DRIP IRRIGATION

UNDERSTANDING
THE BASICS

Handbook

2022
v 1.0
© COPYRIGHT 2021, NETAFIM™

NO PART OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE REPRODUCED, STORED IN AN AUTOMATED DATA FILE OR MADE
PUBLIC IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, WHETHER ELECTRONIC, MECHANICAL, BY PHOTOCOPYING,
RECORDING OR IN ANY OTHER MANNER WITHOUT PRIOR WRITTEN PERMISSION OF NETAFIM™.

THIS DOCUMENT IS PRESENTED WITH THE EXCLUSIVE AIM OF NOTIFYING SELECTED POTENTIAL CLIENTS
REGARDING THE NETAFIM™ DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM. RECEIPT OR POSSESSION OF THIS DOCUMENT
DOES NOT IMPLY RIGHTS AND THE CONTENTS SHOULD BE VIEWED AS A PROPOSAL ONLY.
THIS DOCUMENT IS NEITHER ISSUED AS A GUARANTEE, NOR IS IT LEGALLY BINDING.
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NETAFIM™ CANNOT ACCEPT ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR RELIANCE ON THE INFORMATION PROVIDED, AND
THE USER IS ADVISED TO OBTAIN THE PROFESSIONAL ADVICE OF NETAFIM™ AND/OR ITS AUTHORIZED
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NETAFIM™ WILL NOT ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY FOR DAMAGE OR LOSS THAT MAY RESULT FROM THE
USE OF NETAFIM’S PRODUCTS OR THE USE OF THIS DOCUMENT.
NETAFIM™ RESERVES THE RIGHT TO MAKE CHANGES AND IMPROVEMENTS TO ITS PRODUCTS AND/OR
THE ASSOCIATED DOCUMENTATION WITHOUT PRIOR NOTICE.

FOREIGN LANGUAGES
In the event that you are reading this manual in a language other than the English language, you
acknowledge and agree that the English language version shall prevail in case of inconsistency or
contradiction in interpretation or translation.

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CONTENTS

About this document.......................................................................................................................... 4

Use of symbols in this document; Aim of this document; Safety instructions

Drip irrigation system overview..................................................................................................... 8

An overview of the drip irrigation system components, their functions and properties:
Structure of a drip irrigation system; Water source; Energy consumption in irrigation; Pumps and
pumping stations; Filtration; Main, sub-main, distribution pipes and fittings; Water meters and
pressure gauges; Valves; Dosing unit; Driplines (laterals); Connectors; End of driplines; Sensors;
Controller; Accessories and add-ons; Agro-machinery.

Drip irrigation management and operation............................................................................. 51

Guidelines and useful tips for the proper management and operation of a drip irrigation system:
Irrigation; Nutrigation™; Nutrigation™ via a drip irrigation system; Chemigation; Dripline insertion or
laying.

Drip irrigation system maintenance........................................................................................... 68

Guidelines and useful tips for the proper maintenance of a drip irrigation system:
Maintenance timetable; System flushing; Preparation and use of a hydraulic conditions checklist;
Chemical injection for system maintenance; Water analysis; Sampling drippers;

Pest control........................................................................................................................................... 83
Rodent control; Insect control; Root intrusion prevention in sub surface drip irrigation (SDI) systems;
Contamination from external particles in SDI; Periods of system inactivity.

Water/soil/plant relationship......................................................................................................... 91
Vital information considering the soil condition, the water characteristics and the needs of the
crop, and guidelines for the planning and management of a drip irrigation system:
Soil; Water budgeting; Tensiometers

Appendices......................................................................................................................................... 101
Appendix 1: Unit conversion tables
Appendix 2: Further reading

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics  3

About this document
Use of symbols

The symbols used in this handbook refer to the following:

WARNING
Contains instructions aimed at preventing bodily injury or direct damage to the crops,
the automation system and/or the infrastructure.

CAUTION
Contains instructions aimed at preventing unwanted system operation, installation or
conditions that, if not followed, might void the warranty.

ATTENTION
Contains instructions aimed at enhancing the efficiency of usage of the instructions in the
manual.

NOTE
Contains instructions aimed at emphasizing certain aspect of the operation of the system
or installation.

ACID HAZARD
Contains instructions aimed at preventing bodily injury or direct damage to the crops
and/or the irrigation system in the presence of acid..

ELECTRICAL HAZARD
Contains instructions aimed at preventing bodily injury or direct damage to the irrigation
system components in the presence of electricity

SAFETY FOOTWEAR
Contains instructions aimed at preventing foot injury.

WARNING
Contains instructions aimed at preventing damage to health or bodily injury in the
presence of nutrients, acid or chemicals.

EXAMPLE
Provides an example to clarify the operation of the settings, method of operation or
installation.
The values used in the examples are hypothetical. Do not apply these values to your own
situation.

TIP
Provides clarification, tips or useful information.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics About this document 4

Irrigation is the watering of land by artificial methods. Without irrigation, agriculture is limited by the availability
and reliability of naturally occurring water from floods or rain.

Drip irrigation is widely accepted as the most efficient irrigation technique as it allows high uniformity of water
and nutrient application.

Aim of this document

This document’s purpose is to present the basic concepts regarding drip irrigation, to familiarize the reader
with the components of a drip irrigation system and their functions, and to provide understanding of the basic
operational and maintenance issues regarding the system.
It is intended for Netafim’s personnel, its representatives and agents all over the globe and for its clients,
irrigation systems managers and operational personnel.
The importance of thorough knowledge of the subjects discussed in this document for the effective operation
and preventive maintenance of the drip irrigation system cannot be overemphasized.
Drip irrigation is the most advanced and the most efficient of all irrigation methods. However, its exceptional
capabilities cannot be effectively implemented if the user is not familiar with the related knowledge and does
not implement it in the current operation and maintenance of the drip irrigation system.
Netafim™ makes every effort to provide its clients all over the globe with concise, comprehensible
documentation with the intent to facilitate the operation and maintenance of the drip irrigation system while
maximizing the ensuing benefits - higher yield of superior quality crop with higher market value and shorter ROI.
Netafim’s personnel and its representatives and agents all over the globe should make sure to read and
understand this entire document thoroughly prior to advising their clients on issues regarding the purchase,
installation, operation and maintenance of a Netafim™ drip irrigation system.
It is the responsibility of Netafim’s representatives and agents to make sure that, prior to purchase, the client’s
decision makers are familiar with the installation, operational and maintenance considerations regarding a drip
irrigation system, as discussed in this document.
The clients’ irrigation systems managers and operational personnel should be familiar with the components
of a drip irrigation system and their functions, and study in depth all the operational and maintenance issues
discussed in this document prior to first operation of a new Netafim™ drip irrigation system.

ATTENTION
This document is not a user manual. For detailed instructions for the operation, maintenance and
troubleshooting of the components of the Netafim™ drip irrigation system, reffer to the user manuals and
documentation of each component supplied with the system.

This document should be kept available to the farm’s personnel at any time for consultation on issues regarding
the current operation and maintenance of the drip irrigation system.
In addition, Netafim’s irrigation products department is at the client’s service for any inquiry, advice or additional
information needed after reading this document.

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Safety Instructions
All local safety regulations must be applied when installing, operating, maintaining and troubleshooting the
Netafim™ drip irrigation system and its components.

WARNING
In an agricultural environment - always wear protective footwear.

WARNING
Only authorized electricians are permitted to perform electrical installations!
Electrical installations must comply with the local safety standards and regulations.

WARNING
Measures must be taken to prevent the infiltration of nutrients, acids and chemicals into
the water source.

ACID HAZARD
When not handled properly, nutrients, acids and chemicals may cause serious injury or even death.
They may also damage the crop, the soil, the environment and the irrigation system.
Proper handling of nutrients, acids and chemicals is the responsibility of the grower.
Always observe the nutrient/acid/chemical manufacturer’s instructions and the regulations issued
by the relevant local authority.

WARNING
When handling nutrients, acids and chemicals, always use protective equipment, gloves and goggles.

CAUTION
When opening or closing any manual valve, always do so gradually, to prevent damage to the system
by water hammer.

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DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM OVERVIEW

Structure of the drip irrigation system...................................................................................8

Water source............................................................................................................................ 10

Energy consumption in irrigation......................................................................................... 10

Pumps and pumping stations.............................................................................................. 10

Filtration.................................................................................................................................... 17

Water meters and pressure gauges.................................................................................... 25

Pressure gauges..................................................................................................................... 26

Valves........................................................................................................................................ 27

Dosing unit............................................................................................................................... 29

Connectors............................................................................................................................... 40

End of driplines........................................................................................................................ 41

Sensors..................................................................................................................................... 43

Agro-machinery....................................................................................................................... 48

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 Drip irrigation system overview
Structure of the drip irrigation system
A drip irrigation system is comprised of many components, each of which plays an important part in the
operation of the system.

1
System head

Plot head

18
Plot head 17

16
22
20
18
11 11
22
20

20
22
11

System head

15 14 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 7 2

13

Plot head

12 11 10 3
7

11
11
19
19 21

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Schematic diagram

1 2 7 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 15

12 16

13
7 23
14
3
7
11
19
18

20 17

21

22
7
Legend

1 Water source 9 Main filtration automatic drainage valve 17 Sub-main line

2 Pumping station 10 Water meter 18 Distribution line

3 Air valve 11 Hydraulic valve 19 Kinetic valve (vacuum breaker)

4 Pressure gauge 12 Secondary filtration unit 20 Dripline

5 Check valve 13 Dosing unit 21 Flushing valve

6 Shock absorber 14 Fertilizer tank 22 Flushing manifold

7 Manual valve 15 Irrigation controller 23 Fertilizer filter

8 Main filtration unit 16 Main line

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 9

Water source
There are basically two main types of water sources: groundwater and surface water:

Many existing and potential water supply sources for irrigation systems are derived from surface water, which
does not tend to have high levels of salts (with the exception of some coastal areas), and thus systems are
usually less prone to formation of precipitates in drippers when using a surface water source.

Surface water, however, tends to introduce biological hazards. If wastewater is being considered as a source,
quality and clogging potential will vary depending upon the extent of treatment.

Groundwater is generally of higher quality than surface water. However, iron and manganese levels should be
measured, as high levels may lead to dripper clogging, and treatment may be required.

Energy consumption in irrigation

All irrigation systems require energy, which is dissipated along the system. This is the base for uniform water
application. The difference between systems lies in the amount of energy needed and the way it is dissipated.
While traditional systems used only gravity to convey water to the fields, modern systems generally require
external sources of energy. The designing of modern pipe irrigation systems, either collective networks or
application systems, is based on energy criteria by setting head loss limits. The same applies, for instance,
to the selection and dimensioning of filters and emitters. Moreover, irrigation energy use depends not only
on the design of the system but also on how it is operated and maintained. Thus, the carrying out of audits is
becoming increasingly common for assessing energy use efficiency and identifying ways to reduce energy
consumption and costs. Such an analysis cannot be separated from agricultural water use efficiency.

Modern irrigation systems consume energy at the pumping stations (to lift water from the source and to
pressurize it in the distribution network), to filter the water, to flow them along the pipes, when the water flows
across ancillary network components, and to apply the water uniformly.

A high pressure is associated with a long application distance, so that limited investments are necessary to
cover large areas.

Pumps and pumping stations

Unless the water at the source is supplied at an adequate flow rate and pressure (by municipal or other entity
supply, a pre-existing pump upstream from the irrigation system or gravitational pressure*), a pump will be
needed to push water from the source through the pipes and drippers.
Most irrigation systems include pumps as an integral part of the drip irrigation system.

NOTE
There are cases where the irrigation system is designed based on Low Energy (LES) , or gravity fed
irrigation system, in which water is fed into the system by gravity at low head, and the irrigation uniformity
in the field is build from the field topography, this is especially on those fields that were flooded beforehand.

*Gravitational pressure (also known as hydrostatic pressure) is the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest due
to the weight of the fluid above it. If the water source is at a higher elevation than the drippers in the field, the
elevation difference between them will determine the gravitational pressure in the system
(e.g. the water level in a tank is 5 meters above the elevation of the pump’s axis, the gravitational pressure is
5 meters = 0.5 bar = 7.25 PSI).

Selecting a pump for an irrigation system requires an understanding of the water conditions and local system
requirements.

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Poor pump selection can lead to high operating costs and shortened pump life; this in turn impacts on the
performance and reliability of the whole irrigation system.

When a pump site is selected it is necessary to consider a range of factors, including availability of power,
proximity to the development site and water quality issues.

Power source for the pump

The power source for the pump will depend on the availability and accessibility of the energy resource in
the local area.

In most instances, electricity is preferred because of reduced labor requirements and higher efficiency, resulting
in lower energy cost. Three-phase power is usually required to operate over 10 horsepower (hp) irrigation
pumps.

If electricity is not available, alternative power sources such as diesel, gasoline, or solar may be used. The most
common alternatives are gasoline engines for small pumps and diesel engines for larger pumps and recently
the solar energy is gaining popularity especially in small to mid size fields.

Hydraulic power calculations

Efficiency and input power of the pump
A pump is a basic but important mechanical device that supplies the force to move fluid (in our case water)
at a specific flow rate. Like any device that does work (transfers energy across a distance), its effectiveness is
measured in power. Although watts and kilowatts are more common units of power measurement, horsepower
is still commonly used for high-output electrical devices. In this context, 1 horsepower is equal to 746 watts.
The work performed by the pump is equal to the weight of liquid pumped in unit time multiplied by total head in
meters.
However the pump capacity in m³/h and liquid specific gravity are used rather than weight of liquid pumped for
work done by the pump.
The input power “P” of a pump is the mechanical power in watt, kW or hp taken by the shaft or coupling.

Hydraulic power is defined as flow multiplied by pressure. The hydraulic power supplied by a pump is:

QxHxɖ
P in kW =
367 x Ƞ

Here
Q = Flow rate in (m³/h)
H = Total developed head in meters
ɖ = Density in kg/dm³ (1 kg/m³ = 0.001 kg/dm³)
η = Efficiency between 0 and <1 (not in %)

NOTE
As in this Handbook we are always talking about water, and its density is 1 (one) we will not take this data
into account when we present the examples/calculations.

EXAMPLE
if a pump delivers 48 m³/h and the pressure is 35 meter, then the hydraulic calculation for prime mover power
of the pump is:
Power = (48 * 35) ÷ 367 = 4.58 kW **

** based upon 100% efficiency;

90% efficiency would equate to 4.67 ÷ 0.9 = 5.09 kW. This would always depend on the type of pump being used
(gear, vane, piston, etc.)

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 11

The total pump efficiency, η total, must be included when calculating the power input to the pump.
Power input = Power output ÷ ηtotal.

The total system efficiency (without including the pressure drop within the pipes and valves) will end up at
approximately 0.75.
Moreover, the general power loss in a hydraulic energy transmission is around 25%.
Therefore, as a “rule of thumb”, based in our example here above:
Power = 4.58 / 0.75 = 6.10 kW

And as in all irrigation systems cases we will take 25% efficiency loss we can simplify the formula and use the
following:

Q (m³/h) * P (m)
P (kW) =
275
*Note: 275 = 367 * 0.75

How to convert kilowatts to horsepower

One horsepower is equal to 0.7457 kilowatts:
1 hp = 745.699872 W = 0.7457 kW

So the power conversion of kilowatts to horsepower is given by:

P(hp) = P(kW) / 0.7457

EXAMPLE
Convert 6.1 kW to horsepower:
P(hp) = 6.1 kW / 0.7457 = 8.18 hp

How to convert horsepower to kilowatts

One horsepower is equal to 0.7457 kilowatts:
1 hp = 745.699872 W = 0.7457 kW

So the power conversion of horsepower to kilowatts is given by:

P (kW) = 0.7457 * P(hp)

EXAMPLE
Convert 8.18 hp to kW:
P (kW) = 0.7457 * 8.18 hp = 6.1 kW

If we wanted to calculate directly in units of horsepower (hp) and knowing that the value of the conversion, the
following formula can be applied:

Q (m³/h) * P (m)
P (hp) =
205
*Note: 205 = 275 * 0.7457

NOTE
In all the examples presented we have rounded the results.

TIP
In the field, or in a meeting with a farmer, where we must give a fast representative data, we can use P(hp) = Q
(m³/h) * P (m) / 200.
This formula is much easier to remember and gives us an approximate data very close to the true final data.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 12

 EXAMPLE
Calculation:
What will be the energy needed to energize a flow of 41.7 liters per second at 4.5 bar pressure?

First step
We must convert the data to the units required by the formula
41.7 l/s = 41.7*3600/1000 = 150 m³/h
4.5 bar = 45 meter

Second step
Now we can use the formula

Q (m³/h) * P (m) 150 x 45

P (kW) = = = 24.55 kW
275 275

Pump types
In most irrigation applications, centrifugal pumps are used.

A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that adds energy to the water using a rotating impeller. It may be
either horizontal-shaft or vertical-shaft (including submersed pumps).
Horizontal pumps are more frequently used to pump water from surface sources such as ponds.

Horizontal-shaft pump Vertical-shaft pump Vertical-shaft submersed pump

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 13

Pump capacity
When selecting a pump, four basic
factors must be considered:

Pump discharge (flow rate) defines the quantity of water supplied by the pump during 1 time unit
(units: m3/hour, liter/second or gallons/hour).

Pressure (pressure head) defines the internal energy of a fluid due to the pressure
exerted on its container’s walls (also known as static pressure head or static head)
(units: bar or psi. 1 bar = 14.5 psi).

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is the required head value (suction lift) at
the inlet of a horizontal pump enabling it to pull water upwards while keeping NPSH
the water from cavitating* (inherently limited to 0.8 bar net).

*Cavitation - The formation of vapor cavities (“bubbles” or “voids”) in a liquid.

It usually occurs when a liquid is subjected to rapid changes of pressure that
cause the formation of cavities where the pressure is relatively low. When
subjected to higher pressure, the voids implode and can generate an intense
shockwave causing significant damage to the pump’s impeller and chamber.

Friction head - Head loss caused by the friction

between the fluid and the inner walls of the shaft Friction Friction
enclosure of a vertical pump (or in the outlet pipe head head
of a vertical submersed pump) which pulls the
water upwards. Friction loss increases with run
length and by the square of the fluid velocity.
It affects the required pressure and flow rate.

The output pressure of a pump is dependent on pressure head and flow rate (a higher flow rate causes a lower
pressure and vice versa, all other variables being unchanged).

Make sure the pump is able to deliver adequate flow rate and pressure for the application. Obtain a
performance curve for the pump and have modifications made if it is not adequate - the energy savings alone
will easily pay for any upgrades required, which will also improve system operation and crop production,
resulting in a shorter ROI.

Pump selection
The irrigation system design will specify the required pump duty (flow rate and pressure head).
The best pump choice is the pump in which the Best Operating Point (BOP) occurs at this flow rate and
pressure head and that can operate at the available suction head.

CAUTION
The farther the pump’s Operating Point is from the BOP, the higher the operating costs, the lower the
efficiency and the shorter the life expectancy of the pump.

Main considerations:
How the pump is to be installed and what the suction lift will be.
The performance required in terms of flow rate and pressure head.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 14

 Constraints
Pump operating constraints may affect the supply of water and must be considered for effective planning.
Common constraints include:
Energy constraints that do not enable operation of the pump during certain hours of the day.
Economic constraints that prevent the pump from being operated due to prohibitively high costs of
electricity at certain times (days of the week or hours during the day).
Time constraints where the water source may be unavailable at certain times or days of the week due to
the sharing of resources amongst different growers.

NOTE
In order to extend the lifespan of a pump, it should be operated as continuously and evenly as possible (e.g.
uninterrupted operation without extreme variations in flow rate).

NOTE
To ensure flow rate stability, the consumption of the individual irrigation shifts should be as equal as
possible. wherever possible, It is strongly recommended that the consumption of the smallest shift should
not be less than 75% of the consumption of the largest shift.

The pump’s performance curve

Each pump must be supplied with its performance curve, as an integral part of the product and the supplier/
manufacturer must commit to the data presented in it.

It is very important to keep the pump data documentation available for the whole lifetime of the pump.

The performance curve of the pump (flow rate / pressure range) is indispensable for the design and the
construction of the entire irrigation system.

The pump outlet pressure is related to the discharge rate. A change of the flow rate will cause a change in the
working pressure. Changes in the flow rate and pressure may be critical, when considering the relationship
between the flow rate, the working pressure and the pump’s efficiency curve in the planning process.

The steeper the pump’s operating curve, the more a change in flow rate will affect the working pressure.

ATTENTION
Select a pump with as flat an operating curve as possible.

EXAMPLE
Flat operating curve Steep operating curve
10 10
9 9
8 8
Presuure bar (PSI)

Presuure bar (PSI)

7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Flow rate m3/hr (GPM) Flow rate m3/hr (GPM)

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Reconstruction of the pump’s performance curve
If the performance curve of the pump is not obtainable, it can be reconstructed as follows:

To measure the pump’s flow rate and pressure, install the following accessories on the pump outlet pipe:
A water meter.
A pressure gauge.
A manual valve to regulate the water flow.

Water Pressure Manual

meter gauge valve
Install the accessories as shown:

Outlet pipe
Pump outlet
10 D 5D

D = Pump outlet pipe diameter

Pump intlet

NOTE
Disconnected the pump outlet from the irrigation system. Water should flow freely from the outlet pipe.

Perform the folowing steps: 10

Use a grid where the horizontal axis represents 9
flow rate and the vertical axis represents pressure. 8
Turn on the pump.
Presuure bar (PSI)

7
Wait a few minutes for the flow to stabilize.
6
Fully open the manual valve and mark the point
5
representing the flow rate and pressure on the grid.
4
Repeat the action with the manual valve
3
open 3/4, 1/2 and 1/4 turn - in that order.
2
Connect the points on the grid with a continual line.
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Flow rate m3/hr (GPM)

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 16

Filtration
Filtration is critical in any drip irrigation system. Effective filtration is essential for proper irrigation system
operation and long-term performance, as it prevents the irrigation water from clogging the drippers.

Water quality
The concept “water quality” relates to the variety and concentration of the dissolved and suspended
components in the water.

Water requirements for drip irrigation

The quality of water for irrigation relates to the parameters required to maintain the crop’s health and the
integrity of the irrigation system. Every type of pressurized irrigation system requires attention to the water
quality to avoid clogging of the irrigation components in order to enable orderly long-term irrigation according to
the irrigation program.

Water quality will dictate filtration requirements, chemical injection requirements, and management of the
irrigation systems to prevent dripper clogging.

Causes of dripper clogging in systems may be chemical (precipitates or scale), physical (grit or particulates
such as sand and sediment) or biological (such as algae or bacteria).

The water’s chemical characteristics are influenced by the variety and concentration of the substances
dissolved in it. These dissolved substances include ions of dissolved salts such as chloride, sodium and
nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and others). Calcium and magnesium influence the hardness of
the water, iron and manganese are liable to be found either dissolved or as a residue, along with other dissolved
organic compounds and even poisonous substances.

The biological characteristics of the water quality include a variety of living organisms such as micro-
organisms, including bacteria, viruses, single celled entities, algae and zooplankton, which develop in open
water along with creatures developing within the water transport system itself.

The water quality is expressed by the physical conditions and the variety and concentration of its constituents.

The quality of the water is determined by a wide variety of parameters (measured or calculated) affecting
the crop, the soil and the irrigation system. Some of them are listed below:

EC (electrical conductivity) Cl (chloride) TSS (total suspended solids)

pH (level of acidity or alkalinity) SO4 (sulfate) TDS (totally dissolved solids)

Ca (calcium - hardness of the water) PO4 (phosphate) Turbidity

Mg (magnesium) N-NH4 (nitrogen-ammonium) Algae and Chlorophyll

Na (sodium) N-NO3 (nitrogen-nitrate) Zooplankton

K (potassium) B (boron) BOD (biochemical oxygen demand*)

HCO3 (bicarbonate) Fe (iron) COD (chemical oxygen demand*)

CO3 (carbonate) Mn (manganese) VSS (volatile suspended solids)

Alk (alkalinity)

*When waste, industrial effluent and/or recycled waters are used.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 17

The water quality required for drip irrigation cannot always be defined in terms of particle sizes or the
concentration of any specific factor, because of the complexity of the clogging factors and the changes
occurring in them as they travel through the irrigation system. Changes such as water temperature, water
pressure and flow rate all have an influence on the crystallization of suspended dissolved compounds, their
unification and settling.

The most suitable way of defining the required quality of irrigation water is based on knowledge of all the
clogging factors and determination of upper permitted threshold value for them in water arriving at the
distribution system without fear of clogging or damage to the system.

Water Contamination
For use with a drip irrigation system, irrigation water must be filtered to remove:

Physical material - Silt, clay, mud, etc.

Chemicals - Iron, calcium, manganese (these sometimes combine to form conglomerates), etc.

Organic material - Plankton, etc.

Biological material - Algae, etc.

Common clogging factors in water sources

Water source Clogging factor (according to prevalence)

Physical Chemical Biological

Ground Wells Sand Calcium*, Iron, Sulfide, Ferric and manganese

Manganese bacteria, Sulfur bacteria
Springs Sand, silt Calcium*, Iron, Sulfide, Protozoa, Bryozoa, Ferric and
Manganese manganese bacteria, Sulfur
bacteria
Surface Lakes and Sand, silt, algae, Calcium*, Sulfide, Iron Protozoa, Bryozoa, Sulfur
Reservoirs zooplankton and Manganese** bacteria
Rivers Sand, silt, clay Calcium*, Protozoa, Bryozoa
Iron,
Manganese
Canals Sand, silt, clay, algae, Calcium*, Protozoa, Bryozoa
zooplankton Iron and
Manganese**
Reclaimed Non- Suspended organic Sulfide Protozoa, Bryozoa, Bacterial
wastewater Accumulating*** material silt

Accumulating**** Algae, zooplankton, Sulfide Protozoa, Bryozoa, Bacterial

suspended organic silt
material

*Depending on the pH and temperature of the water.

**Iron and manganese may appear when the water pH is low.
***Non-accumulating-effluent emerging from a mechanical biological wastewater treatment plant.
****Accumulating-effluent after processing in pools, or sewage from reservoir.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 18

Definition of water quality and treatment requirements for drip irrigation

Parameter Potential clogging risk Treatment

Low Medium High

Suspended solids
<20 20-60 >60 Filtration*
(mg/l)
Sand (mg/l) <1 1-5 >5 Hydrocyclone sand separation and filtration*
Silt and Clay (mg/l) <20 20-60 >60 Filtration*
Calcium conc.
<50 50-300 >300 pH rectification
(as CaCo3) (mg/l)
Iron (mg/l) <0.3 0.3-0.5 >0.5 Oxidization and iron removal
Manganese (mg/l) <0.2 0.2-0.5 >0.5 Oxidization and manganese removal
Sulfide (mg/l) <0.2 0.2-0.5 >0.5 Oxidization and purification
Algae Treatment at water source;
<0.1 0.1-0.3 >0.3
(Chlorophyll A) (mg/l) Filtration and chlorination
Plankton Plankton <2 2-20 >20 Treatment at water source and filtration
(details) Copepod <5 5-50 >50 Treatment at water source and filtration
Rotifer <50 50-200 >200 Filtration (low concentration)
Dissolved Treatment at water source;
oxygen >8 8.0-2.0 <2 pumping point
(mg/l)** (add if higher concentration)
pH pH rectification to required level according to crop and soil
Treatment at water source
Phosphorous (mg/l) <1 1-10 >10
(nutrients or sewage)
Hetrotropic bacteria Treatment at water source;
0 Presence Colonization
(bacterial slime) purification
Sulfuric bacteria 0 Presence Colonization Sulfide removal and purification
Iron and Iron and manganese
0 Presence Colonization
Manganese bacteria removal and purification
Col. Protozoa 0 Presence Colonization Regular purification
Bryozoa 0 Presence Colonization Purification and filtration
Snails and shells 0 Presence Colonization Avoid development
Sewage treatment, filtration
BOD sewage (mg/l) <10 10-50 >50
and chlorination

*In extreme cases sedimentation prior to filtration is required.

**Although it does not lead directly to clogging of the drippers, a lack of oxygen in the water usually
indicates the presence of sulfide. A lack of oxygen in sewage indicates a poor level of sewage treatment.

Water analysis
A water analysis is necessary in order to select the appropriate type of filtration system, to prescribe a suitable
maintenance program, to select the type of driplines and to prescribe an appropriate Nutrigation™ plan
(see Water analysis, page 79).

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 19

Types of filters
The types of filters used most often in drip irrigation systems are:

Media filters (gravel or sand) are necessary for any surface water
source and especially so for wastewater. They consist of a metal or
plastic enclosure incorporating small gravel stones or sand, which
traps the dirt. This filter includes a flushing system for washing the
gravel or sand and returning the dirt to the water source.

ATTENTION
It is highly recommended to install a screen filter downstream the
media filter in order to prevent infiltration of filter medium into the
system in the event of a malfunction of the media filter.

Disc filters are used with surface water systems, wells or

municipal water sources. These filters are comprised of a series
of grooved plastic discs stacked together with a total equivalent screen
size ranging from 40 to 400 mesh.
These filters enable deep three-dimensional filtering (e.g. allow entrapping
of more particles as water passes through the pores created by the
grooves in the surfaces of the filtering discs stacked together in the filter).
Having more surface area than screen filters, disc filters are better suited
for higher flow rates.

Screen filters are used mainly as secondary filters with surface water
systems or as primary filters with well or municipal water sources.
A screen filter is comprised of a cylinder with a net that traps the
dirt. This filter is intended for relatively clean water; its use is less
common with water from a reservoir or pumped water.

ATTENTION
In any type of filter, the dirt returned to the water source should
be discharged as far as possible from the suction point. In a
streaming source (e.g. a river) the discharge point should be
downstream from the suction point.

Hydrocyclone sand separators are used as a preliminary stage of

filtration in the presence of sand or other heavy particles (50 micron
or bigger) in the source water. It utilizes centrifugal force to separate
the particles from the water. The separated material drops down into
a tank or reservoir where it can be removed later.
It is not a true filter, since there is no physical barrier to separate out
the particles, but it is often used before a filter to first remove the bulk
of the contaminant, where the filter does the final cleaning. This type
of design reduces the time required to flush and clean the main filter.
Each hydrocyclone model has its specific operation flow rate range, it
will not perform outside this range.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 20

Filter screen/disc size
The relevant term for drip irrigation is the size of the gaps between fibers in the filter, in Micron (1/1000 mm).
Mesh size represents the number of pores (openings) per linear inch (typically 40-200) but does not represent
the size of each pore.
Since the filtration industry traditionally uses mesh size, see the table below for Micron/Mesh conversion:

Micron (μm) = size of gaps between fibers 400 250 177 125 105 100 74

Mesh = number of pores per linear inch 40 60 80 120 140 150 200

*The mesh to micron conversion is not a proper mathematical conversion but a commercial approximation.

Considerations for comparison between automatic filters

Consideration Component Gravel/Sand Disc Screen

Removal efficiency Suspended solids (general)
of different General filter level
suspended
particles and Sand (following hydrocyclone)
general operation Silt and clay
Algae (< 40 micron)
Zooplankton
Iron and manganese (after oxidization)
Slime

Technical Low supply capacity

and hydraulic Very high supply capacity
considerations
Minimum flushing pressure (bar) 2.0 1.5 2.0
Quantity and cost of flushing water
Water in flushing cycle
Capacity required for flushing
Complexity of system
Corrosion proof

Operational Operational and maintenance requirements

and maintenance Frequency of operational failures
considerations
Expertise required
Cost of maintenance Check and compare

Financial Cost of system Check and compare

considerations
Cost of accessories
Add to cost of system
(pressure, capacity and non-return valves)
Cost of m3/hr of filtered water Total cost of supply in m3/hr
System depreciation Add to calculation

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 21

Filtration requirements
The design of a filtration system involves selection of filter type and filter size (capacity) depending on the water
source and the amounts of particulate matter, carbonates and iron in the water supply and the kinds (if any) of
nutrients and/or chemical stock solutions to be injected.

The type of filtration to be used is carefully selected at the planning stage according to the general
quality of the irrigation water, and the presence of various substances in it, with respect to the specific
requirements of the irrigation system.

NOTE
If a hydrocyclone sand separator is required, make sure it suits the flow rate range of the planned system.

Water quality and drippers specifications will determine the filtration type, level (effective mesh size) and
quantity. Most drip irrigation systems require filtration of 130 micron (120 mesh) or higher (filters may also be
specified by the maximum particle size that will pass it - in microns).

ATTENTION
Standard irrigation filters will NOT remove salt or dissolved solids.

ATTENTION
Always install a filter when setting up a drip irrigation system. Even if potable water is used, a basic screen
filter is still required.

A well planned drip irrigation system includes 2 stages of filtration:

Main (Primary) filtration

Responsible for filtering relatively large particles near the water source.
Comprised of a media or disc filter.
A hydrocyclone sand separator should be place before the main filter in cases where sand or other
heavy particles (50 micron or bigger) are present in the source water.

Secondary filtration
Responsible for filtering relatively small particles remaining after the main filtration stage.
Two types of filters can be used for secondary filtration:
Screen filter
Disc filter

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 22

Main, sub-main, distribution pipes and fittings
Main, sub-main, distribution pipes
Pipelines carry water through the entire irrigation system, from the pump through the filters, the valves,
and onward to the drippers.

ATTENTION
All pipelines and fittings should be properly sized to withstand maximum operating pressures and convey
water without excessive pressure loss or gain.

PVC piping may be used throughout the system or combined with steel piping at the pump station. PVC,
polyethylene (PE) or flexible pipes (FlexNet™) are used for sub-mains and distribution pipes.

ATTENTION
Be sure to consider the expansion and contraction that occurs under normal on-surface operating
conditions (each type of pipe is affected to a different degree).

ATTENTION
Pipelines are connected to one another with welds, glue or friction fittings, according to the type of piping in
use, and are anchored to the infrastructure supporting them. Make sure all pipelines are properly secured
and anchored.

NOTE
In a sub surface drip irrigation (SDI) system, the pipeline is more difficult to access and repair. Making sure
all fittings are secure at installation can save significant repair issues later. Particular attention is required
especially after the initial growth stage of the crop.

In irrigation design, pipe sizes are specified based on economic, friction loss, water hammer considerations
and flushing concerns. As pipe size increases, friction loss decreases (reduced pumping cost) but initial cost
increases.

NOTE
In most cases the distribution pipe is installed below the elevation of the driplines so that solids will tend to
collect in it rather than in the driplines.

Irregular field shapes are common due to topography and property boundaries. At the planning stage, care is
taken to properly size sub-main and distribution lines where field shape varies. Sub-main and distribution lines
for irregularly shaped fields are designed based on actual flow rates of the driplines and not on an “average”
flow rate of the system.

NOTE
The piping system must be designed not only to allow the flow rate necessary for normal irrigation but
also to allow sufficient flow rate for proper flushing velocities in the system (recommended minimum: 0.3
meter/sec; 1 foot/sec).
(For flushing instructions see Flushing the main, sub-main and distribution lines, page 75).

Design objectives for flushing may result in different pipe diameters being selected than those selected in the
design process for normal operation. This is because the flushing flow rate required for achieving a desired
flushing velocity in any section of a main, sub-main or distribution pipe may be different than the design flow
rate for regular operation.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 23

Structure of the cross section of a pipe WT
The Outside Diameter (OD) of the pipe is the distance between the outside
walls of the pipe, measured perpendicularly to the pipe’s axis.
The Inside Diameter (ID) of the pipe is the distance between the internal OD ID
walls of the pipe, measured perpendicularly to the pipe’s axis.
Wall Thickness (WT)

Pipe’s Inside Diameter = ID = OD - (2 * WT) Pipe’s Wall Thickness = WT = OD – ID

2

NOTE
The relevant pipe diameter or calculations regarding flow rate and velocity in a pipe is the Inside
Diameter (ID).

EXAMPLE

A selection of polyethylene (PE) pipes demonstrating the relation of the

pipe’s Inside Diameter (ID) to the Outside Diameter (OD):

Pipe Outside Diameter (OD) Wall Thickness (WT) Inside Diameter (ID)
diameter/class* (mm) (mm) (mm)

63/12 63 4.70 53.60

75/12 75 5.60 63.80
90/12 90 6.70 76.60
110/12 110 8.10 93.80
125/12 125 9.20 106.60
140/12 140 10.30 119.40
160/12 160 11.80 136.40
200/12 200 14.70 170.60
225/12 225 16.60 191.80
250/12 250 18.40 213.20

*By international standard ISO 4427/07.

For more info, see Netafim™ Polyethylene Rigid and Flexible Pipes - Product Catalog.

Fittings
A wide variety of fittings are available to fit any drip irrigation system and any type of pipes used.
The selection of fittings is a planning issue defined by the project’s BOM (Bill of Material).
For more info see Netafim™ Fittings and Accessories Product Catalog.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 24

Water meters and pressure gauges
Make sure your system has a water meter and pressure gauges in working order! Although simple, these
gauges are often overlooked or not maintained. These monitoring devices are essential to proper system
operation. System flow rate helps detect leaks or clogging, and must be known to determine the application
rate for irrigation scheduling purposes. System pressure also helps detect leaks or clogging, and is essential for
managing filters, chemical injectors and the whole system within its operating range.

Water meters
Water meters provide information regarding water application that is essential
for irrigation scheduling, and for the monitoring of dripper clogging. Propeller
meters are the most common type in agricultural applications.

NOTE
All types of water meters require regular maintenance. Follow the
manufacturer’s recommendations for required maintenance.

A water meter installed at the head of a drip irrigation system or small water
meters placed at the head of selected driplines can help in detection of dripper
clogging.

A single, large water meter at the head of the drip irrigation system monitors
the flow rate to the entire system. Most water meters incorporate a totalizing
register that records the total flow (m3, gallons) passing through the meter.
Some meters also have an instantaneous flow rate indicator (measured in
m³/h, GPM).

Make sure that the pipe in which the water meter is installed is flowing full (the
water flowing fills the entire cross section of the pipe without air pockets) and
that there is not excessive turbulence in the pipe. A water meter installed close
to a valve, elbow, or tee (T) may not provide accurate information. If the meter
has an instantaneous (e.g. m³/h, GPM) indicator, an excessive fluctuation of
the indicator needle is a sign of excessive turbulence in the meter.

To detect clogging or leaks in the irrigation system, check the flow rate in the system weekly
(see Preparation and Use of a Hydraulic Conditions Checklist, page 77). A decrease in flow rate over time
may indicate clogging. Before checking the flow rate, check that the pressure in the system is as planned. For
accurate and useful data about the drip irrigation system to be acquired, the operating pressure of the system
must be as initially planned each time the flow rate is checked. If the operating pressure is allowed to vary, the
acquired flow rates will be valid but will not be usefully compared for the purpose of clogging detection.

Using a number of small water meters (throat size 5/8” or 3/4”) to monitor flow rate to individual driplines (laterals)
provides greater sensitivity to clogging than does a single, large water meter at the head of the system.
Especially recommended in large projects - over 100 Ha (250 acres).

Most small water meters have only a totalizing register, so you will need to keep track of the system operating
time between water meter readings (if installed, a controller does it automatically (see Controller, page 45). As
with the large water meter, for acquired data to be valid the operating pressure needs to stay constant over time.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 25

Pressure gauges
Pressure gauges are essential components in a drip irrigation system. Providing vital
information concerning the irrigation system, they help in the detection of leaks and
clogging and in the management of filters, chemical injectors and in keeping the
system in its operating range.

To acquire as accurate as possible data always use a pressure gauge with a

scale representing the pressure range of the system. The typical pressure in
the system should be roughly at the midpoint of the gauge’s scale.

Pressure loss across a filter

To avoid inaccuracies in the reading of the pressure loss across a filter, use a single
pressure gauge connected to a three-way selector valve, as shown.

ATTENTION
Reading the pressure loss across a filter with two different pressure gauges
installed at the inlet and at the outlet of the filter might result in inaccurate
reading due to calibration difference between the two gauges.

It is important to measure the pressure at a variety of key points along the irrigation system: at the head of the
system, at the head of each irrigation zone and at the inlet and end of selected driplines in the field.

TIP
Netafim™ offers a variety of nozzle adapters to be connected at the key
points in the system, enabling the use of a single hand-held pressure gauge
equipped with an insertion needle.

Pressure gauge nozzle adapters

With barb connector With thread
for use with PE pipes connector for
(i.e. driplines). use with PVC
pipes.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 26

Valves
In an irrigation system, water flow rate and pressure throughout the system should be precisely controlled to
ensure efficient and timely water application; therefore proper selection and placement of valves is critical.

Valves play key roles in controlling pressure, flow and distribution under different conditions to optimize
performance, facilitate management, and reduce maintenance requirements.

ATTENTION
Valve sizes, maximum working pressure and valve materials should be selected properly to meet the
system demands. Oversized valves may not open or close properly while undersized valves may restrict
flow and cause excessive pressure loss.

Valves used in a drip irrigation system include:

Manual control valve

4 common types of manual control valves are used in drip irrigation systems:

Ball valve
The ball valve is a quarter-turn valve. In a ball valve the closing mechanism is a sphere (ball)
with a port through the middle, connected to a lever in line with it that shows the valve’s position.
Rotating the lever turns the ball so that when the port is in line with the pipe, flow will occur, and
when perpendicular to the pipe, flow is blocked. Designed to be fully opened or closed and is not
suitable for regulating the flow.

Butterfly valve
The butterfly valve is a quarter-turn valve. Operation is similar to that of a ball valve. The closing
mechanism takes the form of a disc positioned in the center of the pipe. A rod connected to the
lever passes through the middle of the disc is. Rotating the lever turns the disc either parallel or
perpendicular to the flow. Unlike a ball valve, the disc is always present within the flow; therefore
a slight pressure drop is always induced in the flow, regardless of valve position. Designed to be
fully opened or closed and is not suitable for regulating the flow.

Gate valve
The gate (sluice) valve opens by lifting a gate (wedge) out of the path of the fluid. When the gate
valve is fully open, there is no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very low friction loss.
Designed to be fully opened or closed and is not suitable for regulating the flow.

Globe valve
A globe valve is the only type of manual valve recommended for regulating the flow with
minimum friction loss. It consists of a movable disc plug aligned with a fixed ring located in the
stream. Operated by screw action using a handwheel.

Check valve (One-way valve)

The function of the check valve is to prevent water flow in the opposite direction to that desired.It
serves various purposes:

Installed at the outlet of a pump that pumps water to a field at a higher elevation -
protects the pump from the back wave of water hammer.
Installed at the outlet of a filter, which conveys water to a higher field -
prevents water from flowing back through the system’s head components.
Installed upstream from a dosing unit -
prevents fertilizers and chemicals infiltration of the water source.
Installed on the inlet pipe of a pump, as a foot valve, enables priming of the inlet pipe.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 27

 Open Open
Open Closed
Closed Closed
P1 P1

Hydraulically operated,
diaphragm-actuated control valves
Serve different purposes according to P1 P1
the layout of the valve’s control loop. P1 P1

Hydraulic control valve

Opens and shuts off in response to a local or remote pressure command.

Pressure Reducing Valve (PRV)

Reduces higher upstream pressure to lower constant downstream pressure regardless of fluctuating demand,
and opens fully upon line pressure drop.
For optimal operation the pressure ratio across a PRV should not be higher than 1:4.

Pressure relief/sustaining valve

Can fulfill either of two separate functions:

When installed in-line, it sustains minimum preset upstream pressure regardless of fluctuating flow or
varying downstream pressure.
When installed as a circulation valve, it relieves line pressure in excess of preset.

Pressure reducing and sustaining valve

Fulfills two independent functions at the same time:
It sustains minimum preset upstream pressure regardless of fluctuating flow or varying downstream pressure
and it prevents downstream pressure from rising above maximum preset, regardless of fluctuating flow or
excessive upstream pressure.

Pressure relief valve

Relieves excessive line pressure when it rises above the preset maximum. It responds to a rise in system
pressure immediately, accurately and with high repeatability, by opening fully.

Booster pump control valve

A double chambered, active check valve that opens fully or shuts off in response to electric signals.
It isolates the pump from the system during pump starting and stopping, to prevent pipeline surges.

Surge anticipating valve

An off-line valve, sensing line pressure. It opens in response to the pressure drop associated with abrupt pump
stoppage. The pre-opened valve dissipates the returning high pressure wave, eliminating the surge. The valve
also relieves excessive system pressure.

Air valves

Combination air release valve Kinetic air valve

Evacuates large volume of air during Evacuates large volume of air during
pipeline filling and network draining and pipeline filling and network draining.
allows efficient release of air pockets
from pressurized pipelines.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 28

Dosing unit
A dosing unit serves Nutrigation™ and chemigation:

Nutrigation™
The most effective way to increase the yield and quality of a crop is by feeding the plant according to its
specific, ever-changing needs. This means delivering the right amount of water and nutrient at the right time.
Nutrigation™ refers to injection of nutrients for the plant.

Nutrigation™ is comprised of three stages:

Dissolving soluble fertilizers (if required).
Injecting nutrients according to the desired dosing ratios.
Delivering the precise quantity of nutrients to the plant’s root zone.

Chemigation
Chemigation refers to injection of chemicals to prevent or reduce dripper clogging (addition of chlorine,
hydrogen-peroxide, acid or others), and the injection of chemicals for crop and soil concerns (herbicides,
pesticides and others).

Because the water passages in drippers are relatively small, they can be clogged; therefore, along with filtration,
the capability to inject chemicals for dripper clogging control is an important feature.

Benefits of Nutrigation™ and/or chemigation:

Uniform and timely application of nutrients and chemicals.
Reduced soil compaction due to reduced traffic in fields.
Reduced labor requirements, reduced exposure to chemicals.
Reduced environmental contamination.

The design of a chemical injection system involves the selection of injector type and capacity. If the injection
system is to be used for Nutrigation™, the injection unit is sized for this use since injection rates for nutrients
are usually much higher than injection rates for chemicals such as liquid chlorine or acid.
Any components coming in contact with nutrients, chlorine, or acid should be resistant to corrosion. Some
countries require specific types of injectors for agrochemicals. Always follow local laws and chemical labeling
requirements.

Nutrients and chemicals may be injected into pressurized drip systems via a variety of methods:
Netafim™ offers a comprehensive array of dosing systems to ensure precise nutrient delivery for any crop, plot
size and application.

Relevant terms:

Single dosing channel - for injection of only one type of fertilizer solution at the same time.
Multiple dosing channels - for injection of several fertilizer solutions at the same time or of a single
fertilizer solution at a higher rate.
Bulk/Quantitative Nutrigation™ - The entire amount of fertilizers is injected in one shot.
Proportional Nutrigation™ - The fertilizers are injected at a constant ratio relative to the flow of irrigation
water in the main line.
Nutrigation™ based on EC and pH control - Nutrigation™ is constantly adjusted in order to keep a steady
EC and pH level according to the plant’s needs.
Can be conveniently accomplished with a controller on the dosing system and EC and pH sensors on the
dosing unit.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 29

Fertilizer tank
A fertilizer tank mixes water with fertilizer for quantitative Nutrigation™. It is
operated by the hydraulic pressure in the irrigation system and does not need
an external energy source (subject to excess pressure available in the system).
The desired amount of fertilizer placed in the tank is dissolved and injected
into the irrigation system.
Can be connected to the irrigation system in two ways:
Inline - installed directly on the main line
(typical of very low capacity systems).
Bypass - installed as a bypass from the main line, a manual or hydraulic
pressure reducing valve (PRV), installed on the main line, produces the
required pressure differential to operate the fertilizer tank (typical of high
capacity systems).
Fertilizer tanks are simple to use and maintain.

Hydraulic piston motor injector

Its linear hydraulic piston motor is powered by the hydraulic pressure in the
irrigation system, and does not require any other energy source for injecting
fertilizer into the pressurized irrigation line.
Water enters the injector through the upstream inlet and exits it to the drain
line through the water outlet. The fertilizer is injected at twice the pressure of
the irrigation line, generated by the hydraulic piston motor itself.
The liquid fertilizer enters the injector through the suction port positioned
inside the fertilizer tank and is injected through the injection outlet,
downstream, into the irrigation line.
The water consumption of the hydraulic motor is 3 times the quantity
of the chemical injected and it can produce an injection flow rate of
up to 320 liter/hour (1.4 GPM), depending on the inlet pressure and
the pump model.
Can be operated manually or automatically by an irrigation controller.

Netafim™ Venturi Injector - up to 2”

A Venturi injector uses excess pressure in the irrigation system to create a low pressure zone, or vacuum, in the
injector throat. This vacuum efficiently draws chemicals into the pressurized water line, eliminating the need for
a separate chemical injection pump.
Venturi injectors are the most cost-effective method of introducing
chemicals into a pressurized irrigation system, popular because 2”
of their simplicity, reliability and low cost, and because they don’t
require a power source.
Can be easily connected to the irrigation system in two ways: 3/4”
Inline - installed directly on the main line
(typical of very low capacity systems).
Bypass - installed as a bypass from the main line, a manual or
hydraulic pressure reducing valve (PRV), installed on the main
line, produces the required pressure differential to operate the
Venturi injector (typical of high capacity systems).
Venturi injectors include no moving parts and require little maintenance.
They supply an extremely uniform injection rate from start to finish at
nominal system flows rates.
Chemical injection capacity: 30 - 1200 l/h (8 - 320 GPH) depending
on injector size and operating pressure.
Can be operated manually or automatically by an irrigation controller.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 30

Electric dosing metering pump
Intended for flow rates up to 25 l/h (6.6 GPH), the electric pump
is usually used for injection of chemicals and acids for system
maintenance.
Maximum pressure: 10 bar (145 PSI).

Hydraulic fertilizer injector (proportional)

Applies fertilizers and chemicals proportionally to the water flow through an irrigation
system in the slow and constant quantities required for steady growth.
Widely used in open fields, orchards and landscaping to inject an additive into a water
line at a consistent injection rate under varying water pressure and flow rates.
This process, injecting additives using only water power, is accurate and simple.

Water driven, non-electric.

Piston driven by water flow.
Solution is added in proportion to water flow for accurate mixing.
Solution is constantly added as water flows through the unit.
Ratio of additive remains constant.

Single channel kit

Venturi injector with booster. This method is used when the
pressure differential in the main line is not sufficient to activate
a basic Venturi dosing unit. The booster pump creates additional
pressure to activate the Venturi while preventing head loss to the
system. Supplied with selected size of Venturi (up to 3/4”).
A check valve should be installed upstream from the bypass.
Can be operated manually or automatically by an irrigation
controller.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 31

FertiKit3G™
The FertiKit3G™ is a highly versatile and precise dosing system
suitable for an unrivaled range of irrigation system capacities. Covers
all applications ranging from open fields to intensive horticulture.
Requiring a minimal investment, the FertiKit3G™,
a CE-compliant modular system, is the industry’s most cost-effective
dosing system, whether used for small or large-scale applications.
Flexible: Works with a very wide range of dosing
channel flow rates up to 6 units of 50 to 1000 l/h.
Scalable: For systems from 1 m3/h to 700 m3/h capacity
and pressures up to 8.0 bar.
Cost-effective: Requires minimal investment with rapid ROI.
Modular: Available in four models including two that
do not require a booster pump.

NetaFlex3G™
The NetaFlex3G™ is a reliable, state-of-the-art, open-tank dosing
system ensuring very precise and even nutrient dosing for
greenhouse crops.
A CE-compliant modular system, the NetaFlex™ easily integrates with
multiple Netafim™ and third-party control and monitoring systems, while
delivering a uniform quantity or ratio of nutrients.
Productive: Employs precise EC and pH control to assist in
delivering a high-quality product with outstanding yields.
Uniform: Delivers a consistent quantity or ratio of
nutrients in a homogenous solution thanks to an open
mixing tank design.
Flexible: Works with a wide range of dosing channel flow
rates up to 8 units of 50-600 l/h (Standard) or up to 5 units of 1000 l/h (HF).
Scalable: System flow rates from 5 m3/h to 60 m3/h capacity.
Focused: Made for greenhouse applications.

NetaJet4G™
The NetaJet4G™ is a uniform low-energy dosing system featuring a
state-of-the-art mixing chamber.
It provides the highest level of dosing precision and uniformity for
greenhouse and open-field crops.
A CE-compliant modular dosing system, the NetaJet4G™ easily integrates
with multiple Netafim™ and third-party control and monitoring systems.
Productive: Employs precise EC and pH control to deliver consistently
high-quality product with outstanding yields.
Uniform: Delivers a consistent quantity/ratio of nutrients thanks to an
innovative mixing chamber while maintaining perfect EC and pH control.
Flexible: Works with a wide range of dosing channel flow
rates up to 5 units of 1000 l/h dosing channels.
Cost-efficient: Using a single pump for mixing and
injection of nutrients, the NetaJet4G is designed to
accurately dose with low levels of energy consumption.
Scalable: Scales from 5 m3/h to 400 m3/h capacity and
pressures up to 6.5 bar.
Versatile: Suitable for applications ranging from greenhouses
to net houses.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 32

Select the appropriate dosing unit:

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en
qu
m

ee

ee

m
si
Nu

Op

Co
Do

Re

Gr

Gr
Will work only if the pressure difference between
Fertilizer tank
inlet and outlet is at least 0.3 bar (3 meters).
Hydraulic piston Consumes water 3 times the quantity of the
motor injector chemical injected.
Netafim™ Venturi Requires 15-75% pressure differential for optimal
injector operation, according to the required injection rate.
Single

Electric dosing
pump
Hydraulic fertilizer Requires 15-30% pressure differential for optimal
injector (proportional) operation, according to the required injection rate.
Single channel
kit Legend:
FertiKit3G™ or
Electricity is available on site.
Multiple

NetaFlex3G™
Extra pressure is available in the
system in addition to the required
NetaJet4G™
pressure for current irrigation.

For detailed technical data, see the product’s datasheet.

For clarifications or in case of doubt consult a Netafim™ expert.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 33

Driplines (laterals)
Driplines are at the heart of a drip irrigation system. In any irrigation system, the design process starts at the
plant and proceeds to dripline design. It is important to know what to take into consideration during dripline
design: dripline selection, wall thickness, dripper flow rate, spacing between drippers, spacing between dripline,
and specification of dripline insertion depth (in SDI).

Basic terms regarding driplines:

Structure of the cross section of a pipe

The Outside Diameter (OD) of the pipe is the distance between the outside WT
walls of the pipe, measured perpendicularly to the pipe’s axis.
The Inside Diameter (ID) of the pipe is the distance between the internal
walls of the pipe, measured perpendicularly to the pipe’s axis. OD ID
Wall Thickness (WT).

Pipe’s Inside Diameter = ID = OD - (2 * WT) Pipe’s Wall Thickness = WT =

OD – ID
2

π ID2
The area of the inside pipe’s cross-section = A = = π r2
4

π = 3.1416
r = ID/2

Uniformity and efficiency

Uniformity saves water and fertilizer and improves yield, resulting in shorter ROI.

Efficiency saves resources and preserves the environment while optimally serving the crop’s needs.

ATTENTION
Low startup costs can result in high annual operating costs. When designing a drip irrigation system it is
important to consider uniformity and efficiency in order to keep total cost low.

NOTE
By international standards, 10% flow variation is considered uniform irrigation.

Drippers
The drippers incorporated at uniform spacing along the dripline deliver water and nutrients directly to
the plant root zone.

A typical drip irrigation system includes thousands of drippers. Each dripper should be durable, resistant
to clogging, and emit the same amount of water. Wide water passages guarantee long-term trouble-free
performance.

The flow rate and spacing of the drippers is important in determining the wetting pattern and for the prevention
of runoff or deep percolation.

A properly operated and maintained drip irrigation system provides water and nutrients to the crop root
zone without runoff or deep percolation.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 34

Two types of integral drippers are available:

Non pressure compensated drippers

Non-PC drippers supply a flow rate that is based on Non-PC Dripper
the working pressure.
The dripper flow rate, pipe diameter and dripper
spacing determine the pressure head losses in
water flow within the dripline.
Differences in topographic heights also affect the system.

These two factors produce small differences in the dripper flow rates within the same dripline.

Pressure Compensated (PC) drippers

As long as the working pressure remains within the
PC Dripper
allowable pressure range, PC drippers provide uniform
irrigation by maintaining a constant flow rate regardless
of the working pressure.

The diaphragm is activated by the continual differential

pressure created by the dripper’s labyrinth, thus
maintaining a constant dripper flow in a wide pressure range.
Thanks to the free-floating diaphragm, the dripper’s action is precise, immediate, sensitive, continually self-
adjusting and constantly self-flushing. Particles that cause clogging will either be flushed out through the wide
water passages or increase the pressure differential. This causes the diaphragm to momentarily increase the
cross-section volume for outgoing water, and thus flush the dirt out of the system.

The diaphragm movement maintains constant differential pressure within the water passage, resulting in a
uniform flow rate at a wide pressure range.

Additionally, Netafim™ PC drippers have the added benefit of the exclusive constant self-flushing feature, which
aids in the prevention of clogging.

NOTE
PC drippers deliver the same flow rate regardless of the dripline length (as long as the drippers operate
within its working range as determined by the manufacturer).

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 35

Drippers and driplines for particular applications:

AS: Anti-siphon mechanism blocks contaminants from being drawn into the dripper from outside, makes it a
critical addition to driplines installed below the surface, i.e. sub surface drip irrigation (SDI).

CNL: Also called Anti-drain, is an anti-drainage mechanism. When the pressure in the pipes drops (after valves
shut-off at the end of an irrigation cycle) and the desired pressure is achieved, the CNL mechanism closes the
water passage, hence pipes remain full of water and are ready for the next cycle, this makes it ideal for pulse
irrigation (irrigation in short frequent cycles) in greenhouses, nurseries, and fruit trees.

HCNL: Also called High Level Anti-drain, is anti-drainage mechanism, similar to the CNL, but with higher shut-off
pressure.
This mechanism provides two main benefits:
Allows installation of non-leakage systems in areas with steeper slopes, thereby improving system efficiency,
and reducing the number of DNL’s (Dripline Non-Leakage Valves).
Enables maintaining a higher pressure within the driplines used in pulse irrigation, hence allowing mixing and
circulating water and nutrients in the system prior to an irrigation event. This makes it ideal for pulse irrigation
(irrigation in short frequent cycles) in greenhouses, nurseries, and fruit trees.

AS XR: Reduces significantly the risk of roots penetrating and clogging the drippers by incorporating copper
oxide that inhibit root growth within the dripper. This innovative resin is mixed in the dripper cover to offer
long lasting effect throughout the dripline life. AS XR drippers are available in both UniRam™ and DripNet PC™.
UniRam™ also includes physical root barrier.

AS XRS: Drippers are protected against root intrusion better than all other options, utilizing a patented root
inhibitor within the dripper cover that prevents root intrusion into the dripper labyrinth also combines external
stripe that prohibits root strangulation of the pipe. Better protection against root intrusion and strangulation
without reliance on chemicals.

Flap: Located in the same place, instead of a open hole outlet, the dripline wall is punched in a special shape.
During irrigation the water pushes the flap open to allow drip. It acts also as physical barrier when there is no
water to prevent root intrusion, and keeps drippers clean when installed from sand penetration. Flap exist only
in TWD, except very unique cases.

ReGen™: Driplines that are ReGen™ marked are driplines that contains recycled materials in the pipe raw
material composition, this in the name of sustainability and without compromising quality, meeting all the
international standard for drip irrigation and others.

HCR: High Chlorine Resistance for permanent drip applications using waste water or continuous dose of
chlorine. Delivering long-lasting uniform water and nutrient distribution, resulting in excellent crop yields season
after season.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 36

Determining the type of dripper to use
The type of drippers to be used should be selected according to the project’s needs and characteristics.
Although it is up to the grower to decide which type of drippers to use for a specific crop, the following
recommendations should be considered:

It is strongly recommended to use PC drippers when:

The terrain slope is greater than 2%.
There are topographic variations along the dripline.
For long driplines.
The crop is highly sensitive to excessive or insufficient irrigation.
In orchards, where poor irrigation uniformity would cause inequality in growth of individual perennial
plants (the longer the plant’s life, the greater the disparity between individual plants).
Perfect water distribution and uniformity are required.

NOTE
For sub surface systems always prefer anti-siphon (AS) drippers.

On line drippers
Netafim™ offers a comprehensive line of on line drippers with all the features and benefits of its integral
drippers. Designated mainly for greenhouse, nursery and fruit tree aplications.
Netafim’s on line pressure-compensated (PC and PCJ) drippers ensure precise, efficient and uniform flow
distribution over the entire growing area and high resistance to common chemicals and nutrients.

Spider assembly
Netafim™ offers growers a range of micro tubes, manifolds and/or end-line products which, when connected to
on line drippers can be used to direct water flow to a specific location or to irrigate a variety of points.

Dripline selection and layout design

With any irrigation system, the design process starts at the plant and works “upstream”. Hydraulically speaking,
this means that the first part of the design process of an irrigation system is dripline design consisting of
dripline selection and spacing between driplines in the field.

Dripline selection involves consideration of spacing, pipe diameter and wall thickness, and dripper flow rates.

Consideration must also be given to connections between the driplines to the supply and flushing manifolds.

Dripper spacing depends on flow rate and soil characteristics. In general, coarser textured (sandy) soils will
require shorter dripper spacing than a finer textured (clayey) soil, since coarse soils allow less lateral water
movement.

NOTE
The driplines must be selected not only to allow the flow rate necessary for normal irrigation but also to allow
sufficient flow rate for proper flushing velocities in the system. (see Flushing the dripperlines, page 76).

Dripline spacing depends on the crops to be grown, the processing method and the agro-machinery to be used.

Oftentimes there will be a critical crop in rotation that will dictate spacing. In rotations that include a row crop,
dripline spacing is most often a multiple of the row spacing.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 37

Dripline length is determined by field length and layout, allowable pressure (and therefore flow) variation within
a zone, and flushing considerations.

Dripline length also needs to be specified; along with dripline’s diameter, this will affect flow rate uniformity
and impact flushing requirements and flow variations (particularly with drippers that are not Pressure
Compensated).

When determining the type of dripline to be used and deciding on the distance between driplines, also consider
the plot geometry and the work practices.

In some regions, many fields are irregularly shaped, and therefore may have driplines of different lengths.

Netafim™ offers a wide selection of driplines suitable for various irrigation needs

Thin-walled driplines for short crop cycles

Suitable for 1-3 growing seasons.
Especially fit for vegetables and field crops.
Can be deployed at the beginning, and rolled-up at the end of each growing season.

Medium-walled driplines for semi-permanent applications

Suitable for 4-9 growing seasons.
Designed for on-surface and sub surface (SDI) applications.
For perennial plants, row crops and industrial row crops.

Thick-walled driplines for permanent applications

Suitable for 10 or more growing seasons.
Designed for a working life of many years in on-surface and sub surface (SDI) applications.
For perennial plants, fruit trees, vineyards and the like.

Decoding the commercial name of Netafim™ dripline models:

The name consists of 5 digits.*

Thin- and medium-wall driplines

The first two digits represent the pipe’s inside diameter (ID) rounded.
The three last digits represent the pipe’s wall thickness (WT) in mil.
(1 mil = 1/1000 inch = 25.4/1000 mm = 0.0254 mm).

Thick-wall driplines
The first two digits represent the pipe’s outside diameter (OD) rounded.
The three last digits represent the pipe’s wall thickness (WT) in millimeters (mm).

*The 5-digit commercial names of the dripline models in the tables opposite are intended for identification
purposes only and do not represent the exact diameter and wall thickness of each dripline. For accurate data,
refer to the Technical Datasheet of the specific product.

NOTE
The maximum allowed flushing pressures in the tables are valid when flushing for a maximum of half an
hour consecutively, with the end of 5 or more driplines kept open.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 38

Thin-walled driplines
Dripline Dripline inside Wall thickness Max. working pressure Max. flushing pressure
model diameter (ID) (mm)* (mm) (mil) (bar) (bar)

12060 12 0.15 6.0 1.6 1.8

12080 12 0.20 8.0 1.9 2.2
12125 12 0.31 12.5 2.5 2.9
12150 12 0.38 15.0 3.0 3.5
16050 16 0.13 5.0 0.8 0.9
16060 16 0.15 6.0 1.0 1.2
16070 16 0.18 7.0 1.1 1.3
16080 16 0.20 8.0 1.2 1.4
16100 16 0.25 10.0 1.4 1.6
16125 16 0.31 12.5 1.8 2.1
16150 16 0.38 15.0 2.2 2.5
16180 16 0.45 18.0 2.5 2.9
22050 22 0.13 5.0 0.7 0.9
22060 22 0.15 6.0 0.8 0.9
22070 22 0.18 7.0 0.9 1.0
22080 22 0.20 8.0 1.0 1.2
22100 22 0.25 10.0 1.1 1.3
22135 22 0.34 13.5 1.5 1.7
22150 22 0.38 15.0 1.8 2.1
22180 22 0.45 18.0 2.1 2.4
25135 25 0.34 13.5 1.2 1.4
25150 25 0.38 15.0 1.4 1.6

Medium-walled driplines
Dripline Dripline inside Wall thickness Max. working pressure Max. flushing pressure
model diameter (ID) (mm)* (mm) (mil) (bar) (bar)

12200 12 0.50 20.0 3.0 3.9

12250 12 0.63 25.0 3.5 4.6
16200 16 0.50 20.0 2.5 3.3
16250 16 0.63 25.0 2.8 3.6
16008 16 0.80 32.0 3.0 3.9
22200 22 0.50 20.0 2.0 2.6
22250 22 0.63 25.0 2.5 3.3

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 39

Thick-walled driplines
Dripline Dripline inside Wall thickness Max. working pressure Max. flushing pressure
model diameter (OD) (mm)* (mm) (mil) (bar) (bar)

12009 12 0.90 35.0 3.8 4.9

12010 12 1.00 39.0 4.0 4.6
16009 16 0.90 35.0 3.0 3.9
16010 16 1.00 39.0 3.5 4.6
16012 16 1.20 47.0 4.0 5.2
20010 20 1.00 39.0 3.5 4.6
20012 20 1.20 47.0 4.0 5.2

*The outside diameter (OD) and the inside diameter (ID) of the dripline models and the data in the tables above
are intended for identification purpose only and do not represent the exact diameter and wall thickness of each
dripline. For accurate data, refer to the Technical Datasheet of the specific product.

Connectors
Netafim’s comprehensive range of dripline connector systems is made of high resistance and high durability
polymers. They are functional and viable, moulded under the highest market standards and available for all
dripline types. Use the catalog to select the right line for your application: barb connectors, fast ring connectors,
flare connectors and a vast family of start and reducing connectors.

Connectors technical data

Connectors for thick walled driplines

Dripline Sub surface installation Features
Commercial Inside Diameter Wall Thickness Deep Shallow Allow
name (ID) (mm) (WT) (mm) insertion insertion laying/retrieving Reusable
Barb
12 10.2 1.0 -1.2
16 14.2 0.9 -1.2
17 14.6 1.2
20 17.5 1.0 -1.2

Connectors for thin/medium walled driplines

Dripline Sub surface installation Features
Commercial Inside Diameter Wall Thickness Deep Shallow Allow
name (ID) (mm) (WT) (mil) insertion insertion laying/retrieving Reusable
Ring fast connectors
16 blue ring 16.2 6.0 -25.0
16 black/
15.5 27.0 -32.0
white ring
22 blue ring 22.2 8.0 -25.0
25 black ring 25.0 13.5 -15.0

Suitable Not suitable Suitable but not recommended

For full information, see Netafim™ Connectors Catalog.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 40

End of driplines
Dripline flushing manifold
The flushing manifold at the end of the
driplines is fitted with a flushing riser and
valve to allow flushing of the driplines. When Flushing valve
the flushing valve is opened, flow rate and
velocity through the driplines are greater than
those in normal operational mode. The higher
flow velocity allows removal of settled solids Flushing manifold
and precipitants from the system, preventing
them from clogging the drippers.

Flow regimes may be quite complicated in irregularly-shaped fields with different dripline lengths within the
same irrigation zone.

Since SDI zones with flushing manifolds are closed-loop systems, pressure tends to equilibrate and zones
with differing dripline lengths are designed using an average dripline length. Flushing manifold pipe sizes are
determined in consideration of the flow through the end of the driplines during flushing.

The flushing manifold is sized for a flow velocity of at least 0.5 m/sec (1.65 ft/sec) through the driplines to
ensure sediment removal.

Flushing will temporarily increase the flow requirements of the system, which in turn will decrease the system
pressure. In some cases, in order to achieve the desired velocity, especially with pressure regulated zones or
with irregular field shapes, the planning of the system may require large amounts of piping to connect the ends
of all the driplines in a particular section or zone.

A careful balance between flushing velocities in the manifolds and in the driplines is critical.

When zones are relatively large, to enable the pumping system to supply the flow rate required to achieve the
desired flushing velocity at the ends of the driplines, the irrigation zone is divided into two or more flushing
manifolds. This separation will allow maintenance of a proper flushing pressure.

Another solution to supply the flow rate required for flushing is to use an additional pump at the head of
the system. The additional pump will be activated only during flushing to add the missing flow rate.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 41

Other flushing solutions
It is possible to flush the driplines manually. There are a number of ways to do this:

Solution Description Advantages Disadvantages

Folded Cut a 5 cm sleeve from the end of the dripline. Least expensive Requires
dripline Fold the end of the dripline in the shape of a solution. extensive labor
end
“z” and slip the sleeve over the end. Allows flushing of time.
the driplines one by Reinstalling the
one under optimal sleeve while the
conditions. dripline is still
pressurized is
difficult.

End of line Slip one loop of the connector onto the Allows Requires
removable dripline. flushing extensive labor
connector
Fold the end of the dripline and slip it into the of the driplines one time.
connector’s other ring over the end. by one under optimal
conditions.

Dripline Pulling the orange handle Allows flushing of None.

manual to the upwards position the driplines one by
valve
opens the end of the one under optimal
dripline for flushing. conditions.
Requires less labor
time.

Automatic Flushes all the driplines All driplines All driplines in

flushing of the irrigation shift at the are flushed at each irrigation
valve
start of each irrigation event the start of each shift are flushed
without human intervention. irrigation event. at the same time.
Excellent For correct
flushing frequency. operation an
additional flow
rate of 300 l/h
is required for
each automatic
flushing valve
operated in the
irrigation shift.

NetFlush™ Allows growers to flush Efficient flushing It requires a

controlled driplines frequently, at the right hydraulic conditions: pressurized
flushing velocity, flow rate,
valve timing intervals. microtube that
for drip pressure and volume.
carries the signal
irrigation Significantly reduces
to each of the
the time and effort
invested in the line valves.
flushing process.
Reduces labor time
by ~90% compared to
other end line devices.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 42

Sensors
In order to make full use of the advantages of a drip irrigation system, it is important to regularly monitor the
actual condition of the soil, the irrigation water and the crop. To easily collect useful data for the management
of the irrigation system, Netafim™ offers a comprehensive range of high-quality sensors, either standalone or
connectable to a Netafim™ controller.

Tensiometer
A tensiometer measures soil moisture. It is an instrument designed to measure the Vacuum
tension or suction that a plant’s roots must exert to extract water from the soil. This gauge
tension is a direct measure of the availability of water to a plant.

Tensiometers may be used in any irrigated crop; however, it is with horticultural crops in
particular that they provide a suitable method to aid irrigation decisions.

The measurement of soil moisture with a tensiometer provides a valuable tool to

schedule irrigation. Tensiometers are particularly useful to determine when to irrigate, and Water
can be used to support a schedule based on estimation of crop water use from reference filled
crop evapotranspiration (EVT) data. tube

A tensiometer consists of an air tight, water filled tube with a porous ceramic tip at the
bottom and either a vacuum gauge at the top or a re-sealable rubber bung designed to
insert a portable vacuum meter. During the irrigation season the tensiometer is partly Porous
inserted into the soil to a suitable depth and, when used properly, will enable improved ceramic
irrigation management by accurately determining when water should be applied to tip
maintain optimum crop growth and how much water should be applied to avoid over-irrigating.

Placement of tensiometers
It is recommended to use 3 tensiometers in each tensiometer
station. Correct placement is very important. Each tensiometer
should be installed with its ceramic tip at a different depth Upper Middle Lower
(e.g. 30, 60 and 90 cm or 12, 24 and 36 inches) according to the
type of crop (consult an agronomist).

The upper tensiometer placed at the top of the root zone,

provides data regarding the development of the wetted bulb in
the soil and indicates when it is time to irrigate.

The middle tensiometer placed at approximately the midpoint of

the main fibrous root system (where irrigation water is certain
to wet the soil), provides data regarding the wetness of the soil
in the root zone. Placement too deep in a shallow rooted crop
will result in the crop being irrigated too late and suffering water
stress. Shallow placement in a deep rooted crop may result in
excessive irrigation and water logging of the deeper roots.

The lower tensiometer placed at the bottom of the root zone

serves as a safeguard against excessive irrigation by providing
data regarding runoff or deep percolation. Used to determine if
too much (never reads above 15 kPa) or too little water (continues
to rise) is being applied in each irrigation.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 43

Locating tensiometer stations
In most situations two sites will be needed for each major species or
variety and soil type. Avoid high or low locations, zones of poor water
infiltration, and areas that are lightly watered because of bad irrigation
distribution patterns. All tensiometers must be marked clearly to avoid
damage from traffic, workers and cultivation.
For tensiometer operation and reading, see page 100.

Pressure sensor
The pressure sensor, installed on a specific lateral, main or sub-
main line, provides actual and accurate reading of water pressure.
Netafim’s electrical pressure sensor is available in 2 models:
0-6 bar and 0-2 bar.
When connected to the real-time crop management
decision support system, pressure can be presented graphically
or in a detailed report.
This data is critical for cross-referencing between irrigation events, filter blocking, etc.
The pressure sensor can be used to measure the level of water in a storage tank and the level of liquid solution
in a fertilizer tank.

Ech2o sensor
The Ech2o soil moisture probe is a capacitance -type sensor
that measures the dielectric constant or permittivity of the
material in which it is inserted, by finding the rate of change of
voltage on the sensor that is embedded in the medium.
Water has a permittivity of about 80, while the value for soil
minerals is around 4, and for air is 1. The high permittivity of
water relative to soil minerals and air results in relatively large
changes in the permittivity of soil when the water content
changes.
The Ech2o sensor is designed to remain in the soil permanently
or for an entire growing season and requires no maintenance.

NetaSense sensor
The NetaSense sensor is a volumetric soil moisture sensor based on
TDT (Time Domain Transmission) technology that provides an immediate and
accurate response to changes in soil moisture levels.
This sensor is able to indicate changes in moisture by means of measuring the
speed of an electromagnetic wave.
The sensor is designed to be installed and left in the soil for the entire duration of
the crop, or permanently. The sensor components are stainless steel and all interfaces
are sealed in epoxy to provide years of reliable service. The sensor is reliable in any type
of soil.
The NetaSense sensor is capable of measuring a large soil volume at a 5 - cm (2-inches)
radius from its elements. It reports the average soil moisture along its active length -
about 30 cm (12 inches), whether the sensor is installed vertically or horizontally.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 44

Controller
The best way to make full use of the advantages of a drip irrigation system is by controlling it using an irrigation
controller.

Netafim™ offers an extensive range of controllers for precise monitoring and management of water and nutrient
supply to the field, making full use of the exceptionally high efficiency and uniformity capacity of the drip
irrigation method.

Lower water, nutrient, chemicals and energy usage.

Lower labor requirements.
Real-time corrective actions.
Greater crop sustainability.
Increased productivity.
Enhanced yields.
Rapid ROI.

Netafim’s irrigation controllers are modern irrigation control systems with advanced features for handling
irrigation main lines including pumps, filters, fertigation systems and other accessories related to the full
comprehensive solution for farm management. The Netafim™ line of controllers offers a range of optimal
solutions for open field, greenhouse and nursery applications.

Controls:
Irrigation valves - Irrigation control based on time and quantity.
Irrigation pumps - Optimized pump control according to flow and pressure.
Filter flushing - Based on time or pressure differential between the filter inlet and outlet.
Pressure sustaining valves - Adjustment of the main line pressure when filter flushing is in process.
Fertilizer pumps - Control of fertilizer injection according to the type of fertilizer pump and its flow rate.
Fertilizer tank selector - Optimization of the fertilizer usage when various crop varieties require different
recipes.
Fertilizer agitation - Control the agitators in the fertilizer tanks to maintain homogeneous solution.
Cooling system - For greenhouse and nursery applications. Operates Netafim’s sprinklers to cool down
the greenhouse temperature according to the plant needs.
Misting system - For greenhouse and nursery applications. Operates Netafim’s sprinklers to increase
the relative humidity according to the plant needs.
Alarm device - Generates an alarm in the occurrence of a malfunction or any unusual event. Alarm
can pop up on the computer screen, be e-mailed or sent as an SMS or push notification to smartphones.

Monitors:
Water meters - Monitor the irrigation volume and flow rate. Makes sure that water in the system is
flowing as planned with no leakages or clogging issues.
Fertilizer meters - Monitor the fertilizer flow rate and amount.
EC and pH sensors - For advanced and accurate fertilizer control.
Temperature and humidity sensors – For cooling and humidification.
Weather station - For irrigation control based on evapotranspiration and for frost mitigation.
Pressure sensors - For filter flushing and irrigation control.
Tensiometer sensors - Measure water tension in the soil for the assessment of the field capacity.
Soil moisture sensors - Measure the volumetric water content in the soil for correct timing and precise
volume of irrigation.
General purpose sensor - Netafim’s controllers can monitor any type of 0-5 VDC or 4-20 mAmp
sensor according to customer needs.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 45

Netafim™ NMC irrigation controllers

NMC Pro
Top of the line irrigation controller.
Features powerful hardware and software for greenhouse and open field applications.
Meets the most modern demand for smart, efficient irrigation.
Can manage up to 255 irrigation valves.

NMC Junior
Multi-function irrigation controller for small applications.
Can manage up to 15 irrigation valves.
Advanced solution for simple greenhouse applications.

Netafim™ NMC climate controllers

NMC Climate
Comprehensive solution for greenhouse applications.
Can manage up to 50 greenhouses simultaneously.
Controlled by advanced PC software with a user-friendly interface.

Mist-Guard
Option 1: Misting controller for cooling applications.
Option 2: Ultimate stand alone controller for high precision
with built in temperature and humidity sensors.

Netafim™ NMC multi main lines irrigation controller

NMC XL
Multi main lines irrigation controller.
Optimal solution for open field application.
Controls up to 25 central Nutrigation™ stations.
Controls up to 128 irrigation lines including flow
measurement, filter flushing and local Nutrigation™.

Netafim™ NMC remote terminal units (RTU)

RadioNet
Continuous wireless monitoring and ultimate control at distance.
Easy-to-use modular system ensuring reliable and flexible control over remote
terminal units to increase productivity and address constantly changing needs.
Multi interface enables connection to a wide range of controllers.
Up to 254 remote units including S&F.

SingleNet
Up to 10 Km cable length.
Reduced installation and cable cost.
Multi interface enables connection to a wide range of controllers.
Up to 128 remote units.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 46

Accessories and add-ons
For ease of implementation, current operation and maintenance of a Netafim™ drip irrigation system, Netafim™
offers a wide variety of useful accessories and add-ons designed to facilitate day to day tasks and to allow the
addition of practical functions to the system. Below is a shortlist of selected accessories and add-ons; for the
full range see see Netafim™ Fittings & Accessories Product Catalog.

Dripline Non Leakage valve (DNL) Direct pressure regulator

A spring-loaded diaphragm A spring-actuated
actuated valve that opens control regulator
upon pressurizing the that reduces higher
irrigation system and shuts upstream pressure
off drip-tight when the system reaches closure to lower constant Flow
pressure. For intensive irrigation and sloped fields, downstream pressure,
where irrigation precision is imperative. and opens fully upon
line pressure drop.

Pressure flag-indicator Hanging accessories, stakes and spikes

Provides visual indication of water For a well implemented
pressure in all drip applications. installation and ease
Installed on driplines at the of operation and
farthest end of the irrigated maintenance,
plots, enables quick and easy Netafim™ offers a
inspection of proper delivery wide variety of hanging
of water through the system accessories, stakes and spikes,
from a distance. enabling professional and
convenient installation.

Adapters and manifolds Punches and tools

A vast line of complementary To facilitate the installation
products, families of models and the current
and sizes. maintenance of the
irrigation system, Netafim™
offers a variety of dedicated tools for
ease of work and prevention of damage
to the system components.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 47

Agro-machinery
Netafim™ is the global leader in irrigation solutions and as a solution provider we strive to help growers achieve
greater efficiencies, reduction in costs and labor, and improvements in sustainability through equipment (agro
machinery) that reduce or replace labor intensive field practices with highly efficient mechanized solutions.
Netafim™ developed a variety of application tools and auxiliaries designed to simplify and support working with
drip irrigation systems.

1. Installation machinery
2. Extraction machinery
3. Retrieval machinery
4. Accessories & spare parts

1. Installation Machinery

Laying machinery
Laying machines are designed to perform on surface
installation of thin, medium and heavy wall driplines in a
proper, speedy and safe manner. Multi optional mounting of
laying units on toolbar frames enables Netafim™ to offer a
wide variety of products and modular units according to the
grower’s specific requirements. Also available are auxiliary
tools such as operator platform, storage device for spare
dripline coils, markers, cover legs and more.

Sub surface insertion machinery

Sub surface insertion machines enable any grower to install
driplines in a cost effective, efficient manner and ensure that
the dripline insertion procedure is done accurately. A special
plastic guide located on the insertion shank will eliminate
problems associated with twisted and/or kinked driplines.
A wide variety of machines is available for thin, medium
and heavy wall driplines in open fields, row crops, orchards,
sugarcane and many other options.

2. Extraction machinery
Extraction machines are designed for growers who wish to
extract driplines from sub surface installation or through
growing or lodged crop cover for reuse or recycling. There
are multiple types of machines according to the field
condition and dripline insertion depth. A control system
matches extraction speed to tractor speed and controls
pulling tension.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 48

3. Retrieval machinery
The features incorporated in our range of retrieval machines
ensure dripline retrieval for reuse and/or recycling is
performed quickly and properly across a variety of field
conditions and requirements. The following auxiliary tools
can be mounted on the machines to optimize procedures
and make your field work smarter, with less effort: brush,
arranger, pulling device ensuring the constant maximal
pulling force permitted for retrieving the driplines and more.

4. Accessories & spare parts

Netafim™ offers a wide variety of mountable accessories. These can be purchased as spare parts for agro
machines and can also be used in the assembly of integrated machines.

Roller Box
Most common accessories:
Roller box*.
Deep and mid depth insertion shanks / safe shanks*.
Reusable plastic spools.
Pneumatic adjustable depth wheel .
Storage/ operator platforms.
Furrowers.
Cover Legs.
Insertion Shank

ATTENTION
*In order to avoid damage to the driplines in the insertion or laying process, always use a Roller Box and an
Insertion Shank supplied by Netafim™. These two accessories are especially engineered and made of wear
resistant materials to guarantee the integrity of the inserted dripline of any type or grade.

See Instructions for dripperline insertion and laying, page 66.

For further information about agro-machinery see the Netafim™ Agro-Machinery Catalog or call your local
Netafim™ representative.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 49

DRIP IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT AND OPERATION

Irrigation................................................................................................................................... 51

Nutrigation™............................................................................................................................. 55

Nutrigation™ via a drip irrigation system............................................................................ 58

Chemigation............................................................................................................................. 64

Dripline insertion or laying..................................................................................................... 66

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system overview 50

 Drip irrigation management
and operation
The aim of this chapter is to provide guidelines and useful tips for the proper management and operation of a
drip irrigation system.

Irrigation
Hydraulic parameters

The following hydraulic parameters are considered when designing an irrigation system.
All are inter-related and a change in one parameter will affect system results:

Parameter Definition Measurement Units

Q Dripper Amount of water provided by the dripper at a l/h - liters per hour
flow rate given time unit during the irrigation process
E Distance Distance between two drippers on a dripline m - meters
between
drippers

D Distance Distance between two driplines m - meters

between
driplines

Pr Precipitation The amount of water per area for a specified mm/h - millimeters per hour
rate period of time
HIR Hourly Quantity of water the system will irrigate m3/ha/h - cubic meter per hectare
irrigation during one hour for a specified area per hour
rate

DWR Daily water Quantity of water the crop requires per day mm/d - millimeters per day,
requirement (based on pan evaporation or the
or m3/ha/d -cubic meter per hectare
Penman - Montieth equation, see page 97)
per day (mm/day * 10)
T Irrigation Time required to irrigate a certain area h - hours
time
S Shift Shift number of each irrigation shift into which Integer
number the irrigation time is divided

N Daily Total number of hours per day that the system h - hours
shift hours irrigates the project

Hydraulic requirements

The hydraulic specification of an irrigation system must allow it to deliver the required amount of water to the
crop at the time it needs it.

The most important aspect of crop water use for the design of a drip irrigation system is the “peak” water
requirement or the amount of water that a crop uses during its highest water use period. This is because it
is during this period that the system must deliver the greatest amount of water.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 51

While rain may be factored in to reduce the irrigation requirement for a season, it should not be factored in
when calculating a peak use rate.

Different crops and different planting dates will result in different water requirements. The irrigation system
may be intended to irrigate more than one crop (rotation), in which case the crop with the highest water
demand must be the design criterion.

Uniformity and efficiency

ATTENTION
Low startup costs can result in high annual operating costs. When designing a drip irrigation system it is
important to consider uniformity and efficiency in order to keep total cost low.

Uniformity is the ability of the irrigation system to deliver water and fertilizer as equally as possible to
all the plants in the field or orchard. Uniformity saves water and fertilizer and improves yield, resulting in shorter
ROI.

Efficiency is the ability of the irrigation system to deliver water and fertilizer according to the crop’s needs
as exactly as possible. Efficiency saves resources and preserves the environment while optimally serving
the crop’s needs.

Irrigation efficiency describes a field’s performance. Water use efficiency is the ratio of the amount of irrigation
water applied that is beneficially used by the plant, to the total amount of irrigation water applied.

NOTE
The higher the uniformity, the more efficient the use of water and energy.

Irrigation scheduling determines the actual overall efficiency of the irrigation system. If irrigation is improperly
timed, in either frequency or duration, the field capacity of the soil in the root zone will be exceeded and the
water will be lost to runoff or to deep percolation (see Field Capacity, page 92).
Depending on the crop, this may affect or not affect the crop negatively, but in any case will cause unnecessary
costs.

Even with an irrigation system perfectly planned for high efficiency, improper duration of irrigation will eliminate
most advantages gained by the design of the system.

Flow variation (FV) and emission uniformity (EU) play an important role in the overall uniformity of a drip
irrigation system. These are the most applicable terms to drip irrigation systems; they are defined by the design
of the system and are critical to its performance as it applies to irrigation efficiency.

Flow Variation (FV) expresses the flow variation between the dripper “sensing” the highest pressure and the
one “sensing” the lowest pressure in an irrigation block (zone). These drippers will not always be the first and
last drippers on the dripline.

Q max. - Q min.
FV % = * 100
Q max.

NOTE
By international standards, 10% flow variation is considered uniform irrigation.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 52

Emission Uniformity (EU)

Emission uniformity is calculated using four main variables:

Q minimum = the minimum flow rate in the irrigation block.
Q average = the average flow in the irrigation block.
CV = the manufacturing variation of the emission device, which should represent the manufacturing
variation of the finished products that will be in the field.
n = number of drippers per plant in the irrigation block (for permanent crop systems ‘n’ is the number of
drippers per plant, where in row crops “n” carries a value of 1 due to the fact that a single dripper might be
servicing multiple plants).

EU % = 100 * 1 - ( 1.27 *
CV
√n ) Q min.
* Q average

If a designed irrigation block is calculated to have 15% flow variation, then the lowest flow point in this block is
receiving 15% less water than the highest flow point in it.

ATTENTION
If an irrigation block design is calculated to have 90% emission uniformity, it is inaccurate to assume that
the minimum flow point in the block is 10% lower than the high flow point in the block.
A rule of thumb is that for every one (1) point change in EU there are approximately two points change in
FV. Therefore a EU of 90% (10% below 100%) would have a FV closer towards 20%, meaning the lowest flow
point in the irrigation block would actually have a flow rate closer to 20% lower than its highest flow point.

Hydraulic calculations

EXAMPLE

Calculating the Precipitation Rate (Pr)

Data
Dripper flow rate: Q = 0.5 l/h
Distance between drippers: E = 0.5 m
Distance between dripperlines: D = 1.8 m

Calculation
Calculate the hourly irrigation rate as follows:

Q
Precipitation rate (Pr) = =
(E x D)

0.5
= 0.55 mm/h
(0.5 x 1.8)

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 53

Calculating the irrigation rate
There are two ways to calculate the irrigation rate.

Calculate the hourly irrigation rate (HIR) in cubic meters:

0.55 mm
Hourly Irrigation Rate (HIR) = = 5.5 m3/ha/h
ha x 10

Alternatively, we can calculate the hourly irrigation rate (HIR) by multiplying the number of drippers per hectare
by the hourly flow rate.

Calculate the hourly irrigation rate based on the number of drippers per hectare:
Data
Dripper flow rate Q = 0.5 l/h
Distance between drippers E = 0.5 m
Distance between dripperlines D = 1.8 m
Calculation
a. Calculate the total length of the driplines:

10000 m2
Dripline length/ha = = 5555 m
1.8

b. Calculate the total number of drippers per hectare:

5555 m
Drippers/ha = = 11,111 drippers
0.5

c. Calculate the hourly irrigation rate:

11,111 drippers * 0.5 l/h

Hourly Irrigation Rate (HIR) = = 5.5 m3/ha/h
1000

Calculating the Daily Water Requirement (DWR):

Data
Pan evaporation* EVTo = 8.4 mm/d
Crop coefficient* Kc = 0.75
*see Water budgeting, page 96.
DWR = 8.4 * 0.75 = 6.3 mm/d = 63 m3/ha/d

Calculate the required irrigation duration (hours/day):

Data
Hourly irrigation rate H IR = 5.5 m3/ha/h

DWR 63 m3/ha/d
Irrigation time = = = 11.45 hours (11 hours 27 minutes**)
HIR 5.5 m3/ha/h

decimal hours 0.45

**Conversion of decimal hours to minutes: * 60 * 60 = 0.27 = 27 min
100 100

Conclusion
Based on the calculations, it takes less than 12 hours to irrigate the required area (63 m3/ha/d).
This means that the effective crop area can be doubled if the equipment is operated twice per day.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 54

Calculating the maximal irrigation area based on water supply
Knowing how much water is available per hour and the required quantity of water in m3/ha/h enables us to
calculate the maximal area that could be irrigated at once.

Data
Dripper flow rate: 0.5 l/h
Distance between drippers: 0.5 m
Distance between driplines: 1.8 m
Hourly irrigation rate: 0.55 mm/h
Daily return (equal to HIR): 6.3 mm/d
Daily hours/shift: 11.45 h
Possible number of shifts in 24 hours: 2
Pump discharge: (10 l/sec) 36 m3/h

Calculation

Calculate the maximal area that can be watered in 24 hours based on the data above:

Pump discharge per hour * Daily hours/shift * Numbers of shifts

=
Daily return

36 m3/h x 11.45 hours/shift x 2 shifts

= = 13 ha
63 m3/ha/d

Nutrigation™
Crops require a balanced diet of essential nutrients throughout their growth cycle.

Many plant foods can be found in the soil, but often in insufficient quantities to sustain high crop yields. Soil and
climatic conditions can also limit a plant’s uptake of nutrients at key growth stages.

Crop scientists recognize that plants need 13 essential minerals, all of which play a number of important
functions. If any of these is lacking, plant growth and yield suffer.

Major nutrients

Nitrogen (N)
Is often required in the greatest quantity by crops, primarily for vigor and yield. Nitrogen plays a key role
in chlorophyll production and protein synthesis. Chlorophyll is the green plant pigment responsible for
photosynthesis. When nitrogen is deficient, plants develop yellow or pale leaves and their growth is stunted.

Phosphorus (P)
Is a vital component of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which supplies the energy for many processes in
the plant. Phosphorus rarely produces spectacular growth responses, but is fundamental to the successful
development of all crops. For example, maize or other corn crops that lack phosphorus during the growing
season achieve lower yields.

Potassium (K)
Is needed by virtually all crops and often in higher rates than nitrogen. Potassium regulates the plant’s water
content and expansion. It is key to achieving good yield and quality in cotton and critical for increasing the size,
juice content and sweetness of fruit.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 55

Secondary nutrients

Calcium (Ca)
Is perhaps the most important secondary nutrient. Calcium strengthens cell walls, helping to reduce bruising
and disease in fruit, salad and vegetable crops. This means that a good supply of calcium produces food crops
that are less prone to damage and have a longer shelf life. Crops with a calcium shortage will have growth
disorders such as corky skin.

Magnesium (Mg)
Is also important for crop quality, and is also a key component of leaf chlorophyll and the enzymes that support
plant growth. Low magnesium leads to reduced photosynthesis, which severely limits crop yields.
Grain fill in rice and dry matter content of potatoes can be significantly reduced if magnesium is undersupplied.

Sulfur (S)
Is an essential part of many amino acids and proteins. Without both S and Mg, crops suffer; growth slows and
leaves turn pale or yellow. Sulfur is particularly important for ensuring the protein content of cereal crop grains.

Micronutrients
Reinforce and supplement the strong plant growth and structures provided by major and secondary nutrients.

Manganese (Mn)
Influences photosynthesis, the process whereby plants use sunlight for growth.

Copper (Cu)
Influences photosynthesis, the process whereby plants use sunlight for growth.

Iron (Fe)
Influences photosynthesis, the process whereby plants use sunlight for growth.
Deficiencies are common – for example in seed fruits – where the effect is to reduce production of chlorophyll.
As a result, crops struggle and younger leaves develop a severe yellowing or chlorosis.

Boron (B)
Is needed for the development of shoots and roots, and is essential during the flowering and fruiting
phases of crops.

Zinc (Zn)
Is needed for the production of important plant hormones, like auxin. Zinc deficiency leads to structural
defects in leaves and other plant organs.

Molybdenum (Mo)
Is involved in plant enzyme systems that control nitrogen metabolism.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 56

Element content (%) in fertilizers -

de
Suitable for Nutrigation™

xi
Ca ium nto
Element

ph tal)

ss s p e
o

l fu m
u
Ph n (t

Su si u
or

So e
m

um
e

rin

te
ne
og

iu

r
os

l fa
ta

lo

ag
di
lc
itr

Ch
Po

Su
M
N
Fertilizer Formula N P2O5 K2O Ca Cl Na Mg S SO4
Urea CO(NH2)2 46
Urea ammonium nitrate CO(NH2)2NH4NO3 32
Mono ammonium phosphate MAP NH4H2PO4 12 61
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 32
Potassium nitrate KNO3 13 46
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 15 19
Calcium chloride CaCl2 27 63
Potassium chloride KCl 61 47
Potassium sulfate K2SO4 51 55 18
Mono potassium phosphate MKP KH2PO4 52 34
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 21 24 73
Magnesium sulfate MgSO4 16 16 49
Calcium sulfate CaSO4 19 8 26
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2 11 10
Sulfuric acid H2SO4 33
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 61
Nitric acid HNO3 13
Sodium chloride (salt) NaCl 62 38

Crop needs
Each crop needs a different range of nutrients at every critical stage of its development.

For example, nitrogen and phosphorous are often more critical at early stages of growth to fuel root and leaf
development, whereas zinc and boron are important during flowering.

Cereal crops use nutrients for growth, progressively moving them from the roots, to the stems and leaves until
the dying off and harvesting of the grain.

Tree crops have different nutrient requirements than field crops. They can store nutrients like nitrogen within
their trunk, branches and leaves and then redistribute them at key points during the growth cycle.
It is important, however, to supply trees with replacement levels of the nutrients removed in the harvested fruit
and those that are critical for growth but can’t be recycled.

The influence of soil pH on nutrient availability

Soil pH level has a specific influence on the availability of each nutrient to the crop (see page 93).

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 57

Nutrigation™ via a drip irrigation system
Nutrigation™ is the combined application of water and nutrients to a crop - a mix of fertilization and irrigation. It
can be adapted to all types of crops.

CHEMICAL HAZARD
When not handled properly, nutrients, acids and chemicals may cause serious injury or even death. They
may also damage the crop, the soil, the environment and the irrigation system.
Proper handling of nutrients, acids and chemicals is the responsibility of the grower.
Always observe the nutrient/acid/chemical manufacturer’s instructions and the regulations issued by the
relevant local authority.

In drip irrigation, the roots are concentrated in a limited soil volume compared to the volume of soil that
these roots occupy if the irrigation isn’t localized. For this reason, during the irrigation season, relatively small
quantities of fertilizers should be applied frequently.

In traditional fertilization methods, some of the fertilizer is applied outside the volume of soil occupied by the
roots and thereby wasted.

Advantages

Increased efficiency of fertilizer application

Fertilizer application with irrigation water provides a better distribution and greater application uniformity.
The total dose of the applied fertilizers is divided into several smaller portions allowing better
retention of the fertilizers in the soil and greater availability.
Losses due to volatilization are avoided, as with fertilizers containing nitrogen compounds.
Nutrigation™ permits the application of nutrients according to crop requirements; there is also a possibility of
varying the ratio between nutrients during different phenological stages, such as the vegetative stage,
flowering, fruit setting, fruit filling and maturation.

Savings in fertilizer and labor

Due to the conditions of application by irrigation water and the various forms of losses avoided, the amount
of fertilizer used to achieve the same production level is reduced.
Preparation and application of fertilizers in a drip irrigation system cost less compared to the traditional
implementation.

Operational advantages
Health hazards are avoided since workers do not come in contact with the injected fertilizers and chemical.
Since Nutrigation™ does not require traffic in the field, damage to plants and soil compaction are avoided.
Nutrigation™ can maintain appropriate nutrient content in soils with low nutrient holding capacity, allowing
cultivation in types of soil otherwise not cultivable.
The contamination of groundwater by elements of fertilizer occurs in many places where flood irrigation
is used. Nutrigation™ applies the amount of fertilizer and water in more frequent, smaller portions to
prevent runoff or deep percolation.
There is the possibility of applying other chemicals through the system, such as soil disinfectants, systemic
products against crop diseases and pests.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 58

Limitations
Only water-soluble fertilizers are allowed to be used in drip irrigation.
Some fertilizers, although water soluble, may not be compatible with the method of Nutrigation™, such
as fertilizer that raises the pH of the irrigation water so high that precipitation occurs in the system.
Certain fertilizers are corrosive to metal parts of the equipment, therefore the parts of the system coming in
contact with those fertilizers should be resistant to corrosion.

Characteristics of fertilizers used in Nutrigation™

Knowing the characteristics of the fertilizers to be used in Nutrigation™ is essential for making the right choice
of fertilizers and application, to provide the right elements to the plant at the right time.

Chemical composition
Fertilizers can be simple or compound:
Simple fertilizers: are fertilizers that consist of a single product. For example: urea, ammonium nitrate,
potassium chloride.
Compound fertilizers: are the products that are obtained by mixing several simple fertilizers, and generally,
can be easily seen in the mixture; these are generally not used in Nutrigation™.

Form
Solid state: in this case, the fertilizer may be granulated or powdered.
Liquid state: are fertilizers that can be injected directly into the irrigation system.
Some fertilizers need to be dissolved in water to reduce the concentration prior to injection.

Solubility
Solubility is one of the most important characteristics to be considered in preparing liquid fertilizers. Every
fertilizer has a level of solubility, which is influenced by the temperature of the water in which it dissolves.

WARNING
Only water-soluble fertilizers are allowed to be used in drip irrigation.

Some fertilizers are very easy to dissolve in water and others are more difficult, but still can be used in
Nutrigation™. There are fertilizers having a solubility level so low that they are classified as water-insoluble and
their use in irrigation systems is not allowed, for example, simple and triple superphosphate.

Interaction with irrigation water

Fertilizers are salts that react with other salts found in the irrigation water. Therefore, it is important to consider
the chemical composition of the water to be used for preparing the liquid fertilizers.
For example, under conditions of high alkalinity water, the phosphorus of a phosphate fertilizer precipitates with
calcium and magnesium present in the water. These precipitates can be seen at the bottom of the fertilizer tank.

Interaction between fertilizers

There are fertilizers that are not be mixed on the same mixture, as they are incompatible. In some cases, when
mixed, those fertilizers immediately induce crystallization and cause clogging in the irrigation system. In other
cases the reaction between two incompatible fertilizers causes the loss of nutritional ingredients to the plant.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 59

Compatibility of the most common soluble fertilizers:

Urea Magnesium sulfate

Ammonium nitrate Magnesium nitrate
Ammonium sulfate Calcium chloride
MAP Calcium nitrate
MKP Potassium sulfate
Potassium nitrate Potassium chloride
Potassium chloride Potassium nitrate
Potassium sulfate MKP
Calcium nitrate MAP
Calcium chloride Ammonium sulfate
Magnesium nitrate Ammonium nitrate

Compatible, Limited compatibility, Incompatible

Jar test
To avoid injecting products that might clog or otherwise damage the irrigation system, perform the simple jar
test described below before injection of fertilizer, acid or any chemical. This is especially important if it is the first
time a specific product or mixture of products is used, or when using a product supplied by a new vendor.

To perform the jar test:

Use a clean, transparent glass container of 2 liters (0.5 gallons) minimum.

Fill it with the same water used for irrigation, taken at the point of injection in the system.
Add the product/s to the water in the container at the exact ratio prescribed for injection.
Manually mix the contents of the container until the products are completely dissolved.
If the products do not dissolve after mixing for a few minutes, do not inject the product or mixture into the
irrigation system and call your local Netafim™ representative for advice.
If the products dissolve properly, place the container to rest, uncovered, for 24 hours at ambient temperature,
protected from direct sunlight.
After 24 hours, visually examine the contents of the container against the light and check for any type of
sedimentation, coagulation or floating solids.
If any of these are present, do not inject the product or mixture into the irrigation system and call your local
Netafim™ representative for advice.

Corrosivity
Most fertilizers, both solid and liquid, attack metals in the irrigation and fertilization systems. Generally, the
higher the acidity of the solution, the greater the corrosive effect.
For example: the combination of potassium chloride and phosphoric acid is extremely corrosive.

Volatilization
Fertilizers containing urea and ammonium nitrogen can be lost by volatilization of ammonia. The tanks storing
liquid fertilizer mixtures for longer than 4 days must be sealed.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 60

Fertilizer pH
Liquid fertilizers have different pH levels that may affect the crop and the drip irrigation system.
The acceptable pH level for crops is 5 - 7.
The effect of fertilizers with different pH levels on the irrigation system:

pH level Effect on the irrigation system

up to 5 Acidic May damage the PC drippers and system components made of materials containing Acetal,
depending on the duration of exposure to the substance and the ambient temperature.*

5-6 Mildly When combined with certain nutrients, may damage the PC drippers and system
acidic components made of materials containing Acetal, depending on the duration of exposure to
the substance and the ambient temperature.*

6-8 Neutral All the components of a Netafim™ drip irrigation system are resistant to pH levels
of 6 and up.

8 and Basic When combining certain nutrients, sedimentation might occur, causing clogging of the
up drippers and other components.*

* Consult a Netafim™ expert.

Salinity
Fertilizers are salts that contribute to the increased salinity of the irrigation water. The level of EC (electrical
conductivity) reflects water salinity, and is measured with simple instruments in the field and in laboratory.

Hygroscopicity
Solid fertilizers have the property of adhering to moisture; this stiffens the granules and makes them difficult to
handle afterwards. It is important to keep them in a closed container in order to avoid this phenomenon.

Liquid fertilizers

Preparation of liquid fertilizers

The temperature of the water in which it dissolves influences the amount of fertilizer to dissolve, as shown in
the following table.

Effect of temperature (°C) on the solubility of fertilizers (fertilizer grams in one liter of water)

Temperature °C

Fertilizer grams / liter water 0 5 10 20 25 30

Urea 680 780 850 1060 1200 1330

Ammonium sulfate 700 715 730 750 770 780

Potassium sulfate 70 80 90 110 120 130

Potassium chloride 280 290 310 340 350 370

Potassium nitrate 130 170 210 320 370 460

Mono-ammonium phosphate 227 255 295 374 410 464

It can be observed that the temperature of the fertilizer solution strongly affects fertilizer solubility, as in the
case of urea. In contrast, the characteristics of ammonium sulfate are almost not affected by temperature.

Generally, the water temperature, under field conditions, is higher than 20°C. Therefore, it might seem logical
to assume that at the time of preparing a liquid fertilizer, that the higher the water temperature, the greater the
amount of fertilizer that can be dissolved. But a crucial parameter has been ignored...

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 61

When fertilizers are mixed with water, a reaction between the water and the product occurs, which cools the mixture.
This is called endothermic reaction. Because of the lowered temperature of the water, the entire amount of product
calculated according to the original temperature of the water before mixing cannot be dissolved anymore. This
occurs with fertilizers containing nitrogen compounds such as ammonium nitrate and urea.

TIP
When dissolving a fertilizer, do not exceed the amount permitted for 10°C, according to the table above.
Choosing the point of injection of liquid fertilizer
The mixture can be injected at various points of the system, according to the need for it.
The fertilizer injected into the irrigation system moves with the irrigation water from the point of injection
downstream, therefore, when irrigating, the part of the system downstream from the point of injection will also
receive fertilizer.

Three injection points can be listed:

A. In the irrigation head

Fertilizer injected at this location reaches all valves B
that receive water from the irrigation head.

B. A valve in a specific plot

A
Fertilizer injected before a specific valve will reach C
the part of the plot irrigated by the said valve.

C. Between the irrigation head and a group of valves

This is the location between the two points above;
it should be used to fertilize a group of valves that
irrigate at the same time.

Equipment for liquid fertilizer injection

For the full range of dosing units and how to choose the suitable one, see Dosing Unit, page 30.

Management of drip Nutrigation™

Taking an overview of the irrigation and fertilization program, proceed to analyze whether the program is
technically and agronomically acceptable.

First, two important rules must be met:

The injection of liquid fertilizer will begin only when the irrigation system is fully pressurized and stabilized,
that is, when the water has reached the farthest dripline with the required pressure. The duration of
fertilizer injection depends on the size and design of the system, but as a general rule it should
not in any case be less than 0.5 hours (half an hour).

Fertilizer injection should not be stopped before the required quantity of fertilizer water exits the farthest
dripper. This also depends on the project size, length of the driplines and the design of the system.
See Advancement Time in the Netafim™ Preventive Maintenance Guide.
If needed, call a Netafim™ expert to calculate fertilizer injection time for your specific system.

Knowing the start time and the end time of fertilizer injection, and the time that fertilization can be performed,
proceed according to the calculations and the injection equipment.

Setting the fertilizer application time during irrigation:

The injection time of liquid fertilizer should be determined according to the run time for fertilization to be best
exploited, avoiding waste of fertilizer due to water excess, or failure to complete the fertilization program due to
irrigation time. Therefore, a schedule must be made.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 62

Steps to follow in setting the injection duration and timing

EXAMPLE

A. Calculate the amount of the pure element. Example: Nitrogen

Quantity of pure nitrogen per month: 50 Kg per hectare.
Total days in the month: 30 days.
Quantity of pure nitrogen per day: 50/30 = 1.66 Kg/ha/day

B. Calculate how many liters of liquid fertilizer will be needed

For 100 liters of final mixture (water and fertilizer) 20 Kg of urea or ammonium nitrate equivalent,
27.8 Kg are dissolved.
That amount of urea or ammonium nitrate represents 9 Kg of pure nitrogen (20 Kg * 45%).
If in 100 liters of liquid fertilizer there are 9 Kg of pure nitrogen, it follows that 1 (one) Kg of pure
nitrogen equals 11.1 liters of the mixture (100/9 = 11.1).
Size of the plot to be irrigated: 20 hectares.
Total injected liquid fertilizer every day will be:
Total hectares * Kg of pure nitrogen in irrigation * liters of fertilizer per Kg of pure nitrogen =
20 ha * 1.66 kg N per irrigation * 11.1 liters = 368 liters of fertilizer per irrigation.
Irrigated every two days; therefore 736 liters (368 * 2) must be applied.

C. Required duration of irrigation

Calculated hourly irrigation capacity of the system:
The dripper flow is 0.8 liters per hour.
The distance between drippers is 0.50 meters.
The distance between the driplines is 1.60 meters.
The hourly capacity irrigation is = 0.8 / (0.5 * 1.6) = 1.0 mm per hour or 10.0 m3 per hectare per hour.

Daily evaporation tank as Class “A” is 8 mm.

Replacement coefficient (Kc) = 0.8
Amount of water to irrigate per day = 8 mm x 0.8 = 6.4 mm or 64 m3 per hectare.
Run time per day = Total water to irrigate in mm / Irrigation Hourly capacity in mm / hour =
6.4 mm / 1.0 mm per hour = 6 hours 24 minutes.
However, as it is irrigated every other day, irrigate duration should be set for 12 hours and 48 minutes.

D. Required injection time

In this example, the fertilizer injector is capable of injecting 100 liters per hour.
Total fertilizer to be injected is 736 liters (step B).
Time to be injected: 736 liters fertilizer / 100 liters per hour = 7.36 hours (7 hours and 22 minutes).

E. Injection program
Having calculated all the above data, the next step is to decide the timing of fertilizer injection during irrigation.

Proposed program:

Nutrigation™ = 7:22 hrs

Activity Irrigation = 13 hrs

Hours 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 63

Nutrigation™ in the rainy season

It may happen that, after a rainfall, fertilization should be performed, applying the amount of fertilizer that could
not be applied during the days without irrigation. For this purpose the liquid fertilizer mixture may be modified
by concentrating more for the same amount of nitrogen.

EXAMPLE

If you must fertilize to complete the dose of 4 days, but with an amount of water equivalent to 1 (one) day of
watering, you can proceed as follows:

Amount of water: 6.4 mm

Run time: 6 hours 24 minutes
Nitrogen dose per day: 1.66 Kg per hectare.
Replenish fertilization days: 4 days.

In the liquid fertilizer tank, fertilizer can be prepared in either of the following ways:
At the same concentration, which means that in 11 liters of the mixture there is 1 Kg of pure nitrogen.
Increasing the amount of urea, for example,
add 30 Kg of urea-equivalent, 13.5 Kg (30 x 0.45 = 13.5) pure nitrogen into the 100 liters mixture.
This means one (1) Kg of nitrogen to 7.4 liters of liquid fertilizer.

If the project size is 20 hectares, the injection quantity depends on whether it continues with the same
concentration of nitrogen in the tank or is increased, as explained in the previous section.
Then:
1.66 kg N/day x 20 hectares x 11 l/kg N x 4 days = 1461 liters.
1.66 kg N/day x 20 hectares x 7.4 l/kg N x 4 days = 982 liters.

The injection time can be 4 to 5 hours, which would require modifying the flow of the fertilizer injector,
according to the following calculation:
1461 liters / 4 hours = 365 liters per hour.
1461 liters / 5 hours = 293 liters per hour.
982 liters / 4 hours = 245 liters per hour.
982 liters / 5 hours = 196 liters per hour.

Choose the option that fits the system’s capacities and the soil moisture, and allows irrigation with acceptable
electrical conductivity (EC).

Chemigation
Chemigation™ refers to injection of chemicals to prevent or reduce dripper clogging (addition of chlorine,
hydrogen-peroxide, acid or others), and the injection of chemicals for crop and soil concerns (herbicides,
pesticides and others).

CHEMICAL HAZARD
When not handled properly, nutrients, acids and chemicals may cause serious injury or even death. They
may also damage the crop, the soil, the environment and the irrigation system.
Proper handling of nutrients, acids and chemicals is the responsibility of the grower.
Always observe the nutrient/acid/chemical manufacturer’s instructions and the regulations issued by the
relevant local authority.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 64

 NOTE
Netafim™ authorizes the use of certain chemical agents. Products that are not authorized in this summary
must pass a control test in Netafim’s laboratory prior to being utilized, to ascertain if they are safe for use
with Netafim’s systems.

Fungicides, herbicides, insecticides and disinfectants authorized by Netafim™

Metam sodium
Telone II
Formaldehyde
There are additional options; contact the Agronomy Division of Netafim™ for details.

After chemigation it is necessary to continue irrigation with water that is free of chemical products. Verify the
flushing duration and timing with the tables showing the advancement times.

In irrigation systems with anti-drain drippers (CNL), in addition to the previous instruction, it is necessary to
open the ends of the driplines for flushing.

Possible product issues

In general, products, both those approved and not approved by Netafim™, contain approximately the same
percentage of active material. The differences between the various products are:

The quality of the product. The dosage.

The storage time. The quality of the emulsion.
With good-quality emulsion, the active components in the product mix with the water without
creating layers of different compositions. When these conditions are not fulfilled, the contact of high
concentrations of the product’s active ingredients with various parts of the system, such as valves,
drippers, flow meters, etc., could damage them. These products are very corrosive to some metals and
also react with various polymers (depending on the product).

Applying herbicide by chemigation via drip irrigation

Chemigation is done by a dosing unit. For the full range of dosing units and how to choose the suitable one, see
Dosing Unit, page 30.

Advantages
Avoids crop damage and contamination of foliage, flowers and fruits caused by spraying.
Application is local and avoids damaging the neighboring crops.

Herbicide injection process

Herbicide should be diluted to obtain an aqueous solution prior to injection.
Inject herbicide into the system at the head of the relevant plot.
Start the injection of herbicide only after half, but before two-thirds of the planned irrigation time, based
on the advancement time, has elapsed, in order to ensure that the whole quantity of injected herbicide
has been evacuated from the system through the drippers.
After injection of the required amount of herbicide, irrigation should be continued for at least 15 minutes
in order to flush herbicide residues out of the system.

TIP
The herbicide injection should take place towards the end of the irrigation event.
Example: if you plan to irrigate 300 m3/ha water, the herbicide will be applied once a quantity of approximately
250 m3 has been irrigated.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation management 65

Dripline insertion or laying
It is important to lay or insert the driplines with the drippers facing upwards. This prevents sediments
present in the driplines from penetrating the drippers and extends the life of the driplines.

NOTE
When inserting or laying heavy wall driplines, it is impossible to ensure that the drippers will uniformly face
upwards.

When inserting driplines, a Netafim™ Roller Box with Okolon rollers must be installed on the insertion machine to
straighten the driplines in order to prevent their bending, ensuring that drippers always face upwards.

Roller
NOTE
Box
Bends in the dripline interfere with the regular flow of water and
might block the passage of water down the driplines.

Use Netafim’s dedicated insertion shank

Diameter: 2”.
Seamless, schedule 40 steel pipe, without any inner protrusions
that might damage the driplines.
Conic pipe inlet to allow smooth feeding of the dripline Insertion
throughout the entire deployment of the dripline from the coil. Shank
Allows deep insertion while ensuring that the shank’s inlet is above
ground level to prevent soil from entering the shank’s pipe.
The shank’s outlet is beveled to ensure smooth emission of the
dripline without damaging the drippers.

The dripline coil

must be installed
so that it rotates in
the opposite direction
to the tractor’s
movement as
indicated by the arrow
on the side of the coil. Roller
This way the dripline Box
enters the conic pipe
inlet of the shank at a Insertion
Shank
correct angle.

WARNING
Installing the dripline coil the wrong way will result in damaging the drippers while they enter the conic pipe
at a too steep angle.pipe at a too steep angle.

See an overview of Netafim’s agro-machinery for dripperline insertion, laying and retrieving on page 48.
For further information about agro-machinery see the Netafim™ Agro-Machinery Catalog or call your local
Netafim™ representative.

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DRIP IRRIGATION SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Maintenance timetable.......................................................................................................... 68

System flushing...................................................................................................................... 70

Preparation and use of a hydraulic conditions checklist................................................ 77

Chemical injection for system maintenance..................................................................... 78

Water analysis......................................................................................................................... 79

Sampling drippers................................................................................................................... 81

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 Drip irrigation system maintenance
The aim of this chapter is to provide guidelines and useful tips for the proper maintenance of a drip
irrigation system.

NOTE
For the correct operation of the irrigation system it is imperative to implement all the instructions for proper
maintenance of the drip irrigation system in this chapter.

For optimal performance, drip irrigation systems require routine system maintenance. Even though recent
innovations in dripper design have made clog-resistant driplines readily available, the nature of agricultural
water sources, nutrient injection practices, natural limitations of filtration equipment and the general agricultural
growing environment make maintenance a priority.

WARNING
In extreme cases of negligence to perform routine system maintenance, a clogged drip irrigation system
might cause the lost of the current crop and even necessitate replacement of the driplines.

Taking baseline readings and monitoring flow, pressure and the condition of flush water regularly will provide
guidance for maintenance scheduling.

In addition to flow, pressure and condition of flush water, the overall condition of the pump station and
distribution system should be routinely inspected and/or calibrated including control equipment engines,
motors, reservoirs, injectors, pipelines, valves, fittings, flow meters and pressure gauges.

Broken or dysfunctional equipment should be immediately repaired or replaced with the same or similar
equipment that will perform the same function according to system design criteria.

Aside from making equipment adjustments or repairs, the majority of system maintenance activities are:
applying chemicals, flushing the system and controlling pests.

Maintenance consists of two categories:

Preventive maintenance, aimed at preventing clogging of the drippers, can be divided in three categories:

Flushing the system.

Chemical injection.
Irrigation scheduling*.
*Irrigation scheduling is not a distinct maintenance practice, and therefore it is not discussed in this book.
However, the application of an orderly irrigation plan is of utmost importance to the prevention of clogging of
the drippers.

Corrective maintenance consists mainly of removal of obstructions already present in the drippers:

Flushing the system.

And one or more of the following practices according to the nature of the obstruction:
Organic formation - treated with hydrogen peroxide.
Mineral sedimentation - treated with acids (or a combination of acid and hydrogen peroxide).
Organic formation and mineral sedimentation - treated with a combination of acid and hydrogen peroxide.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 68

Maintenance timetable

When operating a new system for the first time

Flush the piping - main line, sub-mains and distribution pipes.

Flush the driplines.
Check actual flow rate and working pressure for each irrigation shift
(when the system is active for at least half an hour).
Compare the data collected to the data supplied with the system (planned).
The tolerance should not be greater than ±5%.
Write down the newly acquired data and keep it as benchmark for future reference.
If the flow rate and/or the working pressure at any point in the system differ by more than 5% from the
data supplied with the system, have the installer check the system for faults.

Once a week
Check actual flow rate and working pressure for each irrigation shift under regular operating conditions
(i.e., when the system is active for at least half an hour and stabilized).
Compare the data collected to the benchmark data.
Check that the water reaches the ends of all the driplines.
Check the pressure differential across the filters.
A well-planned filtration system should lose 0.2 - 0.3 bar (when the filtration system is clean).
If the pressure differential exceeds 0.8 bar (11.6 PSI), check the filter/s and their controller for faults.

Once a month

Check the pump’s flow rate and pressure at its outlet.

Flush the driplines.
(A higher or lower frequency may be required, depending on the type and quality of the water.)
If the filtration system is automatic, initiate flushing of the filter/s and check that all the components work as
planned.
If pressure-regulating valves are installed, check the pressure at the outlet of each one of them and compare
these figures with the benchmark data.

Once a growing season

In some cases the following need to be performed twice or three times in a growing season, depending on the
type and quality of the water used.

Check all the valves in the system.

Check the level of dirt in the system (carbonates, algae and salt sedimentation).
Check for occurrence of dripper clogging.
Flush the piping - main line, sub-mains and distribution pipes.
If necessary, inject hydrogen peroxide and/or acids as required.

At the end of the growing season

Inject chemicals for the maintenance and flushing of the main line, the sub-main lines, the distribution pipes
and the driplines.
Flush the driplines.
Prepare the system for the inactive period between the growing seasons.
Perform winterization of the system in regions where the temperature might drop below 0ºC (32ºF).

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 69

System flushing
Flushing the irrigation system reduces to a minimum the accumulation of pollutants, pushing them out of the
system.

Flushing of the irrigation system is comprised of 3 processes:

Filter back-flushing.
Flushing main and sub-main lines.
Flushing driplines.

Filter back-flushing

ATTENTION
For effective filtration, filters must be back-flushed whenever they become dirty.

Filters - whether disc, screen or media (see Types of filters, page 20) - should be back-flushed periodically
to clear out any collected particulate or organic matter. Clogged filters can reduce pressure to the system,
lowering the water application rate.

The filter’s performance depends on the efficiency of its flushing and cleaning. Any accumulation of non-
disposed material will eventually lead either to clogging of the filter or, in a gravel/sand filter, to the release of
the filtering material along with the filtered water during migration.

When designing a filtration system, filter flushing must be considered. Most filtration systems are designed for
either manual, semi-automatic or automatic flushing. Flush cycles for manual and semi-automatic systems
are manually activated, while flush cycles for automatic systems are activated either when a pre-set pressure
differential across the filters is exceeded, or by a pre-set operational time interval. Selection of filtration
automation depends upon cost and labor considerations.

Flowing water or well water usually requires a sand separator to remove sand before it enters the filtration
system (see Hydrocyclone Sand Separator, page 20).

Pressure differential across a filter

Every filter must cause a loss of pressure in the system while filtering. This loss of pressure is demonstrated
by the pressure differential across the filter (between the inlet and the outlet of the filter / filtration array).

NOTE
Check the filter documentation for the allowable pressure differential across the filters.

Most filters are subject to an increasingly higher pressure differential between inlet and outlet due to friction
as the filter becomes clogged. Monitor the filter pressure differential frequently, especially as water conditions
change in the course of the season.

Check the pressure differential across the filter (according to the filter documentation)
Filter Higher than the maximum Lower than the minimum
Gravel/sand Partial or total clogging of medium. Tunnels in the medium or breakage and loss of medium.
Screen Screen clogging. Screen ripping or bursts through the screen (meat grinder).
Disc Clogging of filtration grooves Leakage through discs due to solids trapped between the
discs (preventing the discs from being pressed close together
and causing gaps in the disc array).

A pressure differential that is higher or lower than the recommended range for the specific filter may lead to
debris passing through the filters and/or poor irrigation system performance.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 70

 ATTENTION
Too frequent automatic flushing occurs when the filter is not properly cleaned and the pressure differential
across the filter remains high immediately after flushing.

Visual inspection
Visually inspect the filtration unit or medium and all other filter components and accessories for mechanical
integrity.

Automatic flushing
Check the frequency of automatic flushing

Flushing frequency is too high Flushing frequency is too low Automatic flushing is not triggered
The filtration unit or medium The filtration unit or medium is Faults in automation or sensor.
remains clogged after flushing. breached or leaking. Mechanical failure.
The pressure range is Faults in automation or sensor.
incorrectly set in the controller. Mechanical failure.
Faults in automation or sensor.

Once a month
If the filtration system is automatic, initiate flushing of the filter/s and check that all the components work as
planned.

Gravel/sand filter
Check the water at the filter’s drainage exit by touch to detect loss of gravel/sand medium.

Filter flushing techniques

Many filter systems are automated and will self-clean via an electric or hydraulic 3-way back-flush valve when a
pre-set filter differential is reached. For this procedure, the water flow is reversed for a short time to carry away
debris through a back-flush line.

ATTENTION
To prevent loss of nutrients, if a filter is installed downstream from a dosing unit, set the controller to pause
Nutrigation™ or chemigation during filter back-flushing. Always give priority to filter back-flushing. Do not
perform Nutrigation™ or chemigation during filter back-flushing.

Each type of filter has a different flushing mechanism

The typical flushing mechanism of each type of filter is described below.
However, for flushing a specific filter, always refer to its user manual.

Screen filter Drainage

Flushing is performed during the filter’s outlet
Flushing Filtration
current operation. axis screen Automatic valve
The automatic valve opens the drainage Motor
outlet, which creates suction in the
flushing axis.

The motor rotates the flushing axis and

moves it back and forth, drawing the
dirt from the entire inside surface of the
filtration screen.
Filter inlet Filter outlet
To the irrigation line

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 71

Disc filter
During current operation, the piston at the Current Piston
top of all the filters in the array holds the operation
discs pressed close together.

All the automatic inlet valves are open and

the drainage valves are close. Discs

Water flows through the discs into the

irrigation line.

Inlet valves
Drainage
outlet Drainage valves

Filter inlet
Filter
outlet

During the flushing operation, the piston Filter

flushing Piston
at the top of one of the filters in the array
spreads the discs to allow the water flowing
between them to pick up the dirt from the
grooves in the discs.
Discs
The automatic inlet valve is close and the
drainage valve is open.

The opened drainage outlet creates a

pressure differential across the filter, allowing
water to flow into the filter through its outlet
and out of the drainage outlet, back-flushing
the filter discs.

Filters in an array are flushed in sequence.

Drainage Inlet valves
outlet Drainage valves

Filter inlet
Filter
outlet

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 72

Gravel/sand filter
During current operation, the automatic 3-way valves close the filter’s drainage outlets.
Water flows through the gravel/sand medium into the irrigation line.

When filter flushing is performed, the automatic 3-way valve of one of the filters opens the drainage outlet while
blocking the water inlet to the filter.
The opened drainage outlet creates a pressure differential across the filter, allowing water to flow into the filter
through its outlet and out of the drainage outlet, back-flushing the filter’s gravel/sand medium.
Filters in an array are flushed in sequence.

Current operation Filter flushing

Drainage Drainage Drainage Drainage

outlet outlet outlet outlet
3-way valves 3-way valves

gravel/sand gravel/sand gravel/sand gravel/sand

To the To the
Filter outlet Filter outlet
irrigation irrigation
line line

Hydrocyclone sand separator

To flush the sand accumulated in the sand compartment at the bottom of the
hydrocyclone sand separator, open the valve at the drainage outlet of the filter.

Drainage
outlet
Valve

Sand compartment

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 73

Periodic filter maintenance

CAUTION
Before starting filter maintenance, make sure the system is not under pressure.

Gravel/sand filter
Periodic inspection of the medium in gravel/sand filters is an essential maintenance task that is frequently
neglected. Gravel/sand should not be caking and cracking and should be adequately cleaned during the
automatic back-flush cycles.

The filter might lose some gravel/sand during the back-flush cycles, so even if the filter is in proper working
order, it may require additional gravel/sand from time to time.

During inspection examine the gravel/sand by touch. The gravel/sand grains should be sharp edged, not
rounded smooth like beach sand. The sharp edges promote better filtration but backwash cycles will wear the
gravel/sand smooth over time. If this has occurred, replace the gravel/sand. The rounding of gravel/sand edges
may take a number of years, but it will eventually happen.

Screen filter
Take the screen out of the filter casing and clean it with pressurized water and brushes.
Visually inspect the screen for breaches and cracks and replace the screen if damaged.

Disc filter
Open the filter’s casing and release the piston holding the discs pressed close together.
Take the discs out of the filter casing.
Thread the discs on an acid-resistant rope and tie the ends of the rope to form a loop. Do not thread too
many discs on one loop; it is important that the cleaning solution reaches all the disc surfaces.
Soak the discs in this solution,* making sure the discs are loose and have good contact on both sides
with the solution. Do not put too many discs in at one time.
If the disc remains dirty repeat the last step.

*solution for surface water with organic and biological residue:

Make a 10% peroxide solution. Pour 7 liters (1.8 gallons) of water into a container and add 3 liters (0.8 gallons)
of hydrogen peroxide (35%) or pour 8 liters (2.1 gallons) of water into the container and add 2
liters (0.53 gallons) of hydrogen peroxide (50%) to the water.

*solution for well water with manganese, iron or carbonate deposits:

Make a 10% hydrochloric acid solution. Pour 7 liters (1.8 gallons) of water into a container and add 3
liters (0.8 gallons) hydrochloric acid (30-35%) to the water.

Stir the discs in the solution a few times. Total soaking time should be 1 to 3 hours.
If the solution is no longer cleaning the discs, replace it with a new mixture.
Visually inspect the discs for cleanliness and for dents and cracks and replace any damaged discs.
Rinse the discs with clean water.
Put the discs back in the filter. Make sure to put back the same number of discs that have been taken out.
Tighten the piston holding the discs pressed close together and close the filter casing.
Flush the filter a few times to remove all chemicals.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 74

Flushing the main, sub-main and distribution lines

Flushing the main, sub-main and distribution lines is an important operation that often doesn’t get the attention
it requires. Even with a primary filter at the head control station, small particles can get by and should be
physically removed from the piping system.

Flushing the main, sub-main and distribution lines will considerably reduce the accumulation of organic and mineral
materials in the system. This will prevent those materials from reaching the drippers and eventually clogging them,
thus minimizing the quantity of chemical products required to maintain the system. Regular flushing of the main,
sub-main and distribution lines will result in a significant saving of labor time and chemicals.

The main, sub-main and distribution lines in the system should be flushed in sequence.
Each one of them should be flushed for at least two minutes or until the flushed water runs clear.

ATTENTION
The pipes must be flushed at regular intervals. The frequency depends mainly on the water quality and the
maintenance program (minimum: once a growing season).

Flushing is effective only when the flow rate within the main, sub-main or distribution line is sufficient to allow
for proper flushing velocities in the system.

Manual flushing of main, sub-main and distribution lines

Flushing may be automatic or manual.

Manual flushing of main, sub-main and distribution lines should be carried out as follows:

Flush the pipes in this order: main line, sub-main lines, distribution lines.
Open the flushing valves of each one of them in turn while under pressure.

The process of flushing the main, sub-main and distribution lines consists of two waves for each:
The first wave removes contaminants collected at the end of the pipe.
The second wave removes contaminants from the pipe.
The color of the water is not as dark as in the first wave, but the process takes more time.
Flushing must be continued until the water is visually clean.

Obtain the velocity of the water flowing in the pipes

The velocity of the water in a pipe depends on the flow rate and the internal diameter of the pipe.

Identify the diameter of each pipe section to be flushed separately using the table below, presenting the
most common diameters of pipes used for main, sub-main and distribution lines:

Nominal pipe diameter - Inch (mm) 3 (75) 4 (110) 6 (160) 8 (225) 10 (250)
Actual internal pipe diameter - mm 67.8 101.6 147.6 207.8 230.8

*The table represents the inside diameters (ID) in pipes of one specific standard among many.

Check the flow rate in each pipe section to be flushed separately with the closest water meter installed
upstream from it.
Knowing the diameter of the pipe and the flow rate, use the graph below to derive the velocity for each
pipe section to be flushed. The recommended flushing velocity is 1.5 m/sec (5 ft/sec). The allowable
velocity range for flushing is 1.0-2.0 m/sec (3.3-6.6 ft/sec).

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 75

 Velocities in pipes of various diameters at various flow rates*

340 10"
320
300
280
8"
260
240
220
Flow rate (Q) m3/h

200
180
160
140
6"
120
100
80
60 4"
40
20 3"
0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Velocity (V) m/sec

* The graph represents the velocities in pipes of one specific standard among many.
If the pipe used in the system’s main, sub-main or distribution lines does not appear in the above table and
graph, call your local Netafim™ representative.

Flushing the driplines

Driplines in both surface and SDI systems require periodic flushing to purge them of settled debris, organic or
mineral, and of any residues of chemicals injected into the system.

In SDI systems, dripline flushing must be given high priority since frequent dripline replacement is impractical
and driplines are expected to last up to 20 years or even longer. Even for short-term dripline use, flushing is
important to maintain irrigation uniformity.

Flushing should be performed as often as needed to keep the driplines clean; this depends on seasonal water
quality and the effectiveness of the system filter.

All the driplines in a plot should be flushed in sequence in a single flushing event.

Driplines should be flushed until the flushed water runs clear.

Flushed water should be disposed of properly to avoid deteriorating the system’s inlet water quality and/or the
quality of the environment surrounding the site.

CAUTION
Flushing will temporarily increase the flow requirements of the system, which in turn will decrease the
system pressure. In some cases, in order to supply the flow rate required for flushing, an additional pump
at the head of the system is used. The additional pump will be activated only during flushing to add the
missing flow rate.

The length of driplines affects the required flushing duration. Longer driplines need longer flushing durations.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 76

Visual inspection of water quality
As often as each irrigation, the ends of driplines should be opened and the contents emptied into a jar for visual
inspection of water quality. System maintenance should be performed as soon as water quality begins to
degrade, as shown by color, grit, organic or any solid materials in the flush water.

Verification of the flow velocity in the dripline during flushing

Place the open end of the dripline over a 1.5-liter bottle, using a funnel. Verify that
all the water enters the bottle. Measure the time (in seconds) it takes to fill the bottle, and use
the following table in order to make sure that the velocity is at least 0.5 m/sec (1.65 ft/sec).

Dripline ID (mm) 11.8 14.2 16.2 17.5 20.8 22.2 25.0

Quantity of water per 1 meter of dripline
length (liters) 0.109 0.158 0.206 0.241 0.340 0.387 0.491

Maximum time for filling of bottle

(seconds) for a velocity of at least 0.5 m/ 27.4 18.9 14.6 12.5 8.8 7.8 6.1 1.5 L
sec (1.65 ft/sec)

The dripline flushing process consists of two waves:

The first wave removes contaminants collected at the end of the dripline.
The second wave removes contaminants from the dripline.
The color of the water is not as dark as in the first wave, but the process takes more time.
Flushing must be continued until the water is visually clean

Netafim™ driplines - maximum flushing pressure:

For dripperline characteristics see tables on page 39.

NOTE
The maximum allowed flushing pressures in the tables on the previous page are valid when flushing for a
maximum of half an hour consecutively, with the end of 5 or more driplines kept open.
To avoid exceeding the allowable pressure in the system, a minimum of 5 driplines should be open at any
time during flushing.

Preparation and use of a hydraulic conditions checklist

Keeping track of the system’s hydraulic conditions - flow rate and pressure, is of utmost importance for the
detection of malfunction, clogging and leaks in the system.
Prepare a hydraulic conditions checklist (in the form of a table) representing the flow rate and pressure at the
head of the system and at the head of each plot.

Fill in the table’s first row with the system’s planned data received from Netafim™.

Fill in the table’s second row with the benchmark data recorded at the time of initial operation of the system
(record the data after the system’s flow rate and pressure are stabilized).

The benchmark data should not deviate from the planned data by more than ±5%.

If a deviation greater than ±5% is recorded at any point in the system, call your local Netafim™ representative.

Fill in the following rows with the actual data recorded each time the system is checked during regular
operation according to the maintenance timetable see page 69.
If a deviation greater than ±5% is recorded at any point in the system, troubleshoot the problem and record the
hydraulic conditions again after troubleshooting.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 77

If, at any point in the system, hydraulic conditions within ±5% deviation of the benchmark data cannot be
restored, call your local Netafim™ representative.

The hydraulic conditions checklist should be filled in regularly and kept for future reference.

Chemical injection for system maintenance

The injection of different treatments may prevent, eliminate, dissolve or solve occurrences of clogging.
The following flow chart is a guide for determining the order in which to perform chemical injection:
1. Begin by recording the system’s flow rate at operating level.
2. Calculate the dose to be injected, based on the recommendations in Netafim™ Maintenance Handbook.
3. Perform a test injection, in order to verify and/or rectify the correct functioning and the respective flow rate
of the injection system.
4. Flush the system according to the instructions in the section System flushing, page 70.
5. Inject the chemical calculated in step 2 above, depending on the specific treatment.
6. Flush the system, taking into account the advancement times.

Removal of chemical residues from the system

Upon completing the injection of products (fertilizers, disinfectants, oxidants, herbicides, etc.) continue irrigating
only with water for as long as necessary to remove all residue of these products from the system.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) treatment

Hydrogen peroxide is used for disinfecting and oxidizing the irrigation water, for cleaning screen, disc and
gravel/sand filters, and as an oxidizing agent for fruits and vegetables prior to storage.

Hydrogen peroxide is a strong oxidizing agent. It releases oxygen atoms that react quickly, oxidizing
organic matter (also suitable for oxidizing iron and manganese). It decomposes in an exothermic reaction
(a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of heat) into water and gaseous oxygen.

WARNING
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is toxic and dangerous for humans.
Before using hydrogen peroxide, read all the instructions for hydrogen peroxide treatments, the local legal
regulations and the manufacturer’s instructions.

Advantages of hydrogen peroxide

Environment friendly
Does not contaminate the soil, is biodegradable, does not harm the aquifer, does not generate dangerous
by-products and indirectly makes more oxygen available for the soil and the plants.

Quick oxidation reaction

Consumed immediately upon contact with the irrigation water. Suitable for quick oxidation and disinfection of
the water source (also in close proximity to filters).

Hydrogen peroxide is commonly used in greenhouses, net houses and tunnels, or on substrates, where the
irrigation systems traverse only short distances.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 78

 WARNING
Never perform chemical treatment(s) while plants are actively growing in an artificial growing medium or
limited root zone.

The required concentration of hydrogen peroxide at the system inlet depends on the water quality (oxidation
potential and the reduction and concentration of organic matter in the water). In general, between 1 and 10
PPM (parts per million) of hydrogen peroxide (active agent) are required.

Uses of hydrogen peroxide

Prevent the accumulation of bacterial slime in the sub-main pipes and driplines.
Clean irrigation systems of accumulated organic deposits and bacterial slime.
Oxidize micro-elements (such as iron and sulfur) and trace elements (such as manganese), and prevent
bacterial propagation.
Improve the main and secondary filtration under high organic load conditions.
Disinfect and treat irrigation water, waste water, sewage, drinking water and swimming pools.
Prevent and eliminate water odors and interference with biological activity.
Reduce BOD/COD values by oxidizing organic and inorganic polluting materials.

See instructions and calculation for hydrogen peroxide injection in Netafim™ Maintenance Handbook.

Water analysis
Analyze the water used in the irrigation system and determine its quality.

The water quality refers to the concentration of chemical substances dissolved and suspended in the water, as
well as the physical and biological properties of the water.

A water analysis is necessary in order to select an appropriate type of filtration system, to prescribe a suitable
maintenance program, to select the type of driplines and to prescribe an appropriate Nutrigation™ plan.

For agriculture, water quality is defined according to the following criteria:

Agronomic water quality - the extent to which it is compatible with the type of soil and with the crop.
Water quality for irrigation - the extent to which it induces clogging of the irrigation system.

The source of water may be: potable water, waste water, residual water, wells, reservoirs, canals or drainage
water. Each one requires different levels of treatment before being used.

It is recommended to analyze the irrigation water at least once a growing season and, if needed, in the course of
the growing season, considering meteorological and environmental factors that potentially influence the water
quality. Consult Netafim’s Agronomy Division (especially recommended for new projects).

Water quality is not controllable; it varies with time for a variety of reasons. This means that different treatments
are required at different times in order to ensure that water quality is suitable for the irrigation system.

Therefore, it is recommended to analyze the water occasionally in order to constantly adjust the treatment.

Other factors that affect the water quality and must be taken into account are the fertilizers and chemical
products used in the same system for various treatments.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 79

Taking water samples:

1. Before taking a water sample, flush a clean one-liter bottle, using water from the source to be sampled.

2. Fill the bottle so that no air at all remains inside the bottle (if possible, squeeze the bottle to expel any
remaining air).

3. Close the cap firmly and store the sample in a clean place in the shade.

4. Send the sample to a local authorized laboratory as soon as possible after taking the sample.

5. Write the following data on the sample bottle:

Grower’s name.
Location.
Water source.
Date sample was taken.
6. Request an analysis of all the following parameters:

EC (electrical conductivity) Cl (chloride) TSS (total suspended solids)

pH (level of acidity or alkalinity) SO4 (sulfate) TDS (total dissolved solids)
Ca (calcium - hardness of the water) PO4 (phosphate) Turbidity
Mg (magnesium) N-NH4 (nitrogen-ammonium) Algae and Chlorophyll
Na (sodium) N-NO3 (nitrogen-nitrate) Zooplankton
K (potassium) B (boron) BOD (biochemical oxygen demand*)
HCO3 (bicarbonate) Fe (iron) COD (chemical oxygen demand*)
CO3 (carbonate) Mn (manganese) VSS (volatile suspended solids)
Alk (alkalinity)

*When waste, industrial effluent and/or recycled waters are used.

All the above parameters are essential for a correct analysis.

In some cases, additional parameters will be needed in order to complete the correct interpretation of the water
quality, for example: dissolved oxygen, redox, etc.

If in doubt, consult the Netafim™ laboratory regarding water quality.

7. Taking a sample from the end of a dripline:

Wait until the pressure has stabilized.

Open the end of the dripline and let water flow for 2-3 minutes before taking the sample.

8. Taking a sample from the head control outlet:

To estimate the filtration efficiency, the sample should be taken downstream from the head control outlet,
after the system has been working for at least one hour.

NOTE
Take the samples downstream from the pump, but as close to it as possible.

If the field to be irrigated is located more than 1 km away from the pump, take another sample of water at the
head of the plot.
In new irrigation projects, water samples should be taken as close as possible to the planned suction point.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 80

Sampling drippers
In order to verify the performance of the drippers, sampling of the driplines should be performed.

To sample the driplines, perform the following steps:

Cut a 20 cm dripline sample from the 4th and 5th driplines at the beginning and at the end of the dripline.
The driplines to be sampled are those located in the 4th and 5th places at the beginning and the end of the plot.
Each sample must be comprised of: the dripper and at least 10 cm of the tube on either side of the dripper.
Wrap the 16 samples firmly with wet paper and put them in a plastic bag.
Send the samples to Netafim™ for analysis.
Repair the driplines in the field.
When the area is composed of several plots, take the samples from one representative plot.

Distribution line
Water from the source

4 4
5 5
4 20 cm

Drippers

5 20 cm

5 5
4 4

4 5 Driplines 5 4

If a different sampling procedure is used, it is very important to describe the process used, and attach this
description to the samples.

NOTE
These instructions are suitable both for integral drippers and for on line drippers. When taking samples of
on line drippers, they should be sent together with a pipe sample of at least 20 cm, in the same way as done
for integral drippers.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Drip irrigation system maintenance 81

PEST CONTROL

Rodent control......................................................................................................................... 83

Insect control........................................................................................................................... 87

Root intrusion prevention in sub surface drip irrigation (SDI) systems....................... 88

Contamination from external particles in SDI................................................................... 88

Periods of system inactivity.................................................................................................. 89

 Pest control
Rodent control
Unmanaged populations of rodents in agricultural fields can cause significant damage and loss of productivity
in a wide range of crops.

A wide variety of rodents may inhabit agricultural lands, including:

Voles Mice Rats Ground squirrels Gophers

Small rodents such as mice and voles damage young and older trees alike in nurseries and orchards by girdling
the tender saplings and branches. Studies in New York have shown up to a 66% reduction in apple yields as a
result of girdling by an overpopulation of voles.
In field crops, these small mammals love to unearth and devour newly planted seeds and snack on the young
seedlings that survive.

Larger rodents such as pocket gophers damage field crops by eating the root system out from under the plant.

Rodents can also cause damage to farm equipment and infrastructure. They may gnaw on small-diameter
cables and irrigation pipes.
The mounds created by larger rodents can damage or disrupt harvesting equipment, while the tunnels can
cause leaks in irrigation channels and even small earthen dams.

In general, rodents responsible for the majority of damage to agricultural crops and systems live underground
for at least part of their lives. A physiological feature of rodents is that their teeth grow continuously. As a result,
these animals must chew to wear down their teeth so that they fit in their mouth; otherwise the animal will
starve. Both the feeding and the need to gnaw cause damage to crops and equipment.

There is no single, simple method for managing rodent overpopulation on agricultural lands. Control of these
potential pests requires a well-designed plan that is executed on a consistent basis.

The formation of a systematic plan for managing rodents in subsurface drip irrigated fields requires research
into the predominant species in the region and formulation of rules regulating how these populations may be
managed. The aim of this chapter is to outline the components of a well-designed rodent control plan, and to
help growers formulate such a plan.

Rodent management plan

Management of rodent populations on agricultural land generally falls into the following categories:
Habitat modification and exclusion to reduce population pressure.
Trapping and removal.
Use of repellants to deter invasion.
Use of repellants to deter gnawing.
Extermination.
Each category is discussed with respect to protecting crops and equipment.

Habitat modification to reduce rodent pressures

Existing rodent pressures either from surrounding fields or within a newly planted field are the first source of
conflict between rodents, crop, and equipment.

A cultivated zone surrounded by unkempt ground or by open fields infested with rodents represents a
continuous battle. Thus, the first step in an integrated rodent management program is to reduce the pressure of
high rodent populations in the entire area.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 83

First take a visual count of rodent presence in the surrounding fields. Large rodents such as pocket gophers
will leave tell-tale mounds. Smaller animals such as mice and voles will not be as obvious. The presence of
“runways” in grassy areas is one sign of small rodent activity.

Assessing the rodent population in the general area will provide an indication of the intensity of the
management required to protect the crop and the irrigation system.

After assessing the situation, establish a buffer zone around the field. Elimination of weeds, ground cover and
litter around the field will reduce habitat suitability. Cultivating this area is a good deterrent for small rodents as
it destroys runways and may eliminate them outright.
Larger animals such as pocket gophers can burrow under this area, but the lack of food may slow them down.

If cultivation is not an option, weed control is still imperative especially for pocket gopher management. Weeds
often have large tap roots which are the preferred food for gophers, while fibrous rooted grasses are less
appealing. The opposite is true for smaller rodents, which enjoy the cover that grasses provide. Thus, in fields of
corn, which has a fibrous root structure, the main rodent pressure may be mice and other small rodents.

Trapping and removal

Trapping can be an effective method to reduce the population of large rodents such as pocket gophers in small
to medium-sized fields (< 20 hectares).

Trapping is also effective to clean up remaining animals after a poison control program. In the case of
smaller rodents such as mice, trapping is not usually cost effective because these animals have such rapid
reproduction rates.

Body-gripping traps work exceptionally well for capturing pocket gophers.

Traps can be set in the main tunnel or in a dripline, preferably near the freshest mound. Consult a specific
pocket gopher control guide for details on how and where to set these traps.

Gophers usually visit traps within a few hours of setting, so newly placed traps should be checked twice daily. If
a trap has not been visited within 48 hours, move it to a new location.

Trapping is usually most effective in the spring and fall, when the gophers are actively building mounds.

Repellants
Rodent repellants can be divided into two large categories, those that affect the population at large and those
that repel the rodent from gnawing on cables or small-diameter tubing such as a dripline.

Two repellants that have proven effective in reducing rodent populations over a large area are owl boxes and
wet soil.

Owl boxes are being employed in greater numbers as part of rodent management programs. The principle is
simple: the higher the owl population, the fewer the rodents. The application of owl boxes to deter rodents is
becoming more prevalent. This technique works especially well for small-bodied rodents such as mice but also
affects larger rodents because owls prey on the young. Consult the local extermination service for the design
and placement of owl boxes appropriate for the area.

Wet soil, but not flooded, can be an effective deterrent for rodents that spend much of their time in tunnels. The
repellant effect of wet soil seems to be the result of poor oxygen transfer through it. Rodents that live in tunnels
depend upon the air traveling through the soil for oxygen. In wet soils, the rate of oxygen diffusion is greatly
reduced and produces an environment that is inhospitable to the rodents.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 84

Flooding the soil to drown the rodents is not as effective. The rodents are mobile enough to avoid drowning, and
most have tunnels designed to avoid the wettest areas in the field in the case of heavy rains.
The soil need not be saturated to affect the population. In practice, the use of soil wetness to repel rodents is
limited because many crops require soil drying before harvest and because the irrigation system is turned off
for a period of time.

Other general repellants are less effective in rodent management over a large area.
Sound or ultrasound generators have not been proven effective in driving out rodents.
Taste repellants such as capsicum may affect some rodents such as voles, but have less effect on pocket
gophers.
Targeted repellants applied on or around the object to be protected, such as a sapling, cable or dripline, may be
effective when combined with a plan to reduce overall populations.

Proper dripline installation practices can reduce rodent damage, particularly by mice. When inserting thin-walled
driplines in deep installations, the insertion shank can leave cracks in the soil and a path down to the dripline
that mice love to follow, chewing as they go. Best installation practices dictate that these installation cracks in
the soil be sealed by running a tractor tire over cracks created by the plow. This will close the opening in the soil
and cut off easy access by mice or voles to the loose soil around the dripline.

Preventive installation procedures

The following installation procedures can significantly reduce potential rodent damage to subsurface driplines.
It is highly recommended that all these procedures be followed:
Prepare a buffer zone around the field and apply rodenticides according to a plan drawn up with the local
extension agent if rodent pressures are high.
Have the field as free of crop residue as possible. Field mice are especially fond of plant residues.
Insert driplines as deep as practical for the crop being grown. Driplines inserted at depths greater than 30 cm
exhibit less rodent damage.
Apply a repellant or toxicant when inserting the dripline.
Seal the slit made by the shank by using front tractor tires to reduce ready-made paths for small rodents.
The front tires should be narrow, single-ribbed, cultivating tires and the front of the tractor must be weighted.
This operation must be completed on the same day as the dripline insertion.
Operate the irrigation system for 12 hours per zone within two weeks of completing the installation.
Do not reach a situation where the driplines are inserted in the fall and the first irrigation is performed in the
spring.

Rodents, especially pocket gophers, are often most active in the fall and early spring. It is often at these times,
when the irrigation system is not being used, that the most damage occurs. Experience has shown that rodent
damage when the system is shut down can be reduced by properly applying an acid treatment. As acidification
of the dripline is standard practice for end-of-season cleaning, a slight modification of this process may also
help to protect driplines from rodent damage.

Follow these guidelines:

Flush each zone at the recommended pressure.
If the field is dry, pre-irrigate each zone for 6 hours.
Inject N-pHuric* at 200 ppm for 1 hour before shutting down each zone.
Shut down zones leaving N-pHuric in the lines.

*N-pHURIC combines the benefits of both urea and sulfuric acid while virtually eliminating the undesirable
characteristics of using sulfuric acid alone.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 85

Chemigating with a properly labeled pesticide that has a strong odor or fumigation effect will cause many
rodents to keep away from subsurface driplines.
This may be an effective technique for early season deterrence.
Make sure the pesticide is properly labeled for use in the area.

Extermination
Several rodenticides, including toxicants and anticoagulants, are in current use for managing rodent
populations.

CAUTION
Consult the local authority for approved rodenticides - toxicants and anticoagulants - in the country/area
and always follow the application directions.

In general, placing approved baits around the perimeter of the field prior to irrigation system installation will
reduce rodent pressures on a new field.

For pocket gophers, a mechanical “burrow builder” that releases bait is effective in perimeter applications.
Hand baiting tunnels is time consuming but effective if done by a trained applicator.
The usual treatment for gophers is bait plowed in every other furrow and around the perimeter of the field.
Fumigants applied in the tunnels are usually not as effective as toxicants and trapping because they tend to
diffuse, giving the gopher enough time to escape.

Rodent management action plan

An integrated approach must be taken to reduce rodent damage to crops and equipment. This plan must
involve reducing acceptable habitats for rodents close to the field and may involve trapping or poisoning to
control active populations. In addition, the dripline itself can be protected by using the repellant effect of some
pesticides and slightly acidifying the soil around the driplines.

Fall and spring are the seasons when rodents are most active and may cause the most damage. Therefore,
any management program must focus on these seasons. Do not underestimate the wealth of reference
materials and the help of local extension agents and pest control specialists. Many growers have implemented
successful plans for rodent management on their fields, protecting the investment in their irrigation system and
improving yields.

To be effective, any rodent control plan must be diligent and consistent in a timeframe determined by the extent
of the rodent pressure in the surrounding area.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 86

Insect control

WARNING AND DISCLAIMER

1. Read the label - Always observe the pesticide manufacturer's registration label and
Instructions and be aware of the regulations issued by the relevant local regulatory authority. Use the
pesticide only as permitted under its label. The use of the pesticide is under your sole resonsability.

2. Netafim™ shall not be liable for any damage or loss cuased to you or to any third party resulting from the
use of a pestecide or any other substance streamed via the drip system.

3. In no event shall Netafim™ be liable to supplier or to any other person or entity under any equity, common
law, tort, contract, estoppel, negligence, strict liability, or other theory, for any special, indirect, incidental,
punitive, consequential or contingent damages, or any damages resulting from loss of sale, business,
profits, data, opportunity or goodwill, even if netafim has been advised or knew or should have known of
the possibility of such damages.

4. You shall defend, indemnify and hold harmless Netafim™ (and its officers, directors agents, representatives
and affiliates) from and against any and all claims, suits, losses, penalties, damages (whether actual,
punitive, consequential or otherwise) and associated costs and expenses (including attorney's fees,
expert's fees, and costs of investigation) and all liabilities that are caused in whole or in part byany actual
or alleged infringement of any pesticide manufacturers or distributor label or of any law, regulation or
registration.

Most pesticides are comprised of an active substance and an emulsifier. They are usually marketed in the
form of powder, grains, or liquid.
Pesticides in the form of powder or grains are banned for use through drip irrigation systems because
they do not dissolve efficiently in the irrigation water. Their use does not allow determination of the exact
concentration of active substance in the solution, and in addition, the active substance may damage the
drippers' diaphragm and even clog the drippers.
Insect treatment products are to be applied externally, by scattering or spattering them on the ground and
insects' nests.
These products are to be applied only if approved for the use described in this manual, as approved and only
in the concentration indicated by the producer.
There are several active substances that are suitable for insect treatment: Diazinon, Chlorpiryfos, Fipronil,
Buprofezin, Cypermethrin, Imidacloprid (against termites), etc.
If products in emulsion liquid form, such as the Chlorpiryfos and Buprofezin, are to be used through a drip
irrigation system, the product must be injected at a maximum concentration of 0.1% to prevent damage to
PC dripper diaphragms and other accessories of the system.
The manner of application and the product quantity will be as recommended by the manufacturer, and the
mother-solution should be applied as to allow a concentration of no more than 0.1% of the active substance
in the irrigation water.
In PC systems, in case the manufacturer recommends concentration of less than 0.1% , follow the
manufacture recommendation, however, in case the manufacturer recommends more than 0.1%
concentration, do not exceed 0.1% as this might be harmful for the membranes in PC driplines.
It is necessary to continue irrigating with plain irrigation water for the time necessary to flush the entire
quantity of the injected product out of the irrigation system and ensure it exited from the lines/pipes (this
depends on the system size).
In CNL systems, open the end of the driplines for flushing the system after completing the plain water
irrigation cycle..

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 87

Root intrusion prevention in sub surface drip irrigation (SDI) systems
Plant roots can penetrate the drippers, causing a reduction in the flow rate and possibly an obstruction. This is
known as root intrusion.

The intrusion of roots may occur when the plant suffers water stress and the roots are searching for moisture.

Maintaining proper humidity in the surroundings by means of adequate irrigation planning allows the roots
to spread and use the entire available moistened soil volume, instead of concentrating around the dripper.
Continuous soil humidity monitoring allows better control over the moistening pattern, thus maintaining optimal
soil humidity within the dripper’s surroundings.

Water stress may be:

Planned at the farmer’s discretion.
Caused by a lack of water or a faulty water supply.
Due to an unforeseen increase in water consumption by the crop (example: a few consecutive days of
unexpected exceptionally high temperatures, without proper irrigation to compensate for the higher
water consumption during those days).

Chemigation for the prevention of root intrusion

Injection of herbicides is useful for the prevention of root intrusion. There are a number of commercial products
available for this purpose.

CAUTION
Consult the local authority for approved herbicides in the country/area and always follow the application
directions.

For detailed instructions for the implementation of effective root intrusion prevention, see the Netafim™
Maintenace Handbook.

Contamination from external particles in SDI

In rainy periods, when the soil becomes oversaturated due to rain and the sub surface driplines are empty,
water may flow in the opposite direction, from the soil to the drippers’ outlet, bringing soil particles with it. Under
these circumstances, the dripline act as draining tubes. The small particles of soil that are carried towards the
drippers may, if they are allowed to dry, eventually clog them.

Introducing a short irrigation cycle soon after the rain ends will help flush the small particles from the drippers
and prevent clogging.

When there is a very intense and long rainy period, it is recommended to flush the driplines prior to the
beginning of the next irrigation season.

If these conditions are foreseen, using anti-siphon (AS) drippers is recommended.

In drip irrigation systems not equipped with anti-siphon drippers, activating the system for a period of 10
minutes (after pressurizing) is recommended, in order to flush out the accumulated dirt particles.

For further information, see the Netafim™ Maintenace Handbook.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 88

Periods of system inactivity

Winterization of the system

Winterizing the system is necessary in climates where water may freeze and expand, possibly damaging plastic
and metal system components.

Water from filters, valves, chemigation equipment, pressure regulators and sub surface pipes should be
emptied, especially at lower ends of the field where water typically accumulates.

Polyethylene driplines are not subject to damage from freezing since drippers provide drainage points and
polyethylene is somewhat flexible.

Prior to a winter shut-down period:

Perform chemical injection, flushing of all pipes and driplines, and cleaning of the filters.

Empty filters, valves, chemigation equipment, pressure regulators and sub surface pipes.

TIP
Pressure regulators and sub surface pipes. can be easily and efficiently emptied using a blower or an air
compressor providing high flow rate and low pressure.
An adapter is required, consisting of the following parts:

3/4” Brauckman pressure regulator.

Galvanized conical connector 3/4”.
1/2”F - 3/4”M brass coated bushing.
10 cm galvanized 1/2” pipe.
Stainless steel band clamp.
3/4” transparent pipe (12 m).
1/4” F *1/2”M brass coated bushing.
Pressure gauge 250 GLZ 6 bar 1/4” BSP.
3/4” ball valve with long handle.
Suitable connector.

For full assembly and operation instructions consult Netafim’s irrigation products department.

System startup procedures

Startup procedures after a period of inactivity are similar to those performed after system installation.

In summary, the system should be carefully pressurized and inspected for leaks and system integrity. This
includes verifying the functionality of all system components including filters, valves, controllers, chemigation
equipment, flow meters, pressure gauges, pressure regulators and flush valves.

Once the system is operational, chemicals should be injected if necessary, and then the system should be
thoroughly flushed.

Baseline readings should then be recorded and compared with benchmark data, and adjustments
made if needed.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 89

WATER/SOIL/PLANT RELATIONSHIP

Soil............................................................................................................................................. 91

Water budgeting...................................................................................................................... 95

Tensiometers......................................................................................................................... 100

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Pest control 90

 Water/soil/plant relationship
The aim of this chapter is to provide vital information concerning the soil condition, the water availability and
the needs of the crop, and guidelines for planning and management of a drip irrigation system.

Soil
Soil characteristics influence the choice of crop and variety to be grown, and the planning of irrigation and
Nutrigation™.

Soil composition
In general, soil is composed of three components: sand,
silt and clay. The relative amount of these components
affects the soil’s texture, influencing its water
retention rate.

In most soil types the particles form

bigger units, known as aggregates. Clay
Aggregates stick together and form Clay (%) Silt (%)
clods. Between the particles,
aggregates and clods Silty
Sandy Clay
there are pores.
Clay Silty Clay
Clay Loam
Loam
Sandy Clay
Loam
Loam Silt
Sandy Loam
Loam
Loamy Silt
Sand Sand

Sand (%)
Soil texture

The distribution of pores in the soil is important. Pores are characterized by two sizes: small and big. Small
pores are known as “capillary pores”. In sandy soil the porosity is permanent and stabilized. In heavy soil the
porosity changes depending on changes in the moisture of the soil.

Water retention is affected by the soil texture and type. For example, 15% moisture volume in a light soil will
be adequate for crops to flourish, whereas the same percentage in a medium soil would be borderline and in a
heavy soil it would not sufficient for plant survival.

The water is trapped in the pores and accumulates as a thin liquid layer around the soil particles. When the soil
dries out as a result of percolation, evaporation and root uptake, the water is first extracted from the large pores,
while still clinging to the small ones. When the plant needs water, it draws it from the pores starting with the
larger ones first.

The mechanism of water retention around soil particles is based on the retention on the surface area of these
particles. Sand, silt and clay particles build up and form aggregates, known as the soil structure.
Well-structured soils have more pores and retain more water than compact soils.

Silty soils have high water retention rates (they consist of very small particles and display a large surface area).
Light soils have low retention rates (they consist of larger particles and display a smaller surface area).

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 91

Soil texture affects irrigation scheduling in two important ways:

It determines how quickly the soil accepts water, and it should be known prior to design of a drip irrigation
system since it influences dripper flow rate and spacing.
It determines how much water the root zone water reservoir holds, and how much of that water is available to
the plant.

Soil water content

The relationship between water/soil/plant is important to understand. The following three states have an
enormous impact on the crop.

Saturation
Occurs when all pores in the soil are filled with water.

Field capacity
Occurs when the maximum amount of water that the field can hold is reached. As percolation proceeds, the soil
reaches the point where it does not lose any more water. This is the optimal condition for crop development, as
the water is held at a force that is easily overcome by the uptake power of the roots, and at the same time the
soil is sufficiently ventilated to enable the roots to breathe.

Wilting point
The state of the water in the soil that defines the point at which the plant no longer has the ability to
absorb water from the soil. Beyond the wilting point, the plant cannot survive and crop wilting is irreversible.

Saturation Field capacity Wilting point

Water availability
Water availability is the difference between field capacity and the wilting point. Field capacity is defined as the
state at which the field has reached the point at which the maximum amount of water can be held.
The wilting point is defined as the state at which the field contains the minimum amount of water required for a
plant to survive.

Saturated soil* 100 g 40 ml *In a saturated field, much

Field capacity 100 g 20 ml Air of the water is lost to gravity
and cannot be used for plant
Wilting coefficient 100 g 10 ml Air
growth.
Hygroscopic coefficient 100 g 8 ml Air
Solid Pore space
Solid Water

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 92

Soil salinity
The higher the concentration of salts in the soil solution, the greater the electrical current that can be
passed through it. Therefore, the electrical conductivity (EC) of the saturation extract is used as an
indicator of soil salinity.

Rates of soil classification in The decrease in crop yield varies with the level of soil salinity
terms of salinity and levels 0
considered critical to assess 10

Decrease in crop yield (%)

tolerance of cultures to excess 20
salts are based on the electrical 30
conductivity of the saturation
40
extract (ECe) at 25°C (77°F).
50
In the past, the unit used to 60
measure the EC was mmhos/cm 70
(milimohs per centimeter), 80
but today the unit used is dS/m 90
(deciSiemens per meter). 100
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
ECe (dS/m)
1dS/m = 1mmhos/c = 1 mS/cm = 100 mS/m.

High soil salinity is typical of low rainfall level.

Soil pH The influence of soil pH on nutrient availability*

The soil pH is a measure of the Range of acidity/alkalinity (pH)
acidity or basicity (alkalinity) in
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0
soils. pH is defined as the negative
logarithm (base 10) of the activity Nitrogen
of hydronium ions (H+ or, more
Phosphorus
precisely, H3O+aq) in a solution.
Potassium
In water, it normally ranges from
Sulfur
1 to 14, with 7 being neutral.
A pH below 7 is acidic and above Calcium
7 is basic. Magnesium
Iron
Soil pH is considered a master
variable in soils as it controls many Manganese
chemical processes that take place. Boron
It specifically affects plant nutrient Copper & Zinc
availability by controlling the
Molybdenum
chemical forms of the nutrient.
The optimum pH range for most *Not applicable for soilless.
plants is between 5.5 and 7.0; however many plants have adapted and thrive at pH values outside this range.

Soil requirement
A well drained, deep, loamy soil having adequate aeration (10 to 12%) with a ground water table below 1.5 to 2.0 m
from soil surface, a bulk density of 1.4 g/cm3 and an available water holding capacity of 15% (15 cm of water per
meter depth of soil) or more is considered optimal.

Chemical constraints in the soils, such as acidity and low fertility, are relatively easy to correct or control by
means of the precise nutrients and acid injection option offered by the drip irrigation system.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 93

 Although poor physical properties of soil are more difficult to ameliorate, and are widely accepted as a
limiting factor in crop growth, drip irrigation is able to counter them by means of precise control of
irrigation quantification, frequency and scheduling.

Soil analysis
A soil analysis is necessary in order to prescribe an appropriate irrigation and Nutrigation™ plan, to
determine the dripline characteristics (dripper spacing and flow rate) and the proper spacing of the
driplines in the field.

Required tools:

2 (two) 10 liters (2.5 gallons) buckets.

A hoe/shovel.
A soil drill.

Taking a soil sample:

Walking along the field’s diagonal, take soil samples every 50-100 meters, depending on the field’s size.
2 samples are to be taken at each sampling point:
at a depth of 0-30 cm (0-1 foot) and at a depth of 30-60 cm (1-2 feet).
Put all the shallow-taken samples in one bucket and all the deep-taken samples in the other.
Thoroughly mix the content of each bucket.
Take 1.5 kg (3 pounds) of the mixture from each bucket, and put these in sealed plastic bags.
Mark the 2 bags with the necessary identifying data and the depth of sampling.
Mark the required parameters to be analyzed in the accompanying document.
Send the samples to a laboratory certified by the local relevant authority.

The mandatory parameters to analyze:

Soil mechanical composition
EC and pH
NPK
Ca
Mg

Many other parameters can be analyzed at the grower’s request (consult an agronomist).

Soil survey
In new projects a soil survey is also necessary. It is important for the understanding of the soil’s water holding
capacity and of water percolation in the soil.

The soil survey consists of:

Digging pits with a backhoe in selected locations in the field, depending on the field’s size and the varying
characteristics of the soil.
The pits should be dug so that they expose the soil cross-section, revealing the various soil layers, generally
to a depth of 2 meters (7 feet) depending on the crop to be grown.
3 soil samples are taken from each pit - shallow, middle and deep. Each sample is packed separately and
identified.
The samples are sent to a certified laboratory for analysis.

For full details consult a Netafim™ expert.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 94

Water budgeting
Calculate the daily water ration to be returned to the crop by tracking daily additions and losses of water and
balancing them. The losses are due to crop water use and leach (percolation) requirements. The additions are
due to irrigation and rainfall.

The objective of water budgeting is to maintain soil moisture near the optimum level by keeping track of crop
water use and then irrigating to replace the water used. Knowledge of crop water use is essential to water
budgeting (see Calculating the Daily Water Requirement, page 54).

Crop water use is also called the evapotranspiration rate (EVT). The term evapotranspiration refers to the
combined loss of water through evaporation from the soil and from water taken up and evaporated from the
plants (transpiration). The rate at which plants use water is determined by the growth stage of the plant and the
weather. Plants generally use more water the hotter or dryer the conditions are. Wind and clouds also affect the
evaporation rate.

The water budgeting method for irrigation is relatively straightforward, but must be adjusted for crop growth
stage and environmental conditions such as rain.

To effectively plan irrigation, growers need to account for crop water use measured as evapotranspiration
(EVTc). Daily crop water requirements (EVTc) are calculated by multiplying the reference crop
evapotranspiration (EVTo) at each stage of development by the crop coefficient (Kc).
The reference evapotranspiration rate (EVTo) can be calculated from weather data or measured as
evaporation from a calibrated pan of water. Both methods give a close approximation of the environmentally
induced evaporation rate from a given area of soil. Real pan evaporators are still used in many parts of the
globe. However, in recent years the EVTo is increasingly estimated based on weather data, which includes
temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity and solar radiation using the Penman-Montieth equation, which
relates these variables to evaporation rate.

Actual crop water usage is usually not exactly the same as the reference evapotranspiration rate (EVTo). First,
plants regulate the quantity of water they require by closing or opening stomata (small pores in their leaves
used to maintain appropriate water levels in the plant). The difference between the actual peak crop water use
and the pan evaporation rate is referred to as the crop coefficient (Kc). The EVT of the crop expressed as EVTc
can be calculated from the EVTo using the following formula.

EVTc = EVTo * Kc

Calculation of the required irrigation time according to reference evapotranspiration:

EXAMPLE

The crop coefficient (Kc) is 0.8. If the EVTo, either measured by means of an evaporation pan or calculated with
the Penman-Monteith equation, is 7.5 mm/day, then the crop will be using:
EVTc = 7.5 * 0.8 = 6 mm/day

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 95

 EXAMPLE

Daily water usage of 4 crops per crop development stage over a growing season

Tasseling, silking
Corn (Maize) Kernel
and pollination
1.2 development
Crop coefficient (Kc)

1.0 and maturity

Vegetative
0.8
0.6 Germination and
0.4 establishment
0.2
0
DAS* 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Kc 0.30 0.30 0.42 0.68 0.92 1.12 1.20 1.20 1.20 1.10 0.83 0.50

Soya

Vegetative and Flowering, podding and seed fill

Crop coefficient (Kc)

1.0
flower initiation Seed fill and
0.8 maturity
0.6 Germination and
0.4 establishment
0.2
0
DAS* 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Kc 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.58 0.78 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.80 0.72 0.58 0.40

Processing tomato Flowering, fruit setting

Fruit ripening
1.2 and fruit development
Crop coefficient (Kc)

and maturity
1.0
0.8 Vegetative
0.6
0.4 Establishment
0.2
0
DAS* 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Kc 0.19 0.19 0.40 0.70 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.00 0.98 0.90 0.82

Apple (with fruits)

Spring Summer Fall
Crop coefficient (Kc)

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
DIS** 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180
Kc 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.70 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.90 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.20 0.15
*DAS = Days After Seeding **DIS = Days Into Season

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 96

Evaporation pan

An evaporation pan is used to hold water for observations aimed at determining the quantity of
evaporation at a given location. Such pans are of varying sizes and shapes, the most commonly used
being circular. The best known of the pans is the “Class A” evaporation pan. Often the evaporation pans
are automated with water level sensors and a small weather station is located nearby.

A cylinder with a diameter of 47.5 in (120.7 cm) and a depth of 10 in (25 cm). The pan rests on a carefully
leveled, wooden base and is often enclosed by a chain link fence to prevent animals drinking from it.

Evaporation is measured daily at the same time as the depth of water evaporated from the pan. The
measurement day begins with the pan filled to exactly 2 in (5 cm) from the pan top. 24 hours later, the amount
of water needed to refill the pan to exactly 5 cm (2 in) from its top is measured.

If precipitation occurs in the 24-hour period, it is taken into account in calculating the daily evaporation.

If the precipitation that occurred is greater than the pan capacity, the excess water should be emptied and the
level of water in the pan should be reset to enable measurement in the next 24 hours.

The Class A Evaporation Pan is not usable on days with rainfall events of more than the pan capacity.
Evaporation cannot be measured in a Class A pan when the pan’s water surface is frozen.

The Penman-Monteith equation

The Penman-Monteith equation (after Howard Penman and John Monteith) predicts net evapotranspiration
(EVT), requiring as input: daily mean temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and solar radiation.

The Penman-Monteith equation is increasingly common as evaporation evaluation method nowadays, also due
to the use of meteorological stations in agricultural projects.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) standard methods for modeling evapotranspiration
use the Penman-Monteith equation.

Glossary
Crop coefficient (Kc): The ratio of evapotranspiration (EVT) to reference evapotranspiration (EVTo) for a given
crop when growing in large fields under optimum growing conditions.

Pan coefficient (kp): The ratio of reference evapotranspiration (EVTo) to pan evaporation (Eo) for the
same period.

Pan evaporation (Eo): The depth of water that evaporates from an evaporation pan during a certain period
in mm/day or mm/month.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 97

The relation between pan evaporation and calculated evaporation

It is important to understand that there are differences in the values obtained by the two methods of
evaporation evaluation, and thus the crop coefficient (Kc) will vary according to the method used for
evaporation evaluation.

However, assuming the quantity of water needed by the plant on any day is the same, it is necessary to
find a ratio between the two methods in order to calculate correct quantities of water.

Namely, if the evaporation is established by the Penman–Monteith calculation method, the Irrigation Crop
coefficient (Kc) should be in accordance with the evaporation calculation method (Penman–Monteith).

The crop coefficient (Kc) obtained with the Class A pan evaporation method is different from the Kc obtained
when using the Penman-Monteith calculation method.

EXAMPLE

In order to determine the new coefficients, data of the two methods were continuously gathered from 18
meteorological stations during 5 to 10 years (2000-2009).

Generally, the evaporation values obtained with the Penman-Monteith method are lower than the values derived
with the Class A pan evaporation method, but the data behavior differs from one region to another.
Ratio of evaporation value - Class A pan evaporation / Penman-Monteith calculated evaporation (1/x) in the
same area throughout the year:

Ratio of evaporation value

Class A pan evaporation/Penman-Monteith calculated evaporation (1/x) in the same area throughout the year:

Location June July August

The values of the evaporation ratios of the two methods must
be calculated for each area separately. It is not advisable to use A 0.60 0.58 0.59
values taken in different areas because the values differ from B 0.77 0.76 0.76
one area to another and change during the year in the same area. C 0.89 0.90 0.89

Calculation:
Class A pan evaporation = EVTo pan Class A
Evaporation according to Penman-Monteith = Kc A

If the quantity of water the crop requires is the same, the following ratio is obtained:

EVTo pan Class A * Kc A = EVTo Penman-Monteith * Kc Penman-Monteith

Consequently, the following ratio may be inscribed:

EVTo PnMo Kc A
=
EVTo A KcPnMo

And according to the table above, the ratio EVToPM / EVTo A is always lower than one (1).

The following table shows that if the irrigation coefficient according to Class A pan evaporation (Kc A) and the
calculated evaporation (EVTo Penman-Monteith) are available, it is possible to use the ratio between calculated
evapotranspiration and pan evapotranspiration (EVTo PM / EVTo A) to calculate the value of the crop coefficient
(Kc) according to Penman-Monteith and to calculate the quantity of irrigation water.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 98

 EXAMPLE

Finding the crop coefficient (Kc) according to Penman-Monteith and the quantity of irrigation water
(mm/day) where the values for pan evaporation coefficient (Kc A), calculated evapotranspiration
(EVTo Penman-Monteith) and evapotranspiration ratio are given.

Atribute Description Value

June July August
Pan evapotranspiration coefficient Kc A 0.25 0.25 0.30
Calculated evapotranspiration EVTo Penman-Monteith (mm/day) 6.0 6.0 5.4
Evapotranspiration ratio EVTo Penman-Monteith / EVTo Pan Class A 0.65 0.69 0.68
Penman-Monteith Kc Penman-Monteith = Kc A / (EVTo
0.385 0.362 0.441
evapotranspiration coefficient Penman-Monteith / EVTo Pan Class A)
X mm/day = EVTo Penman-Monteith
Total irrigation water (mm/day) 2.31 2.17 2.38
X Kc Penman-Monteith

The above is just an example. There is not only one Kc value for each crop in each area, many factors can
influence this value, the specific Kc value should be based on data from a local meteorological station.

Summary
If evaporation data are used for the calculation of the irrigation water consumption of a specific crop, on a
particular day or over a certain period of time, the data-obtaining method has to be known, and the appropriate
crop coefficient (Kc) to be used is to be selected accordingly.

If ratio values between Class A pan evaporation (Kc A) and calculated evapotranspiration
(EVTo Penman-Monteith) are to be calculated, local or zonal values must be used.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 99

Tensiometers
When buried in the soil, the ceramic tip of the tensiometer allows water to move freely in or out of the tube.
As the soil dries, water is sucked out through the porous ceramic tip, creating a partial vacuum inside the
tensiometer which is read on the vacuum gauge. When the soil is wetted by sufficient rainfall or irrigation, water
flows back into the tensiometer, the vacuum decreases and the gauge reading is lowered.

NOTE
Tensiometers do not operate in dry soil because the pores in the ceramic tip drain and air is sucked in
through them, breaking the vacuum seal between the soil and the gauge on top of the tensiometer.

What do the tensiometer readings mean?

Vacuum gauges are normally calibrated in kilopascals (from 0 to -100 kPa).

Tensiometers operate successfully up to approximately -75 kPa.
A reading of 0 kPa indicates saturated soil in which plants will suffer from lack of oxygen.
Optimum plant growth occurs when the soil is kept wetter than:

-15 to -25 kPa for coarse textured soils (sands).

-20 to -30 kPa for medium-textured and heavy-textured soils.

Readings in excess of -70 kPa indicate that the soil is dry enough to reduce growth.

In most situations two sites will be needed for each major species or variety and soil type in the field or the
orchard. Avoid high or low sites, zones of poor water infiltration, and sites not representing the entirety
of the field or the orchard.

CAUTION
All tensiometers must be marked clearly to avoid damage from traffic, workers and cultivation.

Irrigation timing with tensiometers

Tensiometers placed at about the mid-point of the main fibrous root system are used to determine when to
irrigate. This is particularly important during the period when the water requirement of the tree (or crop) is
highest and yields are most sensitive to water shortage. During this period tensiometers should be read daily.
Tensiometer readings indicate how hard the plant/tree is working to extract moisture. Following irrigation the
tensiometer’s reading will be lower. Daily readings should continue to determine when
irrigation is required again.

For tensiometer description see page 43.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Water/soil/plant relationship 100

Unit conversion tables
DISTANCE
1 kilometer (km) = 0.621 mile (mi) 1 mile (mi) = 1.609 kilometers (km) = 1609.344 meters (m)
1 meter (m) = 3.281 feet (ft) 1 foot (ft) = 0.305 meter (m)
1 meter (m) = 39.370 inches (in) 1 inch (in) = 0.025 meter (m)
1 centimeter (cm) = 0.394 inch (in) 1 inch (in) = 2.54 centimeters (cm)

AREA
1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acres (ac) 1 acre (ac) = 0.4047 hectare (ha)
1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 square meters (m²) 1 square meter (m²) = 0.0001 hectare (ha)
1 acre (ac) = 4,047 square meters (m²) 1 square meter (m²) = 0.00025 acre (ac)
1 hectare (ha) = 0.004 square mile (mi²) 1 square mile (mi²) = 259 hectares (ha)
1 hectare (ha) = 15 mu 1 mu = 0.0666 hectare (ha)
1 square kilometer (km²) = 0.386 square mile (mi²) 1 square mile (mi²) = 2.59 square kilometers (km²)

1 square centimeter (cm²) = 0.155 square inch (in²) 1 square inch (in²) = 6.452 square centimeters (cm²)
1 square foot (ft²) = 0.155 square inch (in²) 1 square meter (m²) = 10.76 square foot (ft²)

FLOW
1 cubic meter per hour (m3/h) = 1 gallon (USG) per hour (gph) =
264.1721 gallons (USG) per hour (gph) 0.0038 cubic meter per hour (m3/h)
1 liter per hour (l/h) = 1 gallon (USG) per hour (gph) =
0.2641721 gallon (USG) per hour (gph) 3.785 liters per hour (l/h)

PRESSURE
1 bar = 14.50377 pounds per square inch (psi) 1 pound per square inch (psi) = 0.06894757 bar
1 bar = 100 kilopascals (kPa) 1 kilopascal (kPa) = 0.01 bar
1 PSI = 6.894757 kilopascals (kPa) 1 kilopascal (kPa) = 0.145 pound per square inch (psi)

VOLUME
1 gallon (USG) = 3.785 liters (L) 1 liter (L) = 0.264 gallon (USG)

WEIGHT
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb) 1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilogram (kg)

TEMPERATURE POWER
°Celsius °Fahrenheit 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1.341022 horse power (HP)
0 = 32 1 kilowatt (kW) = 56.91965 British thermal units per minute (BTU/min)
5 = 41 1 horse power (HP) = 0.7456999 kilowatt (kW)
10 = 50
15 = 59
20 = 68
25 = 77
30 = 86
35 = 95

FILTRATION*
Micron (μm) = size of gaps between fibers 400 250 177 125 105 100 74
Mesh = number of pores per linear inch 40 60 80 120 140 150 200

*The mesh to micron conversion is not a proper mathematical conversion but a commercial approximation.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics Unit conversion tables 101

Further reading
This appendix provides the reader with links to recommended complementary documents discussing drip
irrigation-related subjects at length.

Irrigation Systems Maintenance

The implementation of a simple yet strict maintenance program for drip irrigation systems will keep the system
operating at peak performance and increase the system’s work life expectancy.
This handbook will guide you in determining the correct procedure and its implementation. The best way to
determine if your maintenance program is effective is to constantly monitor and record the flow rate and
pressures in the system.

Sub surface Drip Irrigation (SDI)

SDI manual is an irrigation management tool that enables consistently high yields, better water and fertilizer
management and reduced fertilizer and water usage.
This guide describes the specifications, design, installation, operation, and maintenance of an SDI system. It is
intended as an aid in the selection of sub surface drip irrigation and the management of the system to obtain
the desired results.

Driplines, drippers & other emitters - Product catalog

This catalog is an aid to enable to find basic data on each of the drip products within a hand’s reach.
The catalog describes the main applications of the item displayed, its features and benefits, technical data of
drippers and driplines, a table of all active catalog numbers and basic packaging data.

Fittings & Accessories - Product Catalog

Netafim™ Accessories and Fittings Components product families are designed to complement and support
efficient and professional utilization of dip irrigation systems.
Netafim™ accessories are an integral part of the irrigation system. Each component is manufactured under the
strictest quality control standards ensuring maximum system performance and reliability.
The catalog presents Netafim’s wide variety of Manifolds; Driplines accessories; Holders; Clips; Adaptors and
Plugs; Stakes and Spikes; Pressure Regulators; Product Assemblies; Tools.

Agro-Machinery - Product Catalog

Netafim™ offers a wide variety of application tools and auxiliaries designed for simple, rapid and efficient
installation and retrieving of driplines avoiding damage to the drippers and maintaining their integrity.
The catalog presents Netafim’s line of insertion, extraction, laying and retrieval machinery and accessories.

Connectors - Product Catalog

Netafim™ comprehensive range of pipe connector systems is made of high resistance and durability polymers.
Use the catalog to select the right line for your application: barb connectors, fast ring connectors, Twist Lock
connectors and a vast family of start and reducing connectors.

Polyethylene Rigid and Flexible Pipes - Product Catalog

For use in agricultural irrigation systems, water delivery systems, sprinkler and micro-sprinkler stands, assembly
dripper sets and automation application.
The catalog presents Netafim’s range of standard irrigation pipes, tubes and Micro-tubes 3*5, 4*6.5, 6*8, 9*12
and Micro-tubes 8 mm.

| Drip Irrigation - Understanding the Basics 102

GROW MORE WITH LESS™

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