Orientation Programme

Syllabus and Study Material

(Batch: 2024-2025)
Department of Basic Science and Humanities

Subject: English Stream: B. Tech (All)

Lecture Hours: 09

UNIT: 1: English Language and Communication: Lecture Hours: 3

1.1: Basic Grammar.

1.2: Vocabulary- antonyms, synonyms, homonyms, homophones, eponyms.

UNIT: 2: Creative Communication: Lecture Hours: 3

2.1: Figures of Speech and their uses in English

2.2: Idioms and Clichés.

UNIT: 3: Business Communication: Lecture Hours: 3

3.1: Difference between a CV and a Résumé.

3.2: Job Application Letter and CV Writing

3.3: CV writing of a Fresh Engineering Graduate and CV of an Experienced Candidate

UNIT: 1: English Language and Communication:

Types of Sentences

In the realm of English grammar, sentences are categorized based on their clause structure,
which can greatly influence the rhythm and flow of writing. Sentence structures can be of three
types: simple sentence, complex sentence and compound sentence.
 Simple sentences consist of a single independent clause, conveying a complete thought with
a subject and a verb, such as “The sun sets.” Compound sentences merge two independent
clauses, usually connected by a coordinating conjunction like “and” or “but,” offering a way
to balance two related ideas, as in “The sun sets, and the stars appear.” Complex sentences, on
the other hand, combine an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses, introduced
by subordinating conjunctions like “although” or “because,” adding depth to the narrative,
exemplified by “Although the sun sets, the city lights keep the night alive.” Mastery of these
sentence structures allows for nuanced expression and the ability to adapt language to different
contexts and purposes.
1. Simple Sentences

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause expressing a complete thought.

Examples:

“She sings beautifully.”

“The cat is taking a nap.”

“He ran to catch the bus.”

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses.

Clauses are joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (e.g., “and,” “but,” “or,” “nor,”
“for,” “so,” “yet”) or a semicolon.

Examples:

“I enjoy hiking, but my twin sister prefers swimming.”

“The sun was shining brightly, so we decided to have a family beach day.”

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence has one main (independent) clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Subordinate clauses cannot stand alone and are connected using subordinating conjunctions
(e.g., “if,” “because,” “although,” “when”).

Examples:

“If you are not ready with the song, it is better to let them know.”

“After they reach the hotel, they will inform us.”

 Exercises

Exercise 1 – Identify the Type of Sentence

1. I did not know that this food was meant only for the staff.
2. She is innocent, so she has appealed to the court.
3. In the evening, I am going to the park.
4. Sun sets in the west.
5. Although he was sick, he came to school.

Voice Change

In English grammar, the concept of “voice” pertains to the relationship between the verb and
the subject or object of a sentence. It indicates whether the subject of the sentence is performing
the action (active voice) or receiving the action (passive voice). The active voice is direct and
vigorous, bringing clarity and dynamism to writing. For instance, “The chef cooked the meal”
is in the active voice, with the subject (the chef) actively performing the action. Conversely,
the passive voice often creates a more formal or impersonal tone, as in “The meal was cooked
by the chef,” where the subject (the meal) is the recipient of the action. Understanding and
using both voices effectively can enhance writing style and precision, allowing the writer to
emphasize different aspects of the sentence as needed:
Here’s a brief overview:
1. Active Voice:
o The subject performs the action.
o The verb is in the active form.
o Example: “Hari killed a snake.”
2. Passive Voice:
o The subject receives the action.
o The verb is in the passive form.
o Example: “A snake was killed by Hari.”

Key Points:

 Only transitive verbs can be changed into passive voice.

 The subject of the active voice becomes the object of a preposition (usually ‘by’) in the passive
voice.
 The passive voice uses the past participle (third form) of the main verb.
 The tense of the verb remains the same.

Tenses for Voice Change:

1. Simple Present
2. Simple Past
3. Simple Future
4. Present Continuous
5. Past Continuous
6. Present Perfect
7. Past Perfect
8. Future Perfect

Exceptions (No Passive Forms):

1. Future Continuous
2. Present Perfect Continuous
3. Past Perfect Continuous
4. Future Perfect Continuous

Examples for Tenses of Voice Change:

1. Simple Present:
o Active: “She writes a letter.”
o Passive: “A letter is written by her.”

2. Simple Past:
o Active: “They built a sandcastle.”
o Passive: “A sandcastle was built by them.”

3. Simple Future:
o Active: “We will complete the project.”
o Passive: “The project will be completed by us.”

4. Present Continuous:
o Active: “He is painting the wall.”
o Passive: “The wall is being painted by him.”

5. Past Continuous:

o Active: “She was cooking dinner.”

o Passive: “Dinner was being cooked by her.”

6. Present Perfect:

o Active: “They have solved the puzzle.”

o Passive: “The puzzle has been solved by them.”
 7. Past Perfect:

o Active: “He had repaired the car.”

o Passive: “The car had been repaired by him.”

8. Future Perfect:

o Active: “She will have finished the book.”

o Passive: “The book will have been finished by her.”

Exceptions (No Passive Forms):

1. Future Continuous:
o Active: “They will be playing cricket.”
o (No passive form)
2. Present Perfect Continuous:
o Active: “She has been studying all day.”
o (No passive form)
3. Past Perfect Continuous:
o Active: “We had been waiting for hours.”
o (No passive form)
4. Future Perfect Continuous:

 Active: “He will have been working for 10 hours.”

 (No passive form)

Exercises:
1. Change the following sentences from active voice to passive voice:
o “The team won the championship.”
o “She teaches English.”
o “They are building a new school.”

2. Change the following sentences from passive voice to active voice:

o “The cake was eaten by the children.”
o “The novel has been read by many.”
o “The concert tickets were sold out.”

Narration Change

Changes in narration, also known as narration change, refer to the transformation of a

sentence from direct to indirect speech or vice versa without altering its meaning. This shift
can significantly impact the tone, style, and perspective of a narrative. In direct speech, words
are conveyed exactly as spoken by the original speaker, often enclosed in quotation marks.
Indirect speech, on the other hand, integrates the spoken words into the flow of the narrative,
necessitating changes in tense, pronouns, and time and place references to maintain coherence
 and context. For example, a direct speech statement like “She said, ‘I am learning’” becomes
“She said that she was learning” in indirect speech. Mastery of narration change is crucial for
effective communication, as it allows for the seamless integration of dialogue and thoughts into
various forms of writing, enhancing the reader’s engagement and understanding of the content

Direct Speech
In direct speech, we convey the exact words spoken by a person, enclosed in quotation marks.
For example:

 Direct: He said, “I am learning English.”

Indirect Speech
In indirect speech, we report what someone said without quoting them directly. This often
requires changes in tense, pronouns, and time expressions. For example:

 Indirect: He said that he was learning English.

Rules for Changing Direct Speech to Indirect Speech

1. Tense Shift: If the reporting verb is in the past tense, shift the tense of the reported speech back
one step. For example, present simple becomes past simple.
2. Pronoun Change: Pronouns are usually changed to match the subject or object of the reporting
verb.
3. Time and Place: Words indicating time and place are adjusted to match the perspective of the
reporting speaker.
4. Reporting Verbs: Depending on the type of sentence, verbs like ‘say’ may change to ‘ask’,
‘tell’, ‘exclaim’, etc.

Rule 1: Tense Shift

 Direct: “I eat pizza,” he said.

 Indirect: He said that he ate pizza.

In this case, the present simple tense (‘eat’) changes to the past simple tense (‘ate’).
Rule 2: Pronoun Change

 Direct: “You are my friend,” she told me.

 Indirect: She told me that I was her friend.

The pronoun ‘you’ changes to ‘I’ to match the perspective of the speaker.
Rule 3: Time and Place

 Direct: “I will see you tomorrow,” he said.

 Indirect: He said that he would see me the next day.

‘Tomorrow’ changes to ‘the next day’ to reflect the time passed since the words were spoken.
 Rule 4: Reporting Verbs

 Direct: “Do you like music?” he asked.

 Indirect: He asked if I liked music.

The reporting verb ‘said’ changes to ‘asked’ to match the interrogative nature of the sentence.
Rule 5: Modal Verbs

 Direct: “I can finish the work by Monday,” she said.

 Indirect: She said that she could finish the work by Monday.

The modal verb ‘can’ changes to ‘could’.

Rule 6: Statements with ‘Said to’

 Direct: “I am tired,” he said to her.

 Indirect: He told her that he was tired.

‘Said to’ changes to ‘told’ when the person spoken to is mentioned.

Rule 7: Questions

 Direct: “Where are you going?” he asked.

 Indirect: He asked where I was going.

The question form changes to a statement form, and the tense changes accordingly.
Rule 8: Exclamations and Wishes

 Direct: “What a beautiful day!” she exclaimed.

 Indirect: She exclaimed that it was a beautiful day.

Exclamatory sentences change to statements in indirect speech.

Rule 9: Commands and Requests

 Direct: “Please open the window,” he requested.

 Indirect: He requested to open the window.

Commands and requests often use the infinitive form (‘to open’) in indirect speech.
Rule 10: No Change in Tense
If the reporting verb is in the present, future, or present perfect tense, the tense of the reported
speech does not change.

 Direct: “I am learning English,” he says.

 Indirect: He says that he is learning English.
 Exercises for Practice
Change the narration of the following sentences:
1. Direct: She said, “I am watching a movie.”
2. Direct: He says, “I will call you tomorrow.”
3. Direct: They said, “We have finished our homework.”
4. Direct: She said, “I can solve the problem.”
5. Direct: He said, “It is raining heavily.”

Degrees of Comparison

The Degrees of Comparison in English grammar are a fascinating aspect of language that
allows us to express nuances in the qualities of people, places, and things. The positive
degree is used when no comparison is made and simply states a quality, like “The sky is blue.”
When we compare two entities, we use the comparative degree, which often adds “-er” to the
adjective or employs “more,” as in “The sky today is bluer than yesterday.” For comparisons
involving more than two, the superlative degree comes into play, typically adding “-est” to
the adjective or using “most,” such as “Today, we have the bluest sky of the month.” These
degrees help us articulate our thoughts with precision and clarity, painting a vivid picture of
the world around us. However, they also come with exceptions and irregular forms, like “good,
better, best,” which add a layer of complexity and richness to the language. Whether we’re
describing the subtle differences between shades of colour or the extremes of human
achievement, the Degrees of Comparison serve as essential tools for expression. They not only
help us describe and relate experiences but also enable us to engage more deeply with the
intricate tapestry of the English language.
Positive Degree
The positive degree of an adjective is the adjective in its simple form. It is used to describe one
thing without making a comparison.
Examples:

 This flower is beautiful.

 The car is fast.

Comparative Degree
The comparative degree is used to compare two things. It is usually formed by adding -er to
the adjective or using more before the adjective.
Examples:

 This flower is more beautiful than that one.

 The car is faster than the bicycle.

Superlative Degree
The superlative degree is used to compare more than two things. It is usually formed by
adding -est to the adjective or using most before the adjective.
 Examples:

 This is the most beautiful flower in the garden.

 Of all the cars, this one is the fastest.

Conversion Rules:
1. Positive to Comparative:
o Use “as … as” in the positive degree to indicate equality.
o Use “than” in the comparative degree to show inequality.
o Example: Positive: “She is as tall as her brother.” Comparative: “She is taller than her brother.”
2. Comparative to Superlative:
o The comparative degree uses “than” after the adjective.
o The superlative degree uses “the” before the adjective.
o Example: Comparative: “She is taller than her brother.” Superlative: “She is the tallest among
her siblings.”
3. Superlative to Comparative:
o The superlative degree often includes “the” and “of” or “in.”
o The comparative degree excludes “the” and uses “than.”
o Example: Superlative: “She is the tallest among her siblings.” Comparative: “She is taller than
most of her siblings.”
4. Comparative to Positive:
o Remove “than” and use “as … as” to show equality.
o Example: Comparative: “She is taller than her brother.” Positive: “She is as tall as her brother.”
5. Superlative to Positive:
o Remove “the” and “of/in” and use “as … as.”
o Example: Superlative: “She is the tallest among her siblings.” Positive: “She is as tall as the
tallest among her siblings.”
6. Positive to Superlative:
o Use “the” before the adjective and “of/in” to indicate the group.
o Example: Positive: “She is as tall as her brother.” Superlative: “She is the tallest among her
siblings.”

Exceptions:
 Irregular Adjectives: Some adjectives have irregular forms that do not follow the standard
rules of conversion. For example:
o Good → Better → Best
o Bad → Worse → Worst
 Two-Syllable Adjectives: Adjectives with two syllables can form comparatives and
superlatives in two ways, either by adding “-er/-est” or using “more/most,” depending on the
adjective. For example:
o Clever → Cleverer → Cleverest
o Peaceful → More peaceful → Most peaceful
 Adjectives Ending in -y: Change the “y” to “i” before adding “-er/-est.” For example:
o Happy → Happier → Happiest
 Adjectives with Two Forms: Some adjectives can have both regular and irregular
comparative and superlative forms. For example:
o Old → Older/Older → Oldest/Elder
 Exercises:
Change the degree of comparison of the following sentences:

1. She is the kindest person I know. (Change to comparative degree.)

2. This task is easier than the last one. (Change to positive degree.)
3. He is the most diligent student in class. (Change to comparative degree.)
4. This car is as fast as that car. (Change to comparative degree.)
5. John is taller than many boys in his class. (Change to superlative degree.)
6. She is the most intelligent student in the school. (Change to positive degree.)
7. Kolkata is hotter than most other cities in India. (Change to positive degree.)
8. This book is more interesting than that book. (Change to positive degree.)
9. No other metal is as precious as gold. (Change to superlative degree.)
10. Her dress is as beautiful as my dress. (Change to comparative degree.)

1.2
Vocabulary
Vocabulary is the foundation of language, a collection of words and phrases that form the basis
for communication and comprehension. It’s not just about knowing a lot of words; it’s about
understanding their meanings, nuances, and appropriate contexts. Vocabulary building,
therefore, is a crucial skill for effective expression and interpretation. It involves a continuous
process of learning, where one actively seeks out new words, grasps their usage through
reading and listening, and practices them in speaking and writing. This enrichment of one’s
word bank not only enhances communication but also sharpens cognitive abilities, fosters
creativity, and aids in acquiring knowledge across various subjects. Engaging with diverse and
challenging texts, playing word games, and using language learning apps are some of the many
strategies that can facilitate the expansion of one’s vocabulary. Ultimately, a robust vocabulary
empowers individuals to articulate thoughts clearly and understand others more profoundly.
Synonyms
Synonyms are words with similar meanings. They can be used to avoid repetition and enrich
language.
Examples:

 Fast: Quick, Speedy, Swift, Rapid, Brisk, Hasty, Snappy

 Small: Tiny, Petite, Miniature, Compact, Diminutive, Little, Minuscule
 Easy: Simple, Effortless, Straightforward, Uncomplicated, Smooth, Unchallenging
 Strong: Powerful, Sturdy, Robust, Solid, Tough, Hardy, Resilient
 Smart: Intelligent, Clever, Bright, Knowledgeable, Wise, Sharp, Ingenious
 Happy: Joyful, Cheerful, Content, Blissful, Delighted, Ecstatic, Elated
 Important: Crucial, Vital, Critical, Essential, Significant, Valuable, Necessary
 Beautiful: Attractive, Pretty, Lovely, Stunning, Gorgeous, Exquisite, Radiant
 Funny: Humorous, Amusing, Comical, Hilarious, Witty, Entertaining, Jocular
 Rich: Wealthy, Affluent, Prosperous, Well-off, Opulent, Well-to-do
 Antonyms
Antonyms are words with opposite meanings.
Examples:

 Hot: Cold
 Full: Empty
 Light: Heavy
 Soft: Hard
 Young: Old
 Sweet: Bitter
 Wide: Narrow
 Rough: Smooth
 Success: Failure
 Accept: Reject

Homonyms
Homonyms are words that sound alike but have different meanings, sometimes spelled the
same way.
Examples:

 Bark: The sound a dog makes / The outer layer of a tree

 Bat: An implement to hit a ball / A nocturnal flying mammal
 Match: A game or contest / A stick for lighting a fire
 Right: Correct / Direction opposite of left
 Ring: A piece of jewelry / To make a sound like a bell
 Well: In good health / A deep hole from which water can be drawn
 Tire: To feel fatigued / A rubber covering for a wheel
 Fair: Equitable / A gathering or event
 Lie: To recline / To tell an untruth
 Row: A line of things / To propel a boat with oars

Homophones
Homophones are words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings and
spellings.
Examples:

 Flour: Ground grain / Flower: Blossom

 Sea: Large body of water / See: To perceive with the eyes
 Sun: Star at the center of our solar system / Son: A male child
 Piece: A part of something / Peace: Freedom from disturbance
 Mail: Letters and packages / Male: A sex category
 Night: Period of darkness / Knight: A medieval soldier
 Knot: A fastening made by looping a piece of string / Not: Used to express negation
 Tail: The rear part of an animal / Tale: A story
 Sale: The exchange of a commodity for money / Sail: A piece of material used to catch the
wind on a boat
 Wear: To have on one’s body / Where: At or in what place

Eponyms
Eponyms are words that are derived from the name of a person or place.
Examples:

 Sandwich: Named after the Earl of Sandwich

 Boycott: Named after Charles C. Boycott
 Mausoleum: From Mausolus, for whom a large tomb was built
 Cardigan: Named after the 7th Earl of Cardigan
 Pasteurization: Named after Louis Pasteur
 Diesel: Named after Rudolf Diesel
 Alzheimer’s disease: Named after Alois Alzheimer
 America: Named after Amerigo Vespucci
 Caesarean: From Julius Caesar, who was allegedly born by this method
 Victorian: Named after Queen Victoria

Synonyms Exercise
Choose the synonym for the given word from the options provided:
1. Calm
o a) Agitated
o b) Serene
o c) Noisy
2. Mysterious
o a) Clear
o b) Obvious
o c) Enigmatic
3. Ancient
o a) Modern
o b) Old
o c) New
4. Difficult
o a) Hard
o b) Easy
o c) Simple
5. Friendly
o a) Hostile
o b) Amiable
o c) Unpleasant
6. Brave
o a) Cowardly
o b) Fearless
o c) Scared
7. Generous
o a) Stingy
o b) Selfish
o c) Magnanimous
8. Joy
o a) Sadness
o b) Bliss
o c) Misery
9. Optimistic
o a) Pessimistic
o b) Hopeful
o c) Despairing
10. Vast
o a) Small
o b) Huge
o c) Tiny

Antonyms Exercise
Choose the antonym for the given word from the options provided:
1. Victory
o a) Defeat
o b) Triumph
o c) Success
2. Complex
o a) Simple
o b) Complicated
o c) Intricate
3. Transparent
o a) Opaque
o b) Clear
o c) Visible
4. Abundant
o a) Plentiful
o b) Scarce
o c) Ample
5. Courageous
o a) Brave
o b) Timid
o c) Bold
6. Rigid
o a) Flexible
o b) Stiff
o c) Hard
7. Humid
o a) Dry
o b) Damp
o c) Moist
8. Artificial
o a) Natural
o b) Synthetic
o c) Fake
9. Ascend
o a) Climb
o b) Descend
o c) Rise
10. Minor
o a) Major
o b) Small
o c) Insignificant

Homonyms Exercise
Identify the two different meanings of the homonym:
1. Lead
o a) To guide / A type of metal
o b) A type of metal / A color
o c) To follow / A type of metal
2. Fine
o a) Well / A penalty
o b) Thin / A penalty
o c) A penalty / To filter
3. Bank
o a) A financial institution / The side of a river
o b) The side of a river / To rely on
o c) A financial institution / To rely on
4. Spring
o a) A season / To jump
o b) To jump / A metal coil
o c) A season / A metal coil
5. Date
o a) A social appointment / A fruit
o b) A fruit / To mark with a date
o c) A social appointment / To mark with a date
6. Left
o a) Departed / Remaining
o b) Remaining / Direction opposite of right
o c) Departed / Direction opposite of right
7. Rose
o a) Past tense of rise / A flower
o b) A flower / A color
o c) Past tense of rise / A color
8. Seal
o a) To close tightly / A marine mammal
o b) A marine mammal / A stamp
o c) To close tightly / A stamp
9. Bow
o a) To bend forward / Front of a ship
o b) Front of a ship / A weapon
o c) To bend forward / A weapon
10. Bass
o a) A type of fish / Low-frequency sounds
o b) Low-frequency sounds / A musical instrument
o c) A type of fish / A musical instrument
 Homophones Exercise
Choose the correct homophone to complete the sentence:
1. “I can’t believe you __________ the whole cake!”
o a) ate
o b) eight
2. “The __________ was calm and clear today.”
o a) sea
o b) see
3. “Please __________ the door when you leave.”
o a) close
o b) clothes
4. “The knight rode his horse into the __________.”
o a) night
o b) knight
5. “She wore a beautiful __________ of pearls.”
o a) peace
o b) piece
6. “The __________ is expected to rise tomorrow.”
o a) son
o b) sun
7. “He couldn’t __________ the answer to the riddle.”
o a) guess
o b) guest
8. “The __________ of the story is to always be kind.”
o a) moral
o b) morale
9. “The __________ was too tight, so he loosened it.”
o a) noose
o b) news
10. “They decided to __________ the old building.”
o a) raise
o b) raze

Eponyms Exercise
Match the eponym with its origin:
1. Dahlia
o a) Anders Dahl
o b) Dahlia Smith
2. Saxophone
o a) Adolphe Sax
o b) Saxo Grammaticus
3. Nicotine
o a) Jean Nicot
o b) Nicolas Cage
4. Leotard
o a) Jules Léotard
o b) Leo Tolstoy
5. Fahrenheit
o a) Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
o b) Michael Faraday
6. Silhouette
o a) Étienne de Silhouette
o b) Silvia Huet
7. Morse code
o a) Samuel Morse
o b) Morse Stevenson
8. Guillotine
o a) Joseph-Ignace Guillotin
o b) Guy Fawkes
9. Mesmerize
o a) Franz Mesmer
o b) Mesmer Smith
10. Chauvinism
o a) Nicolas Chauvin
o b) Chauvin Richards

UNIT: 2: Creative Communication

2.1: Figures of Speech and their uses in English
Figures of Speech is a non-literal expression that is employed to create an effect. This effect
can be rhetorical, such as when words are deliberately arranged to generate a poetic effect, or
imagery, such as when language is used to evoke a visual image or make a concept more vivid.
Because of their expressive use of their language, figures of speech serve as literary devices in
general. Words are utilized in ways other than their explicit definitions or conventional
application scenario.
Figures of speech are linguistic devices that add richness, depth, and clarity to language by
deviating from the ordinary or literal meanings of words. They are employed by writers and
speakers to create vivid imagery, evoke emotions, emphasize points, and make language more
engaging. Here's a brief overview of some common figures of speech:

1. Simile: A comparison between two unlike things “like” or “as”.

Example: “Her eyes sparkled like diamonds”
2. Metaphor: It is a direct comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or
“as”
Example: The world is a stage.
3. Personification: It is attributing human characteristics to non-human entities or
objects.
Example: The wind whispered through the trees.
4. Apostrophe: An apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a
personified object or idea. This figure of speech is a special form of personification.

Example: Milton1 thou should’st be living at this hour.

O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts.

5. Hyperbole: It is exaggeration for emphasis or effect.

Example: I am so hungry that I could eat a horse.

6. Alliteration: It is repetition of initial consonants in neighbouring words. It is a sound

device.
Example: a) Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

b) The fair breeze blow,

The white foam flew,
The furrowed followed free (Samuel Taylor Coleridge)

7. Onomatopoeia: They are the words that imitate the sound they describe. It is a sound
device.
Example: The bees buzzed around the flowers.

8. Assonance: It is also a sound device. It is a repetition of vowels without repetition of

consonants. Assonance most often refers to the repetition of internal vowel sounds in
words that may not end with the same.
Examples:
The woods are lovely dark and deep,
But I have promises to keep
And miles to go before I sleep
And miles to go before I sleep.

9. Oxymoron: It is a combination of contradictory terms.

Example:
Jumbo Shrimps:
This oxymoron combines the contradictory terms “jumbo” (meaning large) and
“shrimp” (a small crustacean), highlighting the contrast between size and smallness.
Bittersweet: Combining “bitter” (unpleasant or painful) and “sweet” (pleasurable and
delightful), this oxymoron conveys the mixed emotions of joy and sorrow experienced
simultaneously.

10. Euphemism: It is a substitution of a mild or less direct word or phrase for one
considered harsh or blunt.
Example: “He passed away” instead of “He died”.

11. Pun: A pun consists in the use of a word in such a way that it is capable of more than
one application, the object being to produce a ludicrous effect.
 Example:
Is life worth living? It depends upon the liver.
An ambassador is an honest man who lies abroad for the good of his country.

12. Irony: It is a mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of that
which is literally conveyed.
Example: On a rainy day, someone might say, “What lovely weather we’re having!”

13. Synecdoche: In synecdoche, a part is used to designate a whole or the whole to

designate a part.
Example: a part is used to designate a whole; as
“Give us this day our daily bread. (i.e. food)
He has many mouths to feed.
All the brains in Europe could not solve this problem.

14. Metonomy: In metonomy (literally, a change of name) an object is designated by the

name of something which is generally associated with it.
Example:
The bench, for the judges.
The laurel, for success.
The crown, for the King.
Bluejackets, for sailors.

15. Litotes: In litotes, an affirmation is conveyed by negation of the opposite, the effect
being to suggest a strong expression by means of a weaker. It is opposite of
Hyperbole.
Example:
I am a citizen of no mean (= a very celebrated) city.
The man is no fool (= very clever)
I am not a little (=greatly) surprised.

2.2: Idioms and Clichés.

An idiom is a phrase or expression that usually presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the
phrase. An idiom is a phrase or expression whose meaning is not deducible from the literal definitions
of its individual words. Idioms are unique to particular languages or cultures and often convey a
figurative meaning that is different from the literal interpretation of the words. For example, "kick the
bucket" is an English idiom meaning "to die," but its literal interpretation would not suggest that
meaning. Idioms can add colour, imagery, and cultural context to language, but they can also be
confusing to non-native speakers because their meanings are not always immediately obvious.

A cliché is an overused phrase, expression, idea, or element in art, literature, or conversation that has
lost its originality, impact, or effectiveness due to its frequent repetition. Clichés are often considered
trite or predictable because they lack freshness or originality. Examples include phrases like "time will
tell," "the calm before the storm," or "love at first sight." While clichés can sometimes be useful for
quickly conveying a common idea, they can also detract from the creativity and depth of communication
if relied on too heavily.

Difference between an idiom and cliché:

While both idioms and clichés involve expressions that are commonly used in language, they
serve different purposes and have distinct characteristics:

1. Originality:
Idioms: Idioms are often creative and unique expressions that add colour and richness to language.
They typically have figurative meanings that are different from the literal meanings of the words they
comprise.

Clichés: Clichés, on the other hand, are expressions that have become overly familiar and
lack originality. They are often seen as trite or predictable due to their frequent repetition.
2. Literal Interpretation:
Idioms: The meaning of an idiom cannot be understood by looking at the individual words
within it. Instead, the meaning is based on cultural or linguistic conventions.
Clichés: Clichés can often be understood through their literal interpretation, as they usually
consist of words with straightforward meanings. However, their impact comes from their
overuse and lack of originality rather than any figurative or hidden meaning.
3. Usage:
Idioms: Idioms are used to add depth, imagery, or cultural context to language. They can be
creative ways to express ideas and are often appreciated for their uniqueness

Clichés: Clichés are often used out of habit or convenience, but they can detract from the
impact of communication by making it seem unoriginal or uninspired.

In summary while both idioms and clichés involve common expressions in language, idioms
are typically creative and figurative expressions that add depth, while clichés are overused
expressions that lack originality and impact
Some examples of Idioms:
1. Cost an arm and a leg:
Meaning: Something that is very expensive.
Example: That sports car costs an arm and a leg.

2. A picture is worth a thousand words.

Meaning: A picture can convey more information than words.
Example: Looking at the old photograph of their childhood home, she realized that a
picture truly is worth a thousand words.
 3. Barking up the wrong tree.
Meaning: Making a mistake, going in the wrong direction.
Example: If you think I can help you with your math homework, you’re barking up
the wrong tree.
He accused the wrong colleague of stealing his lunch, clearly barking up the wrong
tree.

4. A snowball effect.
Meaning: A situation where something starts small and then grows larger and larger,
similar to how a snowball.
Example: The small protest sparked snowball effect, leading to widespread
demonstrations across the city.

5. A storm in a teacup.
Meaning: A big fuss about a small problem. / Something that is not very important but
people are making a lot of fuss about it.
Example: His reaction to the minor scheduling change was as if it were a storm in a
tea cup, blowing the situation out of a proportion.

Some examples of Clichés:

1. Read between the lines.
Meaning: To understand or interpret the hidden or implicit meaning behind what is
explicitly stated.
Example: When she said she was ‘fine’ with a strained smile, I knew I had to read between
the lines to understand that she was actually upset.

2. Play your cards right.

Meaning: To act or make decisions in a strategic and cautious manner in order to achieve
a favourable outcome or advantage.
Example: If you play your cards right during the negotiation, you might be able to secure
better deal from the company.

3. It’s an uphill battle.

Meaning: A task or a situation is difficult, challenging, or requires considerable effort to
overcome or succeed in.
Example: Convincing the city council to fund the new community centre is going to be an
uphill battle, given their current budget constraints and competing priorities.

4. Better safe than sorry.

Meaning: It's wiser to be cautious and careful than to be hasty or rash and so do
something you may later regret.
Example: The weather forecast predicts a slight chance of the rain. Nevertheless, let us
carry our umbrellas and raincoats if it rains. It is better to be safe than sorry.

5. You can't judge a book by its cover.

Meaning: You shouldn’t form an opinion about something or someone based solely on their
appearance. It emphasizes that outward looks or initial impressions may not accurately
reflect the true nature or qualities of the person or object in question.
Example: When I first met him, he seemed very shy and reserved, but after getting to know
him, I realized he was incredibly talented and outgoing. It just goes to show you can’t judge
a book by its cover.

Exercise:
Read the following passage and find out the different figures of speech from the
passage.

As the golden sun dipped below the horizon, the sky blazed with a fiery spectrum of colors,
painting a masterpiece on nature's canvas. A gentle breeze whispered secrets through the
rustling leaves, as if the trees were gossiping about the day's events. In the distance, the majestic
mountains stood as silent sentinels, their peaks kissed by the last light of day. The river, a silver
serpent, wound its way through the valley, reflecting the twilight hues in its shimmering scales.
Night's velvet cloak began to envelop the world, stars twinkling like diamonds scattered across
the heavens. The moon, a luminous pearl, ascended gracefully, casting a serene glow over the
tranquil landscape. It was a symphony of beauty, a poetic embrace between earth and sky.

Exercise:
Read the following passage and find out the idioms from the passage.

Sarah had butterflies in her stomach as she prepared to deliver her speech. She knew she had to
break the ice if she wanted to capture the audience's attention. Taking a deep breath, she
reminded herself that practice makes perfect and decided to give it her best shot.

As she spoke, her confidence grew, and she realized that she had the audience eating out of the
palm of her hand. It was a piece of cake! She had been worried for nothing. When she finished,
the applause was the icing on the cake, and she felt on top of the world. Her hard work had paid
off, and now she was ready to hit the ground running with her next project

Exercise:
Read the following passage and find out the clichés from the passage.

John had always believed that actions speak louder than words, so when he decided to propose
to Emily, he knew he had to pull out all the stops. He planned a romantic dinner under the stars,
knowing that a picture is worth a thousand words. As they sat there, bathed in moonlight, he
reminded himself that every cloud has a silver lining

When the moment finally came, he got down on one knee and said, "Emily, you are the love of
my life. I want to grow old with you because home is where the heart is." Tears filled Emily's
eyes as she realized that he was her knight in shining armor. She said yes, knowing that they
were a match made in heaven.
 The next day, they were on cloud nine, telling everyone that they were going to live happily
ever after. It was clear to everyone that they were two peas in a pod, destined to be together
forever.

_____________________________________________________________________

Unit 3— Business Communication

3.1

What is a CV?

A CV (short for curriculum vitae) outlines information about your career, education, skills,
and achievements, including scholarships and awards. Generally, a CV is two to three pages
long. The length of a CV can vary depending on your work experience. A CV generally
includes the following:

Compulsory:

● Your name and contact information

● Personal statement (a brief overview of your professional background and career
objectives)
● Professional experience
● Academic qualifications
● Technical and personal skills

Optional:

● Certifications
● Language fluency
 ● Publications and conferences
● Awards or honours received
● Interests and hobbies
● Volunteer Work
● References

There are three different types of CV formats:

● Chronological CV—This is the most commonly used curriculum vitae format, and it
lists your work history starting with the most recent position. Use a chronological CV
if you have prior work experience and want to highlight your skills and project
experience.
● Functional CV—Also known as a skill-based CV, this format is used to focus on
your skills and work experience, instead of chronological work history. While it is not
as widely used as a chronological CV, a functional CV can be preferable if you have
not worked previously, have gaps in your career history, or want to change careers.
● Combination CV—This format is a combination of a chronological CV and a
functional CV. Using a combination CV, you can highlight your skills and provide a
chronological work history.

Difference between CV and a Résumé

The CV presents a full history of one’s academic and work credentials, so the length of the
document is variable. In contrast, a résumé presents a concise picture of your skills and
qualifications for a specific position, so length tends to be shorter and dictated by years of
experience (generally 1-2 pages). In French, the word résumé means “summary”. A résumé’s
one-page format gives employers a quick overview of the person applying to determine if they
meet the baseline requirements for the job. Résumés are screened for applicable information to
determine which candidates are rejected and which get further consideration. In general, a CV
is more knowledge-oriented while a résumé is more skill-oriented.

In many European countries, CV is used to describe all job application documents, including a
résumé. In the United States and Canada, CV and résumé are sometimes used interchangeably.
If you are not sure which kind of document to submit, it is best to ask for clarification.
Given below is an example of a 1-page résumé:
3.2

Job Application Letter.

A job application, also referred to as a cover letter, is a document that some employers or
organizations may ask for as part of the hiring process, alongside your résumé or CV. The
purpose of a cover letter is to introduce you and briefly summarize your professional
background. On average, it should be around 300-400 words long. A good cover letter is
supposed to impress the hiring manager and convince them you’re worth interviewing as a
candidate. It should complement your résumé, not copy it. Your application letter is your
chance to elaborate on important achievements, skills, or anything else that your résumé
doesn’t give you the space to write about. For example, if you have an employment or education
gap on your résumé, the application letter is a great place to explain why it happened and how
it helped you grow as a person. Or, if you have a less-than-satisfactory grade in a certain
semester, your cover letter can briefly refer to it and highlight your success in overcoming it in
the following semesters. Your job application letter should include the following—
Header. Add all the necessary contact information at the top of your cover letter.

Formal greeting. Choose an appropriate way to greet your target audience.

Introduction. Introduce yourself in the opening paragraph and explain your interest in the
role.

Body. Elaborate on why you’re the best candidate for the job and a good match for the
company. Focus on “selling” your skills, achievements, and relevant professional
experiences.

Conclusion. Summarize your key points and wrap it up professionally.

Given below is an example of a Job Application Letter—
3.3

Fresher CV and Experienced Candidate’s CV:

Depending on your position, as a freshly graduated student, or an industry professional with

some years of experience, you would submit either a fresher’s CV or an experienced
candidate’s CV, respectively. While freshers rely on their education emphasizing their inherent
abilities, seasoned professionals bank on their accomplishments giving impetus to their expert
capabilities.
The Chronological résumé is by far the best résumé format for experienced professionals.
Anyone with continuous experience of more than three years and a career graph that is scaling
upwards would immensely benefit from the Chronological résumé. The Functional résumé is
the best résumé format for freshers since it places great emphasis on the skills and abilities of
the candidate instead of their employment history. It is also the preferred format for those who
have gaps in their employment history. For freshers, a one-page résumé is the norm. A fresher
should emphasise their education, and include relevant internships and volunteer work as part
of their work experience, while an experienced candidate should emphasise their previous
professional experience and achievements. A fresher should also emphasise transferable skills
and their openness to learning on the job, while a professional should focus on job-specific
skillsets and accomplishments.

Exercise:
Imagine you have been awarded the B.Tech degree in the year 2024. Draft a job application
letter to your prospective employer attaching your CV. (Invent necessary details like the name
of the organization, designation of the employer etc.)