1.

9 COMPUTER MEMORY
A computer memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. memory is divided into large number of small
parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory
size minus one.

Computer storage can be divided into primary memory, secondary memory and cache memory.
Primary memory or main memory in the computer provides fast access memory. The processor
can access it directly for data and instructions. Frequently used files and programs are stored in
the primary memory. Since primary storage is expensive, only a limited amount can be stored
therein. Cache memory is another memory device. CPU can access it much faster than main
memory. But it is very expensive. The secondary memory is used for bulk storage of data and
instructions. Large files and databases are stored on secondary storage devices. These devices
include hard disk, optical disks, magnetic tapes and floppy disks. Data and instructions from
secondary storage devices are transferred to main memory and cache memory in small measures
for the CPU to access them for processing.

Computer Memory are three types :

1. Primary Memory/Main Memory
2. Secondary Memory
3. Cache Memory

Primary Memory or Main Memory

The main memory is used to store data and instructions currently required for processing.
These memories are manufactured by using integrated electronic circuits or semiconductor
device. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. Both RAM and ROM
are random access memories and both can be used for reading purposes. The distinguishing
feature is RAM's ability to alter data stored in it, which is not possible with ROM. Typically
ROM is used to store system instructions which are relatively permanent in nature. RAM is
volatile; that is, it loses its contents if the device is electrically disconnected.
Primary Memory are divided into two subcategories :
1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
2. Read Only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
The word 'random' means that the computer can access any memory cell without accessing all
cells sequentially. That is, a memory is said to be random access memory if any part of it can be
accessed directly (randomly) for reading or writing data in the same time irrespective of its
location. In other words, access to this memory is independent of physical storage location of
information on the medium. RAM is volatile as any interruption in power supply results in loss
of data in RAM. The contents of the memory remain there as long as electrical current is
available to sustain the memory's pattern of positive and negative charges which represent the
two bits 1 and O.lf power fails, all the contents in the memory will be lost.
Types of RAM :

Read Only Memory (ROM)

This memory uses MetaL Oxide Semiconductor TechnoLogy. RAM is read-write memory
whereas ROM is Read-OnLy-Memory. This memory is used to store frequently used programs
in the system.
Types of ROM :
-only memory (PROM)
-only memory (EPROM)
-only-memory (EEPROM)

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it.

In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower
than that of the primary storage. Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and
transferred to the primary storage as and when required.

Main secoundry memory are:

1. Magnetic Disk
2. Floppy Disk
3. Hard Disk
4. Optical Disks

Magnetic Disk The Magnetic Disk is Flat, circular platter with metallic coating that is rotated
beneath read/write heads. It is a Random access device; read/write head can be moved to any
location on the platter

Floppy Disk These are small removable disks that are plastic coated with magnetic recording
 ) and can hold 1.44 MB of data. This
portable storage device is a rewritable media and can be reused a number of times. Floppy disks
are commonly used to move files between different computers. The main disadvantage of floppy
disks is that they can be damaged easily and, therefore, are not very reliable. The following
figure shows an example of the floppy disk. Figure 3 shows a picture of the floppy disk.

Hard Disk Another form of auxiliary storage is a hard disk. A hard disk consists of one or more
rigid metal plates coated with a metal oxide material that allows data to be magnetically recorded
on the surface of the platters. The hard disk platters spin at 5 a high rate of speed, typically 5400
to 7200 revolutions per minute (RPM).Storage capacities of hard disks for personal computers
range from 10 GB to 120 GB (one billion bytes are called a gigabyte).

Optical Disks Optical Mass Storage Devices Store bit values as variations in light reflection.
They have higher area density & longer data life than magnetic storage. They are also
Standardized and relatively inexpensive. Their Uses: read-only storage with low performance
requirements, applications with high capacity requirements & where portability in a standardized
format is needed.
Types of Optical Disk
1. CD-ROM (read only)
2. CD-R: (record) to a CD
3. CD-RW: can write and erase CD to reuse it (re-writable)
4. DVD(Digital Video Disk)
Cache Memory
Input- Output operations are very slow. CPU speeds are quite high compared to the access time
of main memory. Thus the processor performance is limited by the slow speed of the main
memory. To speed up fetching of instructions to CPU, a buffer or cache (pronounced as cash) is
used. Normal RAM is expensive and is not fast enough to match the speed of CPU. To reduce
the processing time, certain computers use costlier and higher speed memory devices to form a
buffer or cache. This technique uses a small memory with extremely fast access speed close to
the processing speed of the CPU. This memory is called cache and it stores data and instructions
currently required for processing. Cache memory thus makes main memory appear much faster
and larger than it really is. It improves the memory transfer rates and thus raises the effective
processor speead.

The CPU searches cache before it searches main memory for data and instructions. Cache is
physically located close to the CPU and hence access to cache is faster than to any other
memory.

1.10. CONCEPT OF HARDWARE

Hardware: The physical parts of a computer. the system is a group of various components that
work together to achieve a specific goal or target...the computer mainly consists of hardware and
software
The term hardware is used to refer to all the components inside or outside the computer. The
hardware that are used to supply input to computer are called as input devices. The hardware that
are used to process the data are called as processing devices and the devices that are used to
present output of computer are called as output devices

The System Unit- the system unit is also known as case.

o Front side
o Back side
Ports
Expansion Slots
o Inside
Motherboard ( System Board)
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
Memory, such as RAM, ROM, Cache, and Flash
o Outside
Input /output
Communication device
Storage-the motherboard in the cabinet,the memory chip are installed and secondary
storage is connected to it.different memory drives are connected to the motherbard by a
flat cable(ribbon cable).
Input / Output Devices- The input hardware devices are used to put data into computer.
The output hardware devices are translating the processed information to the human
Communication Devices-peripheral device that extends a computer input, storage
,output cababilities.
Components Of System Unit
the system unit is also known as case.it is the house the all the computer components and their
connections switches in front back and inside.

Backside

Ports are sockets that are on the outside othe system unit, meaning you can easily plug a
cable into a port without opening the system unit.
o Serial ports transmit one bit of data at a time.
o Parallel ports transmit 8 bits of data at a time.
o Universal Serial Bus (USB) ports are much faster than serial or parallel ports and
allow multiple devices to be connected to the same port.
o Scsi ports-Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)used primarily as a
connection interface for tape drives and hard disk drives.
o Power sockets- for connecting power to power supplyfrom external source
Expansion Slots are sockets on the motherboard that you can plug expansion cards into.
To plug a card into a slot, you must open the system unit. A card contain a socket on its
end that sticks out from the system unit so a cable can be plugged into it. Common types
of cards are graphics, sound, and network cards.

Inside
The Motherboard is the main circuit board for the computer, containing both soldered,
nonremovable components along with sockets or slots for components that can be
removed. The motherboard holds the CPU, RAM and ROM chips, etc.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer. It executes
instructions (from software) and tells other components what to do. There are 2 parts of
the CPU: The ALU and Control Unit.

o The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) performs arithmetic operations (such as

addition and subtraction) and logical operations (such as comparing two values).
o The Control Unit deciphers and carries out instructions.

The System Clock is an "electrical pulse generator" that sends out a pulse of electricity at
regular intervals. The electronic components of the computer need these electric pulses in
order to perform work.
Power Supply -The power supply as its name might suggest is the device that supplies
power to all the components in the computer. Its case holds a transformer, voltage control,
and (usually) a cooling fan. uninterruptible power source (UPS) is an electrical
 apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source or mains
power fails
Bus Lines are "electrical data roadways" (i.e. wires) through which bits of information
are transmitted between the CPU and other components. The bus size denotes how many
bits can be transmitted at once. In general, this should be the same as the CPU word size.

Memory Unit

Bit (Binary Digit): Can only have a value of either 0 or 1.Byte: 8 bits (also known as
a Character).
Kilobyte: 1024 bytes (or 2^10 bytes).
Megabyte: 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^20 bytes). Roughly one million bytes.
Gigabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^30 bytes). Roughly one billion bytes.
Terabyte: 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 bytes (or 2^40 bytes). Roughly one trillion bytes.

o Random Access Memory (RAM), also known as Main Memory or Primary

Storage, is used to hold instructions and data while they are being used. RAM is
volatile, meaning its contents are lost when the power goes off.
o Read Only Memory (ROM) chips are non-volatile memory that generally
contains instructions for "booting" the computer (i.e. loading the operating system
when the computer starts up).
o CMOS chips are powered by a battery and contain so-called "flexible
information" such as the type of hard drive your computer is using and the current
date and time.
o Flash chips do not require electricity or a battery yet are non-volatile.
o Cache memory is special high-speed memory that temporarily stores instructions
and data the CPU is likely to use frequently.

Secondary Storage-Devices that "permanently" hold data and information (i.e.

programs).
Non-volatile memory; when the power goes off, contents are still saved (unless there is
an error).Used to store instructions and data while they are not being used.
A floppy disk is a removable (i.e. portable) platter made of mylar plastic that is
magnetized. Bits of information are stored in concentric rings called tracks on either side
of the platter. The current floppy disk standard is a 3 1/2" platter in a hard plastic case
that holds 1.44 Megabytes of information. A Zip disk, on the other hand, can hold up to
250 Megabytes.
A hard disk is similar to a floppy disk but uses metal platters to store information. Hard
disks are not only much faster than floppy disks but can hold huge amounts of data
(hundreds of gigabytes).

Both floppy and hard drives use a read/write head, which is basically a magnet, to
read/write information from/to tracks on a platter. In a hard drive, the read/write head and
platter(s) are enclosed together in an air-tight package, making hard drives less
susceptible to damage. The read/write head hovers above the platter but should not touch
it. If touched, the platter can be damaged, resulting in the loss of some or all the data on
the platter. This is known as a head crash.
Magnetic tape is used mostly for backups. These are very slow because you have to fast
forward or rewind to the right spot. However, they are very reliable.
 Optical discs use optical technology (i.e. lasers) instead of magnetic technology to store
information.

o CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc - Read Only Memory.

o CD-R stands for Compact Disc - Recordable and can be written to only once.
(Also known as CD-WORM: Compact Disc - Write Once, Read Many.)
o CD-RW stands for Compact Disc - Re-writeable (or Read/Write).
o DVD-ROM stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Read Only Memory.
o DVD-R stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Recordable and can be written to only
once.
(Also known as DVD-WORM: Digital Versatile Disc - Write Once, Read Many.)
o DVD-RW stands for Digital Versatile Disc - Re-writeable (or Read/Write).
o CD's can hold approximately 650 Megabytes of data while DVD's can hold up to
17 Gigabytes.

Front Side

o
 Power switch: The power on/off switch is used to turn on or off the power to the PC.
Reset button: This button helps you restart your computer without disconnecting the
power supply.
Lights: The front panel of the system unit may display a variety of colored indicator
lights. These lights are used to indicate whether the hard disk, the floppy disk or the CD-
ROM is being read or written.
Floppy Disk drive: The floppy disk drive is used to read the information stored in floppy
disks (also called a diskette).
DVD/CD Combo Drive: A simple combo drive allows you to save data on CD and look at
data in a DVD but not let you save any data on DVD. For saving data on DVD you need an
enhanced version of combo drive which includes functionality to save data on DVD.

Input / Output Devices

Input devices translate data into a form the computer can understand.
o The keyboard is the most common input device, but this type of data entry is
very slow and error-prone.
o Direct input devices are much faster and less error-prone.
Pointing devices such as the mouse, trackball, and touchpad allow you to
manipulate a cursor on the screen.
Scanning devices read data directly. For example, OMR (Optical Mark
Recognition) devices (such as a scantron machine) can sense marks on
paper. Even more advanced are OCR (Optical Characgter Recognition)
devices, which attempt to read letters. Bar Code Readers are often used in
grocery stores to scan items.
Output devices translate information into a form humans can understand.
o The Monitor (or Display Screen) is the most common type of output device. It
produces softcopy (i.e. temporary) output on a screen.
o The Printer is the most second most common type of output device. It
produces hardcopy (i.e. "permanent") output on paper.
A Laser Printer uses a photoelectric drum and powdered ink, similar to a
copying machine, to produce output.
An Inkjet Printer produces output by spraying droplets of liquid ink onto
the paper from small nozzles. It is the most common type of printer in use
today and is generally very inexpensive.

Communications Devices

These allow your computer to send/receive data to/from other computers.

A modem sends information over a phone line. Modems are slow and susceptible to
problems such as phone line static.
 A network card sends information over a network cable. These can be used to hook up a
computer to a local area network (LAN) or to an Internet Service Provider via a cable
modem or DSL (for Internet access).

1.11 CONCEPT OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

As you know, the hardware devices need user instructions to function. A set of instructions that
achieve a single outcome are called program or procedure. Many programs functioning together
to do a task make a software.

System Software
Application Software
Utility Software
.
System Software

Software required to run the hardware parts of the computer and other application software are
called system software. System software acts as interface between hardware and user
applications.
Machines understand only binary language i.e. 0 (absence of electric signal) and 1 (presence of
electric signal). Software is required to convert all human instructions into machine
understandable instructions.

Operating System
Language Processor
Device Drivers

Operating System
System software that is responsible for functioning of all hardware parts and their
interoperability to carry out tasks successfully is called operating system (OS). OS is the first
software to be loaded into computer memory when the computer is switched on and this is
called booting
retrieving files from storage devices, scheduling tasks based on priority, etc.
 Language Processor
system software is to convert all user instructions into machine understandable language.
Machine-level language
machines can understand. It is completely machine dependent.
Assembly-level language
defining mnemonics. Mnemonics are English like words or symbols used to denote a
long string of 0s and 1s. The complete instruction will also tell the memory address.
Assembly level language is machine dependent.
High level language
independent of machines. Programs written using high level languages are easy to
create, read and understand.
Program written in high level programming languages like Java, C++, etc. is called source
code. Set of instructions in machine readable form is called object code or machine
code. System software that converts source code to object code is called language processor.
There are three types of language
Assembler
Interpreter
Compiler
rather than line by line.
Device Drivers
System software that controls and monitors functioning of a specific device on computer is
called device driver. Each device like printer, scanner, microphone, speaker, etc. that needs to
be attached externally to the system has a specific driver associated with it. When you attach a
new device, you need to install its driver so that the OS knows how it needs to be managed.

Application Software

A software that performs a single task and nothing else is called application software.
Application software are very specialized in their function and approach to solving a problem.

Commercial software -commercial software: these programs available as an online

download. Once the trial period is over, the user can pay for the program directly on the
Web site and download an official copy
Public domain software -Public domain software is not copyrighted. It is released without
any conditions upon its use, and may be used without restriction. This type of software
generally has the lowest level of support available.
Freeware -Freeware has no cost and can be downloaded from the Internet without any
charges.
Shareware -This is a software that can be used on a trial basis. Once the time limit of
shareware expires, the user is asked to pay for continuation of the services.
Application software tools
1) Word Processing Software: Word Processing software is used to manipulate, format the text,
to create memos, letters, faxes and documents. For example Microsoft Word, Lotus Word
Pro, Word pad and Corel WordPerfect.
2) Spreadsheet Software: Spreadsheet software is used to perform manipulate and
calculations. In spreadsheet software data is stored in intersection row and column. The
intersection of row and column is known as a cell. For example Microsoft Excel, lotus 1-2-3 for
windows and number for MAC OS.
3) Database Software: Database is a collection of data related to any applications. When we
operate the application data is accessed from the database, and after manipulation, it gets back
stored in the database.For example Database Management System (DBMS) software tool used
for storing, modifying extracting and searching for information within a database. MySQL, MS
Access, Microsoft SQL Server and Oracle is the example of database application Software.
4)Business software These programs are built to facilitate certain business functions,
improving the accuracy, efficiency, and effectiveness of operations. Business application
software programs achieve measurable objectives such as saving work time and enhancing
productivity. Below are some popular examples of business applications that are commonly
used by organization
5)Presentation Software: Presentation program is a program to show the information in the
form of slides. The software has three components:1) Text editor for inputting and formatting
text.2) Inserting graphics, text, video and other multimedia files.3) Slideshow to display
the information.We can add text, graphics video and images to slides to make them more
informative. Presentation software helps the presenter to present their ideas with ease and visual
information easy to understand. Example of presentation software:

6)Education and Reference Software: These types of software are specifically designed
to facilitate learning on a particular subject. There are various kinds of tutorial software
that fall under this category. They are also termed as academic software. Some examples
are:DeltaDrawing,GCompris, Jumpstart titles,KidPix, MindPlay,Tux Paint
7)Games/Entertainment: This area deal with the general public, media and
telecommunication. With the growth entertainment mode, many application is available
for mobile phone as well as the system. Like Music and video entertainment app,
navigation app, social networking application, news and weather application, educational
apps and e-

8) Web Browsers: These applications are used to browse the internet. They help the user
in locating and retrieving data across the web. Some examples of web browsers
are:GoogleChrome,InternetExplorer,MicrosoftEdge,MozillaFirefox,Opera,Safari,UC
Browser

9) Authoring/Multimedia Software: Multimedia is a combination of text, graphics, audio and

Multimedia software used in the editing of video, audio and text. Multimedia software used in
the growth of business, educations, information, remote system and entertainment.

10.Graphics Software: As the name suggests, Graphics Software has been devised to work
with graphics as it helps the user to edit or make changes in visual data or images. It
comprises of picture editors and illustration software. Some examples are:Adobe
Photoshop, Autodesk Maya, Blender ,Carrara,CorelDRAW,GIMP,Modo,PaintShop Pro

11.Web-based applications:While most application software can be installed directly to a

machine, many allow users to access tools through web browsers and some only exist in web
format. Not only do these services free up space on a user's hard drive or network, being web-
based means they can be accessed from anywhere in the world at any time, with data being
stored in the cloud. This also means the application is kept up-to-date automatically, without the
risk of a user running an insecure version.

Utility Software

Application software that assist system software in doing their work is called utility software.
Thus, utility software is actually a cross between system software and application software.

Antivirus software
File management tools
Compression tools
Disk management tools
Backup tools

Antivirus:It is used to protect a computer from the virus. It detects a virus and notify the
user and take action to secure the computer. The virus are kept in different location called
vault where it has different file system due to which virus effect it. User can itself instruct
antivirus to delete malicious program, put it in vault or even ignore it. These days most
come in GUI form.
 File Management Tool:The software is used to manage files stored in a file system. It
can be used to create, group file. File management tool is a data structure used to store
file in a OS while later is used to perform task on file stored in the file System.Like
Windows File Explorer is a file management tool.

Compression Tool:These tool are used to reduce the size of a file based on the selected
algorithm.Most operating systems include tools for compressing and uncompressing
files.Linux has tools for both .tar.gz and .zip. Other compressed files, like .7z and .rar,
require a third-party compression utility to be installed.

Disk Management Tool: It enables us to view or managed the disk drives installed in
their computer and the partition associated with those drives. Disk Management is used to
managed the drives installed in a computer- like hard disk drives, and flash drives. It can
be used to partition drives, assign drive letters and much more.

1.Disk Cleanup Tool : It allows user to remove files that are no longer needed or
that can be safely deleted. Removing unnecessary files, including temporary files,
can help to improve the functioning and increase the free space of the computer.
Running Disk Cleanup at least once a month is an excellent maintenance task.
Disk Cleanup tool can delete temporary internet files, old check disk files,
compress old filesand offline webpages. Disk cleanup also allows you to empty
the Recycle Bin, delete temporary files, and delete Thumbnails.

2.Disk Defragmenter:It is a utility in Microsoft Windows designed to increase

access speed by rearranging file stored on a disk to occupy contiguous storage
locations, a technique is calledDefragmentation.Defragmenting a disk minimizes
head travel, which reduces the time it takes to read files from and write files to the
disk.The defragmenter will search your hard drive partition and move data from
one location to other location, so that the files stored there are one contiguous
piece, instead of being throughout multiple locations on the harddrives partition.
Backup :Backup utility enables backing up of files, folders, databases or complete disks.
Backups are taken so that data may be restored in case of data loss. Backup is a service
provided by all operating systems. In stand-alone systems backup may be taken in the same or
different drive. In case of networked systems backup may be done on backup servers.
QUESTIONS

1. Define: computer.
2. List out some applications of computer.
3. Discuss about volatile and nonvolatile memory.
4. What is hardware and software
5. Write a short note on CPU.
6. Briefly explain the input devices.
7. Briefly explain the output devices
8. Discuss about the concept of hardware.
9. Discuss about the concept of software
10. Discuss about computer memory devices in brief.
11. Explain computer components in detail.