The Introduction concisely describes the purpose of the investigation

Introduction The Introduction concisely describes the purpose of the investigation and should tell the
reader why this work was done. You should briefly review past research on the problem with 4 enough
background information to orient the reader (this is usually accomplished by a literature search of
published, peer-reviewed, primary materials). The background information included must be
appropriately referenced (see the section on how to cite references). Think of the Introduction as a
funnel. Start by stating a very broad topic, problem, area of study, etc. You might first discuss the
general problem or theory pertaining to the problem you are studying. From this broad introduction,
focus down to your specific research topic and project. The final paragraph of your introduction should
include a statement of the hypothesis you have investigated and your predictions. A hypothesis is a
broad general statement of causality for a biological pattern or observation. It is usually a good idea to
start a sentence in this paragraph with “We hypothesized that x affects y…” or “It was hypothesized that
x affects y…” The hypothesis is usually non-directional and usually states a general “effect” and not that
something “increases” or “decreases.” Also include specific prediction statements. A prediction is
usually directional, i.e. “We predicted that if x (increased/decreased)…, then y would
(increase/decrease)...” State the specific question(s) you are attempting to answer, a brief
introduction/justification of the general method used, and how your investigation will help clarify or
expand the knowledge in the general area. Methods In this section, you explain the type of data
gathered or the experiment in sufficient detail that it could be repeated. Avoid unnecessary details and
include only information that is necessary to complete the experiment or gather the data. The
experimental design, apparatus, procedures of gathering and analyzing data, types of control, etc.,
should be described. If standard procedures are used, cite the reference and describe only the
modifications made (if any). When experiments are conducted outdoors, you should describe the
factors that may influence the results of the investigation such as location of the study site, the weather,
etc. If any specimens were collected for the investigation, you should state how, where, and when that
material was collected. Photographs, maps, and diagrams (all presented as figures) can be used as an aid
in describing the experimental procedures. Write the Methods section in the past tense. It should not be
written as if it were directions in a laboratory manual; therefore, do not make a list of materials, do not
give instructions on how to do something, and do not recount your methods as a sequence of events.
Rather, you should focus on the experimental design. For example, do not write: For this experiment
you will need the following equipment: six petri plates, one liter of agar, and one inoculating loop. First
pour agar into the six petri plates, then inoculate the plates with a fungus using the inoculating loop.
Then you put the plates into the incubator. An acceptable manner to convey the same idea as above is:
5 Six petri plates were prepared with agar, inoculated with an inoculating loop, and placed in the
incubator for 10 hours at 37oC. Results In this section, you present the data in a straightforward manner
with no analysis of the reasons the results occurred or the biological meaning of the data (these
comments are reserved for the Discussion). However, you should interpret the data (preferably
statistically), highlight significant data and point out patterns, correlations, and generalizations that
emerge. Also write this section using the past tense. Data are generally organized into tables and/or
figures (graphs). Tables must have a table header (above the table) and figures must be accompanied by
a caption (below the figure). Both tables and figures must be referred to in the text (see below for an
example of how to cite this in the text of your paper). A Results section that includes only a table or a
figure and no text is not acceptable. Text must be given first, before tables and figures on a page, if the
tables and figures are included in the text rather than on the final pages of your report (see number 5 in
the list below for table and figure placement). Unreduced, unsummarized, or “raw” data should not be
included. It is not appropriate to include redundant data and the same data should not be included in
both table and figure form; rather, the data should be shown in the format that is most clear for the
particular type of data collected and analyzed (see below). The text of the Results section should
describe the results presented in tables and figures and call attention to significant data discussed later
in the report. Do not repeat what is already clear to the reader from reviewing the tables and figures,
which, if well constructed, will show both the results and experimental design. A portion of the results
text might read as follows: The number of bacterial colonies increased up to 40ºC, but decreased at
higher temperatures (Figure 1). The greatest amount of growth occurred between 35° and 40°C. In this
example, Figure 1 refers to the graph in which the data are presented. In the same sentence, the author
says something about the data and refers the reader to the appropriate figure. The figure (graph) may
contain numerous data points (e.g., number of bacterial colonies at 1º C intervals from 0º to 60º C), but
the author did not bore the reader with a description of each. Rather, generalizations are made
concerning the relationships shown by the data, which the figure illustrates (“a picture is worth a
thousand words”). Use of Tables and Figures Tables and figures summarize data in a form that allows
the reader to easily see any correlations, relationships, or patterns that are important. Tables are made
when it is important that specific values are shown (i.e. means, standard deviations, standard errors,
etc.). Figures are made when it is more important to shown trends or relationships of data. Certain
requirements, however, must be met: 1) Refer to the tables as Tables; refer to all other items (graphs,
pictures, drawings, maps, etc.) as Figures. 6 2) When you include a table and/or figure, you must refer to
it in the text. For example, consider the following sentence: The results of the temperature experiment
are somewhat confusing (Figure 1). This sentence tells the reader that all the pertinent data are to be
found in Figure 1 and to refer to the figure while reading. 3) Independently number tables and figures.
For example, in a paper containing two tables and two figures, you would number the tables Table 1 and
Table 2, and the figures as Figure 1 and Figure 2. 4) Assign tables and figures their respective numbers
on the basis of the order in which you first mention them in the text. The first table you mentioned is
Table 1, the second is Table 2, etc. The same applies for the figures. 5) Tables and figures can either
follow as closely as possible the actual page on which the table or figure is mentioned in the text or be
included on individual pages following Literature Cited. Ask your instructor for their preference. 6) All
tables must have headers and figures must have self-explanatory captions. The rules for composing the
headers and captions are the same as for composing the title of the paper. The reader should be able to
look at a table or figure and by reading the caption know exactly what was done in that part of the
experiment without having to read the text for an explanation. If appropriate, the sample size should
also be included. 7) All tables and figures should include the units of measurement used (grams (g),
meters (m), seconds (s), etc.). Otherwise the data are meaningless. All columns in a table and both axes
(X axis and Y axis) of a graph must be independently labeled including units. Units are usually included
parenthetically in axes labels. For instance, an appropriate axis label may be: Time (min). 8) Headers for
tables are always placed above the table, and captions for figures are always placed below the figure.