Power: Power is the

POWER AND CONTROL ISSUES IN ORGANIZATIONS

ntentional influence over Power and politics are indisputable facts of organizational life.
They are
he beliefs, emotions, and important phenomena that need to beeunderstood by employees,
managers,, and universal,
competencyemployers.
pehaviours of people. The practitioners need both awareness (knowledge) and behavioural
effectively with respect to the issues of organizational power and politics. to deal
DEFINING POWER
Salancik and Pfeffer (1971) have defined power as the "ability of those who noeee
power to bring about the outcomes they desire." According to Pfeffer (1982) "
the capability of one social actor to overcome resistance in achieving a desired
or result."
obiectiv
From these definitions, it is seen that interpersonal power In a social situation is
the ability to get one's way (McClelland 1970). Examples of social power are seen
everywhere: influence, leadership, persuasion, selling, forcing, and coercingall these
acts are power is action. To have power or to exercise power is not, in itself, either gO0d
or bad. The phenomenon of power is ubiquitous. Problems with power stem from some
of the aims (goals) of powerful persons. Without influence (power), there could be n0
cooperation and no society. Without the leadership (power) directed towards medical.
political, technological, financial, spiritual, and organizational activities, mankind would
 Position
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 368 Orgonizotional Behaviour
two other bases of power were added to the
carlier in this chapter. Later on, ist,
information and connection power (Hersey et
al. 1979).
namely
the Resources Valued by
Reward Power: Control over
Reward Power:
Individuals with the copacity Individuals with the capacity to
followers
control the rewards the
the followers.
Subordinates often comply with
Fol
will receive are lower s
their supervisorsto
said
to control the rewords the have reward
wishes hopes over
in thepower of receiving the valuable rewards that the superviisors control.
followers will receive are
soid to hove reward power at a manager's disposal may be tangible, suuch as raises,
over the followers.
The rewards
and time off, or intangible,
promotions,
such as praise and recognition. In either. case, access to these
individual power in organizations.
resources often forms a source of
at lower levels Often, managers
in organizations complain that their inability to control resources leads
them to a feeling of being undervalued in organizations. They suffer from afeling of
powerlessness.
It is worth noting here that one can actualize reward power on followers only when
the followers value that reward. To be effective, the presentation of rewards should
be closely tied with the manifestation of desired behaviour from the followers. Thus,
may enhance a manager's power base, the
whereas access to valued resources
to be effective, must administer rewards s properly. Having resources at one's disposal and manager,
different things.
using them appropriately are obviously two
While using the reward power base, the manager should keep in mind that ra..
hiehlv an
power results in positive reinforcement for subordinates and, therefore. and o t s
to leaders. But it is essential that the rewards should be distributed in a fair
should be wal
way and should be performance linked. The rewards provided
well as expected by subordinates. For example, a promotion with a transfer may not ks
motivating for the subordinate. Rewards also should not be offered to promote briber
or unethical behaviour.

Coercive Power: Controlling Punishments

Coercive Power: Leoders Inaddition to controlling the desired resources, leaders often control the punishments
often control the others receivea capacity known as coercive power. Punishments may include pay
punishments others cuts, demotions, and suspension without pay, formal reprimands, and undesirable work
receiveo copocity known
os coercive power. assignments. Coercive power also can be effective only if properly used.
There may be undesirable side effects of using coercive power on followers. If the
leader is too harsh and uses coercive power indiscriminately, his subordinates may group
together to protest against him. Nonetheless, the capacity to administer punishment
represents an important source of power in organizations.
While using the coercive power base, the manager should keep in mind that this
power may have adverse effects on the relationship of the subordinate with the leader.
As far as possible, exercising coercive power should be avoided in organizations. I
coercive power is used in a hostile or manipulative way, it is likely to cause resistance.
When mild punishment that fits in with the person's mistake is offered, complianl
behaviour can be expected from the subordinate. While offering severe punishmens
case of severe mistakes, care should be taken to see that the procedure is appropriate and
impartial. Rules goverming unacceptable behaviour should be communicated, and proper
justification for the punishment has to be indicated. Care should also be taken to Sec u
the wrong person is not penalized.
Legitimate Power:
Legitimate power is
the recognized right of
Legitimate Power: Power Vested in Organizational Authority
over others
individuals to exercise Legitimate power is the recognized right of individuals to exercise authorityvestedin the
oulhority over others because of their position in an organizational hierarchy. This power is classroom has
because of their position in position of the person within the organizational set-up. Aprofessorin the student ofthe
on organizationol hierarchy. alegitimate power to evaluate the
performance of his students, whereas a
 WELL, WE HAVE AN OFFICE PICNIC THIS
WEEKENQ PLEASE HIRE TWOBUSES FOR
THE DIRECTORS, ANDI THINK THE REST OF
US CAN6O BY ONE TAXI!

with permission.
Ctesy Porimal Joshi. Reproduced
act will be
lacs does not have this power. As a result, a student indulging in such an
rejected by his classmates.
Usually, legitimate power is derived from an individual's formal rank or position;
organizational members are likely to accept the attempts to influence theirbehaviour because
of
one has a higher position. However, leaders will have authority only over those aspects
responsibility. The
other's behaviours that fall under their accepted areas of organizational the leader or the
follower or subordinate can reject any illegitimate, undue demand from
range of behaviours that
boss. The key point is that legitimate authority applies only to the
parties involved.
are recognized and accepted as legitimate by theleader
While using legitimate power base, the should keep in mind that certain
legitimate power. For
behavioural traits are considered desirable in the exercise of
dealing with people, in
example, politeness in the issue of orders; being courteous whendealing with subordinates
in
particular those who are older; and confidence and calmness
situations, subordinates may be
some
who are nervous or anxious about the situation. In
they are held responsible, and
unsure of the rationale for the course of action for which
Therefore, it is important for the leader to
why they are expected to undertake the task.
subordinate.
explain the order or request given to the
Referent Power: Power Based on Charisma Referent Power:
get them to alter their actions in
Individuals who are liked and respected by others can known as referent power. Senior individuals who ore liked
influence
accordance with their directives-a type of they and respected by others
and good reputations may find that
managers who possess desirable qualitiesidentify with themn and wish to emulate them.
con get them to alter their
octions in accord with
who
have power over younger managers stars often have referent power over their admiring their directiyest
Similarly, heroes and popular movie individuals to endorse influence known os ref
on when they employ these
Tans (a fact advertisers often capitalize power.

their products). keep in mind that this

practising the referent power base, the manager should
subordinates have the same
While identify with the leader. If
requires subordinates to leaders remind
pOwer
education, or training, they will identify with the leader as process of
Dackground, practising referent power is through the
themselves. Another way of the leader.
hem of subordinates emulate the behaviour of
Trole modelling, where
 project trom Singur in West Bengal. Out its Nano
Organizational
ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS
Politics: Organizotional
Politics, the study of the dynamics of power in a group and its
politics involves intentional
acts of influence to enhance
management,
detincd in different ways. Organizational politics "involve{s]| intentional. acts of has been
or protect the self-interests
of individuals or groups.
to enhance or protect the self-interests of individuals or groups" (French and
Mayes and Allen (1977) define organizational politics as "the management of
influence
Bell 1995)
obtain ends not sanctioned bythe organization or to oblain ends finfluenceioned
through non-sanct to
influence means." French and Bell treat politics as illegitimate power. Analysis of
definitions suggests that the concept of power and politics are very similar. Both reltthese
getting one's wayeffectance. Both relate to the pursuit of self-interest and
overcoming
the resistance of others. Organizational politics Is power in action in organizations: it is
engaging in activities to get one's way in an organizational setting.
Politics is neither good nor bad per se but, like power, has two faces. Pursuit of
unsanctioned organizational goals or the use of unsanctioned organizational means mioht
be examples of the negative face of politics. Ilegitimate uses of authority, infomation.
 Power and Political Behaviour in Orgonizations 373
might also be exampless of the negative face of politics. However, a positive
resourccs
and politicsis shown
whenever hard decisions" must be made, are made, and most
organizational
fàceof members feel good about what was decided and how it was decided.
Jefrey Pfefler argues that politics is necessary if organizations are to
Inthisregard,
eflectivelyand efficiently. Some organizations reflect a mostly positive face of
function
other organizations reflect a mostly negativethe
face of politics.
politics,and to be associated with decision making., resourcc
Organizational politics tend
resolution processes in organization. Those are the key decision
allocation, and conflict where the "goods"
those are the areas where actors win and lose: those are
points; decided. In fact, one gains a quick understanding of
distributed and the goals are
an organization by studying its methods of resource
overall "political climate of means and goals.
the resolution, and choosing between alternative
allocation, conflict
The Political Subsystem The Politicol
Subsystem: The political
sources, locations, and the flow of power
a nolitical subsystem is composed of the that is, effectiveness within the subsystem. subsysten is composed of
criterion,
hrough the organization. The basic can be
the sources, locations, and
accumulated and transferred to these flow of power through the
sufficient power
ie the extent to which organizations to maintain productive operations, organization.
lacations (that is. the individuals) in the to the extent
problems, and implement solutions. A political subsystem is efficient
solve transferred quickly and with precision.
that power can be accumulated and one another.
tenet of general systems theory is that subsystems interact with changes
A the political subsystem will produce for the
Therefore, changes in either the social or problems
relationship poses at least two basic
in the other. The interactiveorganizational politics. The first is determining how much
consultants concerned with subsystem to aid work within the social
generated within the political
support can be changes are necessary in the social
subsystem
subsystem. The second is knowing what
and efficient political subsystem. active in order to
for the development of an effective more sophisticated and
The consultant needs to be politically in the past, consultants have
shown
rate. However,
increase the intervention success been able to
in politics, so the issue that is raised is how they have
minimal interest
reason may be just good fortune. Another may
survive, much less be successful. One to protect
clients themselves come to see that political cooperation is necessary
developed a
be that third reason: The consultants have
There may be a
their own self-interest. one, and this political
orientation in addition to its clinical interventions.
largely unrecognized politicalclerical
orientation complements the one in producing successful
clinical concepts relevant to the models of power
The knowledge base incorporates interventions (Huse
available to consultants for work in
and even sources of power of power can come from a foundation on
which
such concepts
I980). Properly viewed, intervention strategy. Yet, even today, the
knowledge base
and
lo build political theory
essentially lacking in political theory and models to help guide the
of consultants remains assistance
of political intervention strategies. There fore, if politicalbase of the
consultants in terms technological
a consultant, it must come from the value and the
s gven to
field.
 ünderlie the exercise of
POWER TACTICS USED IN influence.
Powertactics are used by
individuals onORGANIZATIONS
their own within groups
groups(intergroup) in order to influence events. Influence can(intragroup) and
a negative way. When used be used in a between
positively,
different types of power tactics
we can expect
beneficial positive or
this section:
used in outcomes.
organizations. Some of these There are
are discussed in
Individual and Intragroup Strategies
In an empirical study of how
oubordinates, and co-Workers)managerial
and the employees influence others (including superiors,
conditions under which one tactic is more
than other, Kipnis and his
identified. colleagues (1984) concluded that seven tactics could
suitable
be
1
ASsertiveness: This would entail setting a
a request,
ordering others to do what they deadline
were
for others to
asked
comply with
importance complying with the request, and
of to do, emphasizing the
obligation to perform. repeatedly reminding others of their
2.
Friendliness or ingratiation:
disposed to comply with a request.ThisIt could
is designed to make the
the person prior to the amount to flattery by person favourably
lavishing praise on
request, exaggerating the importance of
request, acting in a humble and friendly way complying with the
when seeking the person's
and waiting until the person is in a
3. Rationality: This receptive mood before striking. cooperation,
amounts to using
the request for action is seen to be facts and information in a logical way so that
detailed and well prepared. The rationale for the
request is given together with a statement of what is required of the
originator of the request is portrayed as a competent person. The
4. Sanctions: This individual.
amounts the use of coercive power, whereby
to
rewards and punishments are activated-for example, organizational
a promise of an increase in
salary or a promotion or a threat to give a person an
appraisal. unsatisfactory performance
J. Higher authority: This consists of efforts to secure support from people further
up the organizational hierarchy and could be
exemplified
Support superiors and others in higher positions.
of
by securing the informal
0. Bargaining: This could amount to exchanging favours and
benefits through a
Process of negotiation. Also, the person seeking the favour may remind the other
person of benefits that the former has bestowed on her in the past.
ehaviour

7. Coalition: This consists of getting help from others in the

organization,
up alliances with subordinates and co-workers. There is strength in ,by building
is evident when employees join trade unions. Coalitions are more
where interdependency exists betwccn organizational units and likelynumber
to bes, which
where formed
support is necessary for the implementation of decisions.
Kipnis and his colleagues (1984) found that these tactics differed in
broad-based
example, the most popular tactic was the use of reason, irrespective
influence was going up or down the hierarchy. Table 14.2 shows the
importwhetance.her For
the
of

from the most popular to the least popular. tactics, ranging

Table 14.2 classifies different influence tactics in terms of their
the contexts, that is, when managers influence their subordinates and
when
popularity
in both
influence their superiors. managers
For a collection of practical suggestions based on research into managerial
behaviours, Keys and Case (1990) discuss the tactics most frequently used and influence
he
most effective in their impact on supervisors, subordinates, and peers. They
outline fve
steps necessary to develop and maintain managerial influences:
1. Develop a reputation as a knowledgeable person or as an expert.
2 Balance the time spent in each critical
relationship according to the work needs
rather than on the basis of habit or social preference.
3. Develop a network of resource persons who can be called on for assistance.
4 Choose the correct combination of influence tactics for the objective to be achieved
and for the target to be influenced.
5. Implement influence tactics with sensitivity, flexibility, and adequate levels of
communication.

Situational Influences
The choice of a power tactic is influenced by the following
situational factors.
Relative power: ManagerS who control valuable resources or who occupy a position of
dominance use a greater variety of tactics when compared to a manager with less power.
However, the former shows an inclination to use assertiveness more often than the latter.
Assertiveness and directive strategies generally come into play where there is a refusal or
a reluctance to comply with a request. In contrast, the manager with less power is more
likely not to persevere with trying to influence others when resistance is experienced.
Manager'sobjectives: Managers attempt to match tactics to objectives in their dealings
with both superiors and subordinates. When the objectives are to derive
benehts rou
superiors, there tends to be reliance on friendliness or ingratiation. By contrast, 1t
objectives are to get a superior to accept new ideas, the most likely tactic is to use reaso.
Table 14.2 Use of Power Toctics
When Managers When Managers
Influenced Subordinates
Most popular
Influenced Superiors
Reason Reason
Coalition Assertiveness
Friendliness Friendliness
Bargaining
Assertiveness
Coalition
Bargaining
Higher authority Higher authority

Least popular Sanctions

Source: Adapted from Kipnis, D., S. M. Schmidt, C. Swaffin-Smith and I. Wilkinson (1984). "Pattems of
58-67.
12(3):
Managerial Infiuences: Shotgun Managers, Tacticians, and Bystanders". Organizational Dynamics,
 Manager's expectation of success: The degree of success in influencing either
euneriors or subordinates in the past is a strong determinant of the tactic to be used
curently. Where managers have been successful in exerting influence, they are likely to
use simple requests to obtain compliance. By contrast, where the success rate is low, they
are tempted to use the tactics of assertiveness and sanctions.
Organizational culture: This is one of most important situational variables. For
example, some cultures are supportive of a friendly approach, whereas others may favour
reason. Apart from organizational culture, ethnic background may also infiuence the
choice of a tactic (Xin and Tusi 1996).

Intergroup Power Tactics

Intergroup power is related to inffuence and dependence. When one group can exert
infuence over the othe, the former has power over the latter. This power is determined
by three factors.
1. Uncertainty absorption: Within organizations, there are specialized groups
performing a variety of functions, for example, industrial relations, pay, and
bargaining. When complex issues arise, the expertise of an appropriate specialist
group can be brought to resolve the problems, and in the process, these groups
absorb the uncertainty normally associated with such matters. Consequently, the
Specialist group gains some power over the user of its serVices.
2. Substitutability: In the example just given, if the user of the service can obtain
a substitute provider (for example, an external consultant), then the power of the
specialist can be reduced or eliminated. However, in practice, it might not be
possible to substitute internal providers with external providers where an available
internal facility exists.
3. Integrative importance: When agroup's services -forexample, central computing
services-are needed to asignificant extent by other groups within the organization
 Organizotional Behoviour
in order that the latter can function effectively, the provider has alot of
power. The level of power would be less if the services provided by
needed only to a rather linited extent.
As has bcen discussed carlier, individuals and groups form alliances
the ingroup
tergrouparc
or
coalitions
acquire or enhance apower base. Thompson (1967) has identificd Isome of the cooperativeto
tactics used on occasion by groups in order to cxpand their powcr. These are
as contracting, co-opting, and coalescing. referred
t
Contracting, which does not necessarily culminate in a formal lcgal
tactic arrived at between two or more groups to regulate future actions. For agrccment,
,IS a
management group not wishing to maintain a confrontational stance with a
which is likely to undermine its position, signs an agreement of
cxample,
trade
union,
a

union. cooperation with ihe

Co-opting is a process whereby others are admitted to the membership of a
order to avoid threats to the group's stability or survival. group, in
Coalescing comes about when there is a joint venture betwecn two
groups. There
is strength in pooling resources for the benefit of the organization. This
particularly beneficial when two groups combine their efforts, rather would be
wasteful competition.
than engaging in
Controlling Political CONTROLLING POLITICAL BEHAVIOURS IN ORGANIZATIONS
Behaviours in
Organizotions:
Ithas been accepted that it is impossible to eliminate political behaviour from organirate
" Awareness
but it is possible to counter the worse effects of political behaviour. Moorhead and Clg:
1998) have identified certain measures to help managers limit the dysfunctional
" Reduction of uncertainity imnact
" Open communicotion of unhealthy politics. These are:
"Confrontation Awareness: The first step in controlling the negative impact of political behaviour i
Cleor job assignments to become aware of the various strategies and tactics of the political
Eliminating coolitions behaviours that
have been discussed earlier. Awareness of these will help
Setting on example employees take corrective or
preventive actions in situations of politiking in organizations and manage such situations
more effectively.
Reduction of uncertainty: Uncertainty or ambiguity regarding work, procedures, and
activities stalls our perfomance. Therefore, the factors which cause these, both intemal
and external, should be managed properly. The process of
organizational
development results in uncertainty, and so it becomes important for changechange agents
and
help unravel the ambiguities in the situation. If they remain silent, they give room to
for
rumour-mongering and inciting speculation. A more detailed description of this process
has been discussed in the chapter on
organizational change.
Open communication: If managers or employees are open about the scarcity of resouces
and the basis for their allocation in the organization, a lot of
political
be avoided. No individual in the organization should be given the maneuvering can
right to control the
information or manage the lines of communication. Relevant information should be
available to all members of the organization.
Vecchio (1995) has offered a list ofother actions to combat the impact ofdysfunctiona
political behaviours in organizations. These include:
Confrontation: Confronting people who play political games in organ1zattons P
effective way of handling such actions. An individual who indulges in dysfunctional
political activities has to be directly confronted by an accepatble authority So u
actions are not condoned.
Clear job assignments: Alot of political actions arise bebecause of lack of clarity. Giving
clear instruction about the job description and responsibilities with well-definedand
discrete assignments will remove the potential for
ambiguity.
 Eliminating coalitions: Formation of Power ond Political
coalitions
pertormancein organizations and can beand cliques are Behaviour in Orgonizations 379
work avoided
Individualsin organizations can be rotated from one job
detrimental effective
by tranfers and to
fomany permanent association in the
to another so dismissals.
that they are not
able
in
to
enriching their experiences at different organization;
jobs. rotation of tasks also helps
Settingan
example: Managers should act as a role
model for their
Supporting encouraging truth, fairness, and justice in the
and
employees tends sto
subordinates
organization. An
by
treatment given to
n reduce the scope for equitable
unhealthy political behaviours.
IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
Rao andbiss colleagues (1995) define impression Impression
people attemptto control and manipulate management as "the
the reactions of others to process by which
themselves or their ideas." This comprises of one's create images of Management:is Impression
way of talking, management defined
rance. Most impression management activities are behaviour,a and
focused towards creating
as "the process by which
apPnn on others, but sometimes people also go0d People attempt to control
and manipulate the
hers The most relevant form of deliberately create
impression that managers trynegative impression of others to create
reoction
to imoges
impression management (the process of impressing one's superiors). create is upward of themselves or their
ideas."
Positive Impressions
The process of engaging in creating a
favourable
nroiecting an upbeat attitude at all times, trying notimpression on others comprises of
to offend others, and dressing for
success, if the motive is to improve the chances of getting what
and Rafaeli 1997). A moderate amount of you want in life (Pratt
impression management
employee's life in today's business scenario. If impressions are notis a part of every
there are chances that a manager will managed at all,
overlook
employee while taking decisions about the work
the contributions made by a valuable
it is over managed, there would be the assignment, pay, and promotions. If
risk of being labelled as sycophants or phony
(Vonk 1998). The risk of unintended insult is very high
when impression
lines (Montagliani andmanagement
tactics cross gender, racial, ethnic, and cultural
1998). There are three categories of upward Giacalone
and Ferris 1990): impression management tactics (Wayne
1. Job focused: This consists of maintaining and
one's job performance. manipulating information about
2. Supervisor focused: This comprises of praising and doing favours
supervisor. for one's
3. Self-focused: This consists of presenting oneself as a very polite and good
person.
Negative Impressions
This idea of creatingnegative impressions in the eyes of
But there can be both motives and tactics for others appears to be quite absurd.
creating
study has revealed four motives for creating bad bad impressions about oneself. A
I. Avoidance: Sometimes, employees
impression (Becker and Martin 1995):
deliberately try to
basically to avoid additional work, unwanted relocationcreate negative impressions
save themselves from any or promotion, and also to
stress organizations.
. 1o obtain concrete rewards: Negative impressions may also be
pay raise, desired transfer, or created to seek a
promotion.
Exit: Employees may want to get fired or suspended or
sometimes may be seeking
unemployment compensation.
OWer: They may want to control or intimidate others, take revenge, or make
Someone else look bad.
 ehoviour
There
4. 3. 2. 1.
Songenial impressions
practicesa work, There acting
one's Displaying
5. Withdrawal: Working are
Broadcasting Decreasing
making illness.
faking
and
physical five
better are capabilitiesstrangely,
in number more tactics
the
IN andfeedback in or below a
organizations.
trusting form psychological)performance: mistakes, It
bad
identified
limitations:
of consistspotential: and
of to attitude:
recognition about ways the picking
work
their and fullest. to
nment. to of This
Some
manage neglecting
toThis This being This up create
performance, one's arguments
and l
wicomprises comprisesof
wil a
of tardy, negative
rewards, employees thesecolleaguesconsist consist
tasks.
taking th
efective consist of of of wiimpression
deliberate
clarity
announcing
and restricting frequent pretence colleagues.
who
in offriends.
leadership.,
providing
jobdeliberately of delays,(Becker
escription, productivity,
one's breaksignorance
repeated
better more problems in and
create between d Martin
motivational
and
challengg deliberately ancomplaints.
enabling negative (whether not
work, using 1995)