasites,

predators, and pathogens) as pest control agents. These beneficial
species are an important part of the ecological balance in every natural
community. In some cases, biocontrol agents are reared and released
in large numbers to suppress native or introduced pests (augmentation).
In other cases, careful management of the environment (conservation)is
sufficient to insure the welfare natural enemy populations. Insect
species that are accidently introduced from foreign countries often
become pests because they have escaped from natural enemies in their
homeland. Finding and importing these natural enemies is one
important part of biological control.

Agents of BIOCON:

1. Parasites - oviposits on insect pests, obtain sustenance until the pest dies e. g.
Trichogrammatidae
2. Predators - directly feed on the prey
e. g. Diptera: Syrphidae
Odonata: Coenagrionidae
Coleoptera: Carabidae, Coccinelidae
Orthoptera: Mantidae
Dermaptera: Forficulidae
Neuroptera: Myrmeleontidae, Hemerobiidae, Chrysopidae
3. Entomopathogens
e. g. Bacteria - Bacillus thuringiensis and B. popillae
Fungi - Metarrhizium, Beauvaria
Viruses - nucleopolyhedrosis virus (NPV), cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus (CPV)

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Another facet of biological control is the use of resistant plants or genotypes. Host plant
resistance (HPR) refers to the amount of heritable qualities possessed by the plant which
influences the ultimate degree of damage done by the insect (Painter, 1915). Also, HPR is
considered as those heritable characters which enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from
attacks of insects under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plants of the same
species (Swelling, 1914) Natural host resistance may involve defensive chemicals that inhibit
growth or development (antibiosis), physical or chemical characteristics that reduce palatability
(antixenosis), or genetic traits that simply reduce the extent or severity of injury (tolerance).

Mechanisms of HPR

Antibiosis - when a plant or its components have an adverse effect on the biology of the pest.
Manifestations of antibiosis on insects:

 increased mortality due to presence of toxicants/antifeedants

 reduced vigor due to nutrient deficiency
 prolonged development due to growth inhibitors in plants
 reduced reproductive potential due to a combination of the above-mentioned effects

Antixenosis or non-preference - refers to the morphological and anatomical characteristics of

the plant that influence the choice of the pest with regards to source of food, shelter and
ovipositional sites
Tolerance - the ability of the plant to withstand pest attack and grow well despite the injury
suffered.

Legal Control/Quarantine

Legal control refers to the prevention of entry/establishment of insects

through inspection of materials coming into a particular place especially
living plants or animals or packed materials that are likely to harbor pests
and serve as carrier for theses. Legal control tactics include all forms of
legislation designed to prevent the establishment or spread of pest
populations. Quarantines and licensing or certification programs can be
effective in limiting the movement of infested animals, seed, or breeding
stock.

Physical - Mechanical Control

Physical/mechanical pest control refers to direct or indirect methods that destroy pests
outright or make the environment unsuitable for entry, dispersal, survival and
reproduction. It includes a wide variety of devices that exclude, entrap, entangle, or
electrocute insects.
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1. Physical energy

 Use of reflectors
 Heat sterilization of soil using plastic sheet

 Shaking the tree

 Directly picking insects

 Light traps

2. Physical barrier

 Bagging
 Screening
 Sticky traps
 Trap nets

1. Mechanical means

 Crushing insect
 Bark scraping
 Use of fly swatter
 Sweeping
 Hosing

4. Altered environment

 Lethal temperature
 Controlled relative humidity
 Air-tight storage
 Clean surrounding

Eugenic Control/Autocidal/Genetic Insect Control

The sterile male technique and other forms of autocidal control have been developed as wide-
area birth control methods for insect pests. In the sterile insect release
method (SIRM), the males are particularly exposed/irradiated with cobalt
60 (radioactive). Mating then results to infertile eggs and by constantly
flooding the environment with large numbers of sterile insects, it is

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possible to reduce a population's reproductive success to the point of extinction. This method
is particularly used for the control of fruitflies.

New strategies are also being developed for introducing deleterious traits into the genetic
makeup of pest populations. Continued progress in biotechnology will surely increase the
range of options for genetic control of pest species.

Chemical Control

Chemical control tactics involve a wide variety of substances that cause direct mortality
(toxicants), disrupt developmental processes (growth
regulators), prevent reproduction (sterilants), or modify insect
behavior (semiochemicals). Conventional insecticides (the
toxicants) have been a mainstay of chemical control since the
late 1940's because they are convenient, effective, and
inexpensive. But these compounds are not without problems.
Their persistence in the environment, their effects on non-target
organisms, and their tendency to select for resistance in target
populations necessitate prudence in their selection as pest
control agents. Over-reliance on these compounds (as well as
occasional misuse or abuse) has drawn fire from many
directions, forcing the adoption of less toxic compounds with
fewer environmental side effects.

The undesirable effects of insecticides are summarized below:

1. Selection for insects that are genetically resistant to chemicals (development of insecticide
resistance).

2. Destruction of non-target organisms including pollinators, natural enemies of pests and soil
arthropods.

3. Pest resurgence - a situation in which a population, after having been suppressed, rebounds
to numbers higher than before suppression occurred. As a consequence of insecticide
resistance and destruction of natural enemies, a dramatic increase in numbers of the targeted
pest can occur, and if natural enemies recover much more slowly than pest population, the pest
can exceed levels found prior to insecticide treatment.

4. Secondary pest outbreak - a combination of suppression of original target pest and effects
of 1 and 2 can lead to insects previously not considered pests being released control and
becoming major pest.

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5. adverse environmental effects, resulting in contamination of soils, water systems and the
produce its with chemicals that accumulate biologically (especially in vertebrates) as a result of
biomagnification through food chains.

6. Dangers to human health either directly or indirectly, e.g., handling and consumption of
insecticides; exposure to insecticides

Toxicity.When we say that conventional insecticides are toxic, everyone understands that this
means they can kill you. But it's not quite that simple. Common table salt is also toxic. It can
be used as a pesticide. Yet salt is an essential ingredient of all living organisms; we would die
without it. In fact, it turns out that most chemical substances are toxic if their concentration
(dosage) is high enough. As toxicologists often say, " The dose makes the poison." The graph
below illustrates this principle:

This is the general form of a dose response curve: low mortality at low concentrations of the
toxicant increasing to high mortality at higher doses. The mid-point of a dose-response curve
(point "a") is known as the median lethal dosage (usually abbreviated LD 50). It represents the
level of toxicant at which mortality would occur in 50% of the subject population. In the above
example, LD50 = 100 mg/kg.

Different species often respond very differently to the same dosage of a toxicant. Some
pesticides, pyrethrum is a good example, have a very low LD50 for humans and other mammals.
These chemicals are relatively safe to use (low hazard) because the rate we use to kill pests is far
below the dosage that would injure humans. Other insecticides (e. g. parathion and aldicarb)

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are far more hazardous because their application rate is much closer to their lethal rate for
humans.

The LD50 value also depends largely on how an organism is exposed to a toxicant, whether it is
ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin, and whether exposure occurs over a short
period of time (acute exposure) or over weeks or months (chronic exposure). For this reason,
toxicity data always includes information about how the toxicant was administered: acute oral,
acute dermal, chronic oral, or chronic dermal.

Which compound is LEAST toxic to a human applicator (based on acute oral LD50):

Name of insectide
Mammalian Toxicity
Sevin
300 mg/kg
Guthion
13 mg/kg
Kryocide
35 mg/kg
Ambush
2000 mg/kg

The slope of a dose-response curve gives a good indication of how a target population will
respond to a toxicant. When all members of the population react in a similar way, their dose-
response curve is quite steep (Figure 2A). The population is said to be homogeneous. On the
other hand, if some members of the population are much more sensitive than others (the
population is heterogeneous), then the dose-response curve is flatter, like Figure 2B.

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Based on what you know about the process of natural selection, which of these populations
would have the greatest potential for developing resistance to this pesticide? Explain your
reasoning.

Labels and Rates.The admonition to "READ THE LABEL" is never as

important as when dealing with insecticides. Everything you need to
know about a product appears on its label. In fact, the label is really a
legal contract between the manufacturer and the user. It is against the
law to use any insecticide in a manner that is not totally consistent with
the label information. By law, a label must contain all of the following
information:

Ingredients
Each active ingredient must be listed by name. All other compounds (adjuvants) are

grouped together as "Inert Ingredients".

Formulation and Concentration

Alphanumeric designations give type of formulation and amount of active ingredient.
For dry formulations, the concentration is given as a percent by weight (e.g., "20WP" is a
wettable powder containing one pound of active ingredient in every five pounds of
product). For liquid formulations, the concentration is given in pounds of active
ingredient per gallon (e.g., "3EC" is an emulsifiable concentrate containing 3 pounds of
active ingredient per gallon of product).

Signal words

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The toxicity hazard of a pesticide is instantly recognizable by key words that appear in large type
on the front panel of every label. The most hazardous
pesticides bear the words "Danger" and "Poison" together
with a skull and crossbones. Moderately hazardous compounds
contain the word "Warning", and compounds with only a slight
hazard are designated with the word "Caution". Legal Uses and Application Rates .The label
lists all legal uses of a pesticide, and gives the maximum application rate. It is against the law to
use a pesticide for any purpose not listed on the label.

Safety and Health Information

The label specifies the type of protective equipment needed to apply the product safely.
It also describes emergency actions that should be taken in case of accidental exposure
or poisoning.

Environmental Hazards
Specific dangers to wildlife, ground water, or other components of the environment are
listed on the label together with specific directions for avoiding those hazards.

Disposal Instructions
The label gives specific instructions on how to decontaminate and dispose of the empty
pesticide container.
To use a pesticide correctly, you must be able to calculate the correct application rate.

Integrated Pest Control

Integrated pest control is a management philosophy that attempts to find and utilize the
optimum combination of control tactics, including cultural, biological, physical, and/or chemical,
that will reduce a pest population below its economic threshold with minimal impact on the
environment and non-target organisms. It came about due to the failure of the unilateral
approach for pest control, i.e. depending only on insecticides. The principles of integrated
control are the foundation of modern integrated pest management (IPM) and sustainable
agriculture.

Just as ground, air, and naval forces are

integrated to achieve military objectives, the
tactical weapons of pest control can also be
integrated to achieve more effective
management of pest populations.
Development of resistance, effects on non-
target organisms, and damage to the
environment can all be minimized with

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selective and judicious use of multi-faceted control tactics. This approach, commonly known as
integrated control, requires an understanding of ecological principles as well as a thorough
knowledge of the pest's life history and population dynamics.

Integrated pest control is not a new concept. It was commonly practiced in the years before
synthetic organic insecticides became widely available. But the old ways were largely
abandoned after World War II because chemical weapons were so effective, convenient, and
inexpensive. Once we recognized the dangers of over-dependence on a single control strategy,
the principles of integrated pest control gained renewed acceptance.

Today, integrated pest control forms the foundation of

Integrated Pest Management programs (IPM) that takes a
comprehensive and multi-disciplinary approach to solving pest
problems or the multi-lateral approach (“best mix”). Insects,
weeds, plant diseases, and even some vertebrate pests (e.g.,
birds and rodents) are included under the IPM umbrella.
These programs emphasize management rather than
eradication. They take a broad ecological approach to pest
problems, focusing on all members of a pest complex in an
effort to identify the optimum combination of control tactics
that will reduce pest populations below economic thresholds
and maintain these levels with the least possible impact on the rest of the environment. This
approach, often called biorational pest control, relies heavily on cultural and biological tactics
that are supplemented with carefully timed applications of highly selective chemical weapons.

The complexity of modern IPM programs will continue to increase as we add more knowledge
about pests, develop new management tactics, and learn how to optimize existing control
strategies. Mathematical models of population growth rates and plant-pest interactions are
being developed and incorporated into computer programs that help us assimilate and interpret
data from the many different variables that affect pest population dynamics. These computer
programs, usually known as expert systems, are yet another tool in our expanding stockpile of
pest control technology.

Integrated pest management is also a major component of Sustainable Agriculture, a holistic

approach to modern farming that encompasses not only pest control, but also conservation of
soil and water resources, and a wide range of other management practices (e.g., composting,
mulching, green manure, waste disposal, etc.). The goal of sustainable agriculture is to satisfy
human needs for food and fiber while preserving nonrenewable resources, protecting
environmental quality for future generations, and safeguarding the profitability and long-term
viability of commercial agriculture.

But regardless of what it is called or how it is packaged, the basic steps of integrated pest
control remain the same:

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 1. Identification. Detecting the presence of a pest and identifying it to species. Closely
related species may be very similar in appearance, but have significantly different pest
potential.
2. Quantification. Sampling to measure population density. How is population density
changing with time?
3. Determination. Finding out where the population stands relative to economic injury
levels. How much more growth potential is left in the population?
4. Specification. What type of control is warranted? What tools or resources are needed
to implement a control operation?
5. Application. Taking whatever steps are necessary to suppress the pest population.
6. Evaluation. Confirm efficacy of control tactics by resampling. Re-evaluate the situation
and take appropriate actions if needed.

References

Altieri, M.A. 1995. Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture, Westview Press, Inc.
U.S.A.

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