Lecture 2

TYPOLOGY OF THE LEXICAL SYSTEMS

1. Factors facilitating the Typological Study of Lexicon

2. The semiotic classification of lexicon.
3. The identification of semiotic superclasses of words.
4. Socially, stylistically and functionally distinguished classes of words.
5. Onomasiological and Semasiological Characteristics of Different Units of
Lexicon.
6. Word-Formation in English and Ukrainian.
7. Typology of Idiomatic and Set Expressions.

Literature
1. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология английского и русского языков /
Аракин В.Д. – Л. : Просвещение, 1989. – 259 с.
2. Жлуктенко Ю.О. Порівняльна граматика англійської та української мов /
Жлуктенко Ю.О. – К., 1960. – 160 с.
3. Корунець І.В. Порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов /
Корунець І.В. – Вінниця : Нова Книга, 2003. – 464 с.
4. Ющук І.П. Українська мова / Ющук І.П. – К. : Либідь, 2004. – 640 с.

5. Onomasiological and Semasiological Characteristics of Different Units

of Lexicon
Irrespective of the lexico-grammatical class to which a word belongs, it may
be characterised in the contrasted languages from two sides: a) from its
onomasiological side, i.e. from its structure and nomination capacity and b) from its
semasiological or content side.
The onomasiological characteristics of a word are displayed through its
morphological structure and its categorial (if any) meaning. Thus, the verb goes (the
root go + es inflexion) has the categorial meanings of person, tense, aspect and voice,
whereas the noun songs (song + s inflexion) has only the category of number
(singular and plural).
From the semasiological side words may be monosemantic or polysemantic.
The semantic structure of the bulk of English nouns, for example, is richer than that
of the Ukrainian nouns. Thus, the English noun boat can mean човен,
судно/корабель, шлюпка; the noun coat in English can mean верхній одяг, пальто,
піджак, кітель, хутро (тварин), захисний шар фарби на предметі.
 Ukrainian words may sometimes have a complicated semantic structure as
well. For example, the noun подорож may mean cruise, journey, travel, trip, tour,
voyage; or the word ще may mean still, yet, as yet, more, any more, again, else, but.
Isomorphic if not universal is also the existence of monosemantic words which
are sometimes represented by a whole lexico-grammatical class, as it is in case of all
pronouns, numerals, conjunctions and various nomenclature words (terms). For
example: we, she, nobody, ten, thirty, and, or, atom, oxygen, sugar, today; він, вони,
десять, перший, і/та, чи, кисень, цукор, сьогодні, торік, etc.
Common in the contrasted languages are also other means of nomination,
which can be of two types: a) inner means and b) outer (borrowed) means, which
can be separate morphemes, words, word-groups and even separate sentences.
The inner means of nomination include: 1) morphemes; 2) words; 3)
phrases/word-groups and 4) sentences.
Words in all languages constitute the main means of nomination. Thus, in
English and Ukrainian they constitute about 75 % of all nominations Structurally
they may be: a) simple words (book, boy, new, alone, be, this, known, ten, there,
soon; книжка, хлопець, новий, сам, знати, п'ять, скоро, там, добре, etc.); b)
compound words (blackboard, classroom, homework, schoolboy, steamship, railway,
etc.). Or in Ukrainian: добродій, легковажити, літописець, книголюб,
мовознавець, першочергово, перекотиполе, лиходій, чортзнащо, Білогородка,
Незовибатько, Добридень, Панібудьласка, etc.
Very productive in present-day English but rare in present-day Ukrainian is the
wholophrasal compounding; cf. break-through, sit-in, commander-in-chief, merry-
go-round and occasionalisms like a to-be-or-not-to-be question, a don't-beat-me-or-I-
shall-cry expression (on his face), etc. Compounds of this type belong to rare stylistic
exotisms in Ukrainian. Cf. Наталка "теє того як його" (І. Котляревський),
Грицько "чи то я, чи не я" (Г.Тютюнник), "Йосип з гроша здачі" (Б. Харчук).
Common and equally productive in the contrasted languages is the nomination by
means of word-groups and sentences (usually nominative): fine weather гарна
погода, take part брати участь, throw light проливати світло. The rain. The
welcome rain. (Longfellow) Вечір. Ніч. (Тичина). These same sentences are
nominative in English: Twilight. Night. Nominative sentences may also be extended
in both contrasted languages. Cf. A lady's chamber in Bulgaria in a small town near
the Dragoman Pass late in November in the year 1885. (B. Shaw) Мокрий сніг, дощі
і тумани, тумани. (М. Стельмах).
The onomasiological and semasiological status and structure of words may be
changed in the contrasted languages by affixal morphemes as can be seen from the
following words: miss - dismiss, elect - reeled, man — mankind, relation —
relationship; Київ — киянин — київський, переможний - переможений -
непереможний, вибори - перевибори — довибори — виборний — виборчий,
післявиборчий, etc.
The prosodic means, especially accent, can sometimes greatly influence the
onomasiological and semasiological status of words in English and Ukrainian as
well. This can be seen from the following words: 'conduct (n) - con'duct (v);
'mankind - man'kind; 'замок - за'мок, за'няття - заня'ття, 'колос - ко'лос,
пере'їзд - пе'реїзд, ко'рови -коро'ви, 'вівці - вів'ці,'руки - ру'ки,'поперек - попе'рек,
etc.
A considerable number of semasiologically identical English lexemes often have
different onomasiological/structural expression in Ukrainian and vice versa, eg:
akimbo — (тримати) руки в боки/взявшись руками в боки; to ski —
їздити/ходити на лижвах; to skate — їздити на ковзанах;
закохатися/покохати — to fall in love, зрячий — one who can see/one who is not
blind; награтися — to play to one's heart's content, реготати - to laugh very
loudly, etc.
Genuine internationalisms, naturally, maintain their complete identity of
semasiological and onomasiological structures in both contrasted languages, cf.:
basis, comedy, drama, biology, parliament, student, transport, opera, the heel of
Achilles, sword of Damocles, tabula rasa, finita la comedia; базис, комедія, драма,
парламент, опера, ахіллесова п'ята, табула раса,дамоклів меч, фініта ла
комедія (справі кінець), etc.
Other borrowings, which do not have the status of internationalisms, mostly
maintain their semasiological and onomasiological structure in the source languages
and in the borrowing languages. This can be seen from the Turkic or German
borrowings in Ukrainian (cf. башлик, баштан, кавун, могорич, хабар, чабан;
бинт, лазарет, бухгалтер, бляхар, цех, фельдшер, дах, стільвага, стельмах,
деко, etc).
Among other common features of lexicon testifying to its systemic arrangement
are the common types of motivation, the main of which in English, Ukrainian and in
many other languages are three: phonetical, morphological and semantic by
nature.
1. All phonetically motivated words have their sounding structure somewhat
similar to the sounds which they convey. Due to this, some of these English,
Ukrainian and other languages' words thus motivated sound almost or quite alike. For
example: to cade - кудкудакати, cock-a-doodle-doo — кукуріку, bang —
бух/бухнути, bark - гав/гавкати, buzz - дзижчати, chirp/chirrup - цвірінькати,
cuckoo - кукукати/ кукувати, crack — трісь/тріщати, gagle - ґелґотати, hey!
— гей!, hiss - шипіти/сичати, hoop - 'гукати (сигналити), howl - вити, smack
(one's lips) цмокати, moo - мукати, mewl - нявкати, baa / ba:/ бе-е, бекати
(вівці), etc.
2. The morphological motivation in the contrasted languages remains the major
one. It is characteristic of numerous notional words, in which it is clearly indicated by
the affixal morphemes. For example, by suffixes: doer one who does smth; flyer one
who flies; detainee one who is detained; examinee one who is examined; changable
that which is subjected to change/can be changed; movable smth. that can be moved,
etc. A similar function may be performed by some prefixal morphemes in both
contrasted languages. Cf.: asleep the one who is in the state of sleeping; bedew to
cover with dew; overturn to turn smth. over; ex-president the one who was president,
etc.
Similarly in Ukrainian: оповідач той, хто оповідає/розповідає; писар той, хто
пише; співець той, хто співає; ношений якого (що) носили; смажений якого
(що) смажили; читаючий який читає, носач той, що має великого носа; митець
той, хто творить якийсь вид мистецтва (швидко чи дуже якісно/майстерно)
малює, будує, співає, танцює; злітати підніматися вище попереднього місця
перебування; переказати (щось) розповісти вдруге вже раз сказане чи написане;
передісторія історія, що була перед цією/відомою історією; вчетверте те, що
повторюється четвертий раз; поверх (чогось) - щось понад чимсь чи додатково
до чогось, etc.
Compound words are either morphologically or semantically motivated in the
contrasted languages. All morphologically motivated compounds have their
component lexical meaning composed of lexical meanings pertaining to each of their
parts, eg: air-crew is a crew of an aircraft; after-effect effect that occurs after some
action; to blackboard to write on a black board. Similarly in other words as good-
neighbourhood being near good neighbours, classroom (room for classes or for
schoolchildren), drawbridge, halfpenny, landowner, minethrower (thrower of mines),
note-book (book for notes), self-defence, a schoolboy, Zululand (land of the Zulus),
etc. Their meaning is also made by their component parts. Or in Ukrainian:
вільнодумець (думає про волю), добродійник (робить добро), домовласник
(володіє домом), електродояр, кожум'яка (мне шкуру тварин), кораблеводіння,
користолюбство (любить корисливість), лизогуб (облизує губи), лісовод,
маслоробня, марнотратство (витрата чогось без користі, марно), etc.
Morphologically motivated words in the contrasted languages naturally constitute
the largest part of their motivated lexicons: 88,5 % in English and 91.8 % in
Ukrainian.
3. Semantic motivation of lexical units is displayed by the figurative/ connotative
meaning of words or phrases, representing the transferred meanings of their denotata.
This is expressed by many semantically motivated words and word-groups in both
contrasted languages. Cf. foot of a mountain підніжжя гори, hand/hands of a watch
стрілка/стрілки (схожі на руки) годинника, to keep house вести домашнє
господарство, an ancient house стародавній рід (династія); the house of Tudor
династія Тюдорів; the first/second house перший/другий сеанс (у кінотеатрі); bed
of roses легке/розкішне життя; bed of a river русло річки; bed of honour поле
бою; arm рука, but: secular arm світська влада; the arm of the law сила закону;
the arm of the sea вузька затока; the arms of a coat рукава (піджака, пальта); the
arms of a tree великі гілляки дерева; the arms of a chair бильця (крісла), a coat of
arms герб, etc.
Many similar examples of semantic motivation of words are also observed in
Ukrainian: легка/важка рука (дегко/дошкульно б'є), легкий/ важкий на руку,
липкі руки/липкий на руку (злодій); купатися в розкошах, купатися в
славі/купатися в промінні південного сонця, братися за справу (діло), etc. Their
meanings are very transparent and mostly need no further explanation.
Some words denoting in the contrasted languages popular names of flowers, trees,
birds, and animals have a transparent etymological motivation as well. Thus, in
English and Ukrainian bluet (flower) is васильок, bluebell is дзвоник, blue-bottle is
васильок which is blue (синій), blackbird is чорний дрізд, blackcock is тетерук,
black berry means ожина, horse-tail/cat's tail means хвощ, redwood means секвоя,
umbrella-tree means американська магнолія, violet means фіалка. More similar
examples may also be found in English and Ukrainian: жовтець (yellow gold),
чорниця (bilberry), чорнобривці (French marigold), чорногуз (чорне гузно),
чорнослив (smocked prunes), соняшник (sunflower), куцохвостий (заєць),
круторогі (воли), серпокрилець (стриж).
A brilliant example of etymological semantic motivation present in Ukrainian and
Byelorussian (or Polish) names of months. Cf. січень (сніг січе), лютий (мороз
лютує), березень (береза сік пускає), квітень (перші квіти - проліски
з'являються і зацвітають), липень (липа зацвітає), серпень (серпами жали і
жнуть збіжжя), etc.
Semanticallу motivated lexical units constitute in English about 10 % and in
Ukrainian about 7.4 % of their total motivated lexicons.
6. Word-Formation in English and Ukrainian

The principal ways of word-formation in the contrasted language are isomorphic.

They include the following four ways: 1) morphological; 2) morphologico-syntactic;
3) lexico-semantic and 4) lexico-syntactic. The most productive of them in English
and Ukrainian is the morphological way which is realised with the help of the
following means: affixation, compounding, and non-affixal word-formation.
I. Affixal or derivational word-formation in both languages includes: a) suffixal
word-formation; b) prefixal word-formation and c) combined (suffixal plus prefixal)
word-formation. Affixal morphemes in the contrasted languages are used to form the
same/common parts of speech. Thus, suffixal morphemes help to form: nouns,
adjectives, verbs, numerals and adverbs. These word-forming suffixes also belong to
the same semantic groups. Among the noun-forming suffixes there are distinguished
the following typologically common classes of them in English and Ukrainian:
a) Agent suffixes (суфікси, що означають діяча): -ist/-icт, -ист: analyst,
motorist, journalist, пацифіст, журналіст, артист, тракторист; -ant, -ent (-
ант/-ент): irritant, servant, student, solvent, комерсант, лаборант, кореспондент,
студент; -аг (-ар/-яр): burglar, scholar, байкар, володар, муляр, дояр, зброяр; -
er -or (-ер/-ор): teacher, farmer, coster, singer, milker, actor, director, inspector,
інженер, міліціонер, актор, директор, конструктор, вчитель, etc.
It should be added that nouns formed with the help of the suffix -er often have
other meaning than that of denoting "performer of an action". They may denote a)
process: blabber, roarer, whisperer; b) psychological state: admirer, boaster, adorer,
c) physical perception: heaver, thinker, watcher, d) instrument: fanner, rectifier, e)
banknotes: fiver (п'ятірка), tenner (десятка); f) time of activity: fourter, fifter
(чотирикурсник, п'ятикурсник). The suffix -er is also used to form jargon-isms like
crammer, kisser, peeper, etc. No less different meanings are also expressed by nouns
formed with the help of other suffixes of this class, as for example: -ier/ -yer
corresponding to the Ukrainian suffix -ир:
cashier, employer, lawyer, бригадир, командир, проводир; -eer (-ep/-ip):
auctioneer, profiteer, аукціонер, колекціонер, землемір; -ard/-art: corresponding
to Ukrainian -ак/-як, -т-юх, -ак(а), -як(а) drunkard, sluggard, braggart, жебрак,
пияк, лінтюх, гуляка, задавака, забіяка, гультіпака.
b) The English suffix -ee forms nouns denoting reception of action: contestee,
dedicatee, devotee, devorcee, employee, examinee, evacuee, nominee, trustee, refugee
and some others. The meaning of this suffix in Ukrainian can be conveyed via the
suffix -ець as in the nouns вигнанець, бранець, вихованець, висуванець,
переселенець and others. Besides, the meaning of patience can be expressed in Ukrai
nian by the suffixes -н-, -т-, as in the substantivised nouns of masculine and feminine
gender: вражений, ображений, вражена, ображена, поранений, зображений,
забитий, залучена, забута, etc.
c) Suffixes denoting numerous abstract notions: -ing (-н/-а/-я): cloth ing,
meeting, wedding; вбрання, зібрання, одруження; -ism (-ізм): Americanism,
barbarism, despotism, feudalism, colloquialism, американізм, колоквіалізм,
феодалізм, варваризм, деспотизм; -ness (-т/ -a): darkness, goodness, темнота,
доброта, сліпота; -tion (-ац/-ія): corruption, errection, generation, protection;
генерація, корупція, протекція, сигналізація; -dom (ств/-о/, -цтв /-о/):
beggardom, butlerdom, officialdom, newspaperdom; жіноцтво, сусідство,
учительство, газетярство; -hood (ств/-о): citizen- hood, brotherhood,
widowhood; громадянство, братство, вдівство. Both contrasted languages have
also other suffixes. Namely: d) Evaluative suffixes (оцінні суфікси) which are of
two types: dimin utive (14 in English) and augmentative (збільшувальні), which are
not available in English.
English diminutive suffixes are: -et/-ette: booklet, eaglet, kitchenette, -let:
kinglet, ringlet, -y/-ie, -ey: dolly, grannie, sissy; -ling: duckling, princeling, -kin:
ladikin, lordkin, -el/-le: corpuscle, morsel; -icle, -cule: monticle, monticule; -een:
velveteen; -ock: hillock, -ing: lording, princeling; -ee: bootee and some others.
The evaluative suffix -ard has no augmentative but only a negative meaning in
English, eg: bastard, drunkard, dullard. These nouns cor-
respond lexically to Ukrainian vituperative words байстрюк, п'яничка,
тупак/ступа, etc.
The number of diminutive only noun-forming suffixes in Ukrainian is as many as
53, which goes in no comparison with the English 14 suffixes, not all of which are
productive. Besides, there exist adjective-, pronoun-, numeral-, adverb-, verb- and
even interjections-forming diminutive suffixes in Ukrainian. For example, the noun-
forming diminutive suffixes: -атк/-ятк: дівчатко, курчатко, телятко, ягнятко; -
ик: дубик, носик; -ок: дубок, синок, сучок, коток; -ечок: -батіжечок,
пиріжечок, стіжечок; -ечка: качечка, свічечка, річечка, тичечка; -ичка:
сестричка, теличка, ягничка; -оньк /-а/: дівчинонька, хатинонька
головонька/голівонька, and others.
It should be noted that all Ukrainian diminutive suffixes are productive, whereas in
English only -ie/-ey, -y, -ette, -let, -ling and -kin can be considered productive.
The most productive augmentative suffixes in Ukrainian are: -ань: бородань,
мордань; -ач: бородач, носач; -ил: барило, чудило, здоровило; -юр: бицюра,
собацюра; -ищ вовчище, ручище, собачище; -яр: носяра, мисяра and some
others.
е) Gender/sex expressing suffixes of person are clearly distinct in both
contrasted languages. They form in Ukrainian 3 groups: 1) masculine gender and sex
expressing suffixes of nouns like -ар/-яр (лікар, токар, каменяр), -ист/-іст
(бандурист, пацифіст), -їй (водій, носій), -ант/-ент (музикант, студент), -тель
(вихователь, мучитель), -ач/-яч (глядач, діяч), -янин/-анин (селянин, киянин,
галичанин, мирянин). 2) Feminine gender and sex expressing suffixes usually follow
the masculine gender/sex expressing suffixes, which are mostly followed by
inflexions. Cf. -к-/-а/ артистка, журналістка, вчителька: -их-/-а/, -анк-, -янк-
ковалиха, кравчиха, громадянин — громадянка, вінничанин — вінничанка,
киянин — киянка, -ник/ -ця письменник — письменниця, робітник — робітниця.
З. Neuter gender/sex expressing suffixes are numerous in Ukrainian. They may
form both abstract and concrete (life and lifeless) nouns, eg: -ств-о/ -цтв-о:
братерство, козацтво, конярство; -атк-о, -чк-о/-ятк-о: дівчатко, курчатко,
яблучко, ягняточко; -к-о: вушко;
-ячк-, -єчк-, -ечк-о: відеречко, листячко, яєчко; -ц-е: болітце, сальце, сильце.
English "gender suffixes", as they are sometimes called by grammarians [39, 85 —
89], are in reality only sex expressing, but not grammatical gender expressing, eg:
actor — actress, waiter — waitress, widow — widower, hero-heroine, lion-lioness,
usher-usheress. The suffixes -er/ -or, -ess, -o and -ine clearly identify the objective
gender of life nouns, i.e. their natural sex (cf. the young actor, the young actress; the
actor playd/sang, the actress played/sang). It is not so in Ukrainian, where genders
are expressed by inflexions: молодий артист — молода артистка; артист грав —
артистка грала, дитя грало.
f) One more typologically common group constitute the international suffixes,
which are mostly of common nature (origin) and mean ing in English and Ukrainian.
For example, the suffixes -er: carter, bulldozer, leader, картер, бульдозер, лідер; -
or: conductor, dic tator, rector, диктатор, кондуктор, ректор; -ist: Anarchist, So
cialist/анархіст, соціаліст; -ism: alcoholism, Byronism, heroism, feudalism,
Hegelianism, байронізм, алкоголізм, геґеліанізм, героїзм, феодалізм; -аtion/-ці/я:
administration, sensation, or ganisation, адміністрація, організація, сенсація.
Here also be longs the suffix -аblе/-абельн: communicable, readable/чи табельний,
дисертабельний, комунікабельний; дисерта бельність, комунікабельність.
It must be added that the placement/distribution of suffixes in English and
Ukrainian words is identical: they are added either to the root (teacher, sailor,
massive; вчитель, масивний, моряк) or to the stem of the word
(foolish+ly,friendli+ness; розумно, хворобливість), п'ятірка.
g) Many words in both languages are formed by means of zero affix es (without
any affixes). This way of word-formation is very productive in English as well as in
Ukrainian. Cf. go, come, boy, world, all, they, soon, four, five, he, she, wish; світ,
річ, ви, ми, там, тут, два, три, кінь, віл, піч, ніч, варт, жарт, etc.
II. Prefixal morphemes have also their main features common in the contrasted
languages. They may equally be form-building as well as word-forming. English
prefixes, however, can form words of more parts of speech than the Ukrainian ones.
For example, they can form statives: a+sleep>asleep; verbs: be+dew>bedew;
adjectives: pre+war>prewar; adverbs: in+side>inside, etc.
The structure of prefixal morphemes in the contrasted languages is generally
common, though there are more single-sign (single-letter) prefixes in Ukrainian than
in English, which has only one single letter prefix
a (asleep, alike, aloof). Their number in Ukrainian is larger. Cf. встати, внести,
вдвох, зліт, угору, схід, згори, вниз).
2.A large group of prefixes have in the contrasted languages only semantic identity
but they are different in their lingual form since they are national prefixes:
foresee - передбачити, extra-natural - надприродний, intraarterial -
внутрі/внутрішньоартеріальний; non-party -позапартійний, pre-war-
до/передвоєнний, post-war, no/ післявоєнний, sub-species — підвиди/підкласи.
3.The third group present semantically alien national prefixes per taining to one
of the contrasted languages and non-existent in the other. The lexical meaning of
such divergent prefixes forms part of the seman tic structure of the stem, hence it is
usually conveyed by other than mor phological (usually by lexico-semantic) means.
Cf. decamp - виїжджати з табору/покидати табір; mis-state - робити
неправдиву/фальшиву заяву; underhung - той/те, що випирає/ виступає вперед;
to recurve — загинати/вигинати назад; (an) upthrow - кидок угору and others.
There are also some allomorphic Ukrainian prefixes which have no semantic
equivalents in English. Their meaning is also conveyed by
other than affixal means. Cf. по-українському/по-українськи — in Ukrainian,
щонайкраще/якнайкраще in the best way possible or very well indeed;
rather/extremely well; якнайповільніше — as slowly as possible/in the most slowly
(or in an ever possible slow) way, etc.
A specifically Ukrainian phenomenon which is also alien not only to English but
even to other Slavonic languages is the reduplicated use of the prefix no- in verbs to
express an intensive and repeated or durative action. Cf. поповодити,
попоблукати, поповозитися (з чимсь, з кимсь), попогребти, попоїсти,
попоспати. The meaning of such duplicated prefixes is conveyed in English and
other languages in a descriptive way. Cf. попоїсти to eat substantially or to eat
repeatedly/again, or to eat without interruption and amply, uninterruptedly.
Попоспати to sleep to one's heart's content, to sleep much longer than usually, to
sleep and repose nicely after hard work/tiresome walking, etc.

Combined Prefixal and Suffixal Formation of

Words

Many words in English and Ukrainian are formed by way of adding both prefixal
and suffixal morphemes to the root or stem of the same word. It should be
emphasised that the formation of new words with the help of prefixes and suffixes is
performed in English and Ukrainian according to some common
morphological/structural models. The number of these models is four and they are as
follows:
1)one prefix+the root morpheme/stem+one suffix, forming nouns: dis-arma-ment,
en-rich-ment, for-cast-er, un-suspect-ness, vice-roy- ship; b) forming adjectives: anti-
cyclon-ic, anti-christ-ian, be-jewel- ling, in-ponder-able, para-phras-tic, pre-script-
ive; c) forming verbs: de-colour-ise, dis-satis-fy, ex-cav-ate, over-estim-ate, re-vivi-
fy, un- satis-fy and d) forming adverbs: dis-creet-ly, un-tru-ly, un-war-like;
2)two or more prefixes + the root morpheme/stem + one suffix as in the nouns
over-sub-scrip-tion, re-im-prison-ment, re-in-carn-ation;
3) one prefix + the root morpheme/stem + two or more suffixes,
3) as in adverbs that are formed from adjectives and participles. For example: dis-
stress-ing-ly, dis-trust-ful-ly, en-harmon-ical-ly, pro-portion - ate-ly, under-hand-ed-
ly.
The number of words formed according to the third combined structural model by
far exceeds those given above and comprises adjectives and nouns. The most typical
adjectives are as follows: counter-revolu-tion-(a)ry, de-/contemin-at(e)-ing, de-
central-iz(e)-ing, pre-histor-ic-al. Examples of nouns thus formed are as follows: dis-
trust- fulness, in-comprehens-ible-ness, ir-respons-ibil-ity, de-moral-iz-ation and
other.
4) Fewer nouns are formed, naturally, according to the fourth and the most
complicated structural model, combining two or more prefixes + root
morpheme/stem + two or more suffixes as in the words in-ac-count-abil-ity, in-dis-
pens-abil-ity, non-re-activ(e)-ation, non-re-presentation-al-ism. Words of this
combined type are well exemplified in Ukrainian, though their quantitative
distribution coincides mainly in their simplest type only. This (latter) type of word-
formation model has the largest representation in both contrasted languages. Thus,
the following prefixes and suffixes are both productive and non-productive in
forming some types of nouns in Ukrainian: без-/-к-: безтарка, безштанько,
безбатченко; від-/-ок: відрізок, відбиток, відтинок; на-/-ник: навушник,
навчальник; за-/-ок: затінок, загривок, задвірок, затишок and others.
A large number of productive noun stems in Ukrainian originate from
prepositional noun phrases which in the course of historical development have
become prefixes and now together with the phonetically identified suffix -j- form a
large number of -я/-а root nouns: без-: безладдя, безділля; за-: загір'я, заріччя;
між-: міжгір'я, міжріччя; над-: надбрів'я, надпліччя; перед-: переджнив'я,
передсердя: по-: подвір'я, пониззя (Побужжя, Покуття, Полісся, Подніпров'я),
etc.
Relative adjectives in Ukrainian are more often formed according to the first
combined morphological model than nouns. The most often used prepositional
prefixes are без-, від-, до-, за-, на-, and others. The suffixes used with these prefixes
are: -н-, -ов-/-ев-, -єв, -ськ-/-зьк-, -цьк-/-овськ- and others. Cf. без-/-н-:
безвірний, безпарний; без-
4) /-ов--: бездоказовий, безготівковий; -від-/-н-: віддієслівний, між-/-ов-:
міжвидовий, на-/-ян-: навітряний, над-/-янськ-:
наддніпрянський, без-/-ев-/-єв-: безстатевий, безчуттєвий and others.
Adjectives with verbal stems have in Ukrainian the characteristic prefix не-,
originating from the negative particle не. The suffixes that are used with this prefix in
combined adjectives are of two kinds: 1) -н-, --анн-/-янн-/, -енн-: невтомний,
незбагненний, невпізнанний, невгамовний, несказанний, незрівнянний,
нескінченний; 2) -м-, -уч-/-юч-, -уш-/-ющ-/, -лив-: невловимий, невгасимий,
невимовний, непосидючий, непитущий, невидющий, неквапливий.
Unlike nouns and adjectives, combined verbs are formed in Ukrainian according to
the third structural model. They are formed from over 400 nominal stems, the most
occurent of which are adjectival and substantival. The prefixes may be different,
whereas the suffixes are for both parts of speech usually common. They are -и-/-і-
and -ти-/-а-/, в-/ -у-: Cf. вдосконалити, унепокоювати, уможливити; з-/-с-/:
збільшити, зменшити, спростити; о-: обіднити, оминати, очуміти; об-:
облегшити, обникати, обшукати; пере-: перебільшити, перевищити; ви-:
вилюдніти, видужати, з-: звузити, здужати, зсунути, etc.
5) Verbs from substantival stems are formed with the help of the -и-and -ти-, -
ати suffixes too, i. e. according to the third structural model. For example:
викоренити, закапканити, знеболити, знімечити, пересе'лити, пере'силити.
In combined derivative verbs formed from verbal stems, the main suffixes are -
ува- and -ти-: вицьвохкувати, перечитувати, підкахикувати,
пришкандибувати, погейкувати, покліпувати, розбалакувати, переважувати,
пересилювати, etc.
English prefixal and post-fixal verbs have no parallel/equivalent to the complicated
structure of the Ukrainian verbs with the post-fix -ся/-сь: не-до-роз-вин-ут-и-ся,
не-до-ви-плач-уват-и-ся, пере-роз-по-діл-ит-и-ся, пере-о-снащ-уват-и-ся/-сь.
There are fewer adverbs, adjectives and nouns in Ukrainian that are formed
according to the third and fourth combined structural models. Cf. adverbs: до-не-с-
хоч-у, с-про-квол-а, що-най-кращ-е; adjectives and participles: за-в-час-н-ий, не-
в-благ-анн-ий, не-су-під-ряд-н-ий, не-пере-о-снащ-ен-ий, не-до-виторг-ув-ан-ий;
nouns: не-в-благ-анн-ість, пере-роз-по-діл-енн-я, не-до-ви-до-бут-ок, etc.
Consequently, combined prefixal plus suffixal, i.e. predominantly derivational
word-formation belongs in both languages to productive means of building new
words of new meanings. Especially active, as was testified by the examples above, is
this kind of word-formation in Ukrainian.
Compounding. The formation of compound words in English and Ukrainian is
characterised both by isomorphic and allomorphic features as well. Common are,
first at all, two main ways of forming compounds in English and Ukrainian: 1) by the
juxtaposition (placement) of the determining and the determined parts and 2) with the
help of the linking/ interfixal o, e, s in English and о, е / є, у in Ukrainian.
The largest group of compounds formed through the juxtaposition of free root/stem
words in English constitute nouns. For example: aircraft, bath-house, fountain-pen,
godmother, inkpot, lockout, mankind, motherland, note-book; adjectives: sky-blue,
pitch-dark, social-economic, far-reaching, peace-loving and verbs: blackwash, ill-
treat, take-off. Less numerous are adverbs. Cf. anywhere, nowadays, outside,
somehow, sideways; pronouns: everybody, everything, herself, none, and numerals:
one-fifths, twenty-one, two-thirds and others.
Pertaining mostly to English are compounds (nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and some
numerals) with prepositions and conjunctions used as connectors of different
roots/stems often referred to as wholophrases. For example, nouns: commander-in-
chief, cat-o'-nine-tails, bread-and-butter breakfast; adjectives: out-of-date, rough-
and-ready; adverbs: rough-and-tumble; numerals: two and twenty, one hundred and
ten.
Ukrainian has only a few compound adverbs of its own and some nouns of foreign
origin of this type: де-не-де, пліч-о-пліч, хоч-не-хоч, як-не-як, Ростов-на-Дону,
Франкфурт-на-Майні, Франкфурт-на-Oдepi, etc.
Compounding by juxtaposition of free words (root words or stems) is considerably
less productive in Ukrainian. And yet, there are several nouns, adverbs, pronouns, a
few verbs and conjunctions, as well as particles formed in this way. For example,
nouns: бурят-монгол, генерал156
майор, вагон-ресторан, зернотрест, медик-хірург and pronouns: дещо, дехто,
хтозна-що- казна-що, казна-хто, хто-небудь, що-небудь; adverbs: казна-де,
казна-звідки, казна-як, etc.
Close to the above-mentioned compounds in Ukrainian are also some compound
nouns and compound verbs of co-ordinate nature: батько-мати (i.e. батько і мати),
інженер-технік (інженер і технік), хліб-сіль (хліб і сіль); verbs: думати-гадати,
говорити-балакати; conjunctions and particles (немов, немовбито, нібито) and
others.
Compounding with the help of the linking interfixal elements is far less productive
in English than in Ukrainian, and it is generally restricted to nouns and adjectives as a
rule. Cf. the nouns Anglo-Saxondom, Anglo-Saxons, electro-kinetics, electro-therapy,
gasometer, tradesfolk, tradespeople, violoncellist and the abjectives like Sino-
American, Afro-Asian, Israeli-American, Iraqi-Iranian (Cf. the Ukrainian compounds
respectively/ китайсько-американський, афро-азійський, ізраїльсько-
американський, електротерапевтичний, etc). Hence, the principal way of forming
composites in Ukrainian is that by means of linking interfixes, which connect
abbreviated and full words. The latter usually follow the initial abbreviated forms, as
in the following nouns: боєздатність, землечерпалка, броненосець, кулеливарник,
сновидець, театрознавець, білоголівка, самозбереження, полумисок; in
numerals and in adjectives: кількасот, півтораста, вогнегасний, доморощений,
нафтоносний, електрозварювальний; and in adverbs: карколомно, передовсім,
позавуш, самочинно, etc.
Consequently, the typological difference between the composite words of the two
languages lies in their much larger variety of types in Ukrainian than in English.
Though there is a way of compounding in English that is practically alien to
Ukrainian. This is the already mentioned way which is usually termed as
wholophrasing. It represents an occasional incorporation of word-groups or
sentences into non-constant compounds, such as a never-to-be-forgotten event (from:
an event never to be forgotten) or a to-be-or-not-to-be question, (his) come-what-will
attitude, a'do-come-please-tomorrow expression on his face, beat-me-or-pardon-me
reaction, etc. Of this same wholophrasal nature are also many English and Ukrainian
composite words (mostly nouns, adjectives and some adverbs) formed from word-
combinations or sentences, for example: for-
get-me-not, merry-go-round, East-end, kiss-in-the-ring (game), kiss-me-quick (beret),
love-lies-bleeding (plant), loop-change-loop (in figure skating), pen-and-ink (adj.),
sleeping-bag(suit), snick-a-snee, stick-in-the-mud (n, a), Sunday-go-to-meeting (a),
theatre-in-the-round, three-year-old (a), toad-in-a-hole (n) the one-size-fits-all
(program), run-to-the middle (strategy), can't-we-all-get-along (politics)as well as
many family names and nicknames of people, geographical names. For example: Mr.
Backbite (false person), Youngman, Copper/nose (drankard), Copperfield (talented
person); Mr. Knowall (ironic); geographical names as Salt-Lake City, Iceland,
Georgetown, Greenfield, Londesborough, Newfoundland, West brook, etc.
Ukrainian has many composite words of this kind too, though sometimes they are
formed with the help of the linking elements (usually -и-, -й-), for example:
горихвістка, варивода, держидерево, крутиголовка (bird), негній-дерево, люби-
мене, мати-й-мачуха, крутивус, перекотиполе.
Several Ukrainian family names and geographical names have been formed from
word-groups or sentences as well. Cf. Вернигора, Гниверба, Добривечір,
Затуливітер, Небаба, Незовибатько, Неїжмак, Непийпиво, Нетудихата,
Панібудьласка, Печиборщ, Підкушіуха, Вшигород (вищий город), Крутоярії,
Рідкодуб (рідкий дуб), Погиблях (погиб лях), etc.
Apart from nouns there are some other parts of speech that are formed in
Ukrainian from prepositional phrases and word-groups or sentences, as for example,
adverbs: абияк, анітрохи, віднині, відтепер, досхочу, задовго, запанібрата, віч-
на-віч, дотепер, відразу, пліч-о-пліч; adjectives: бавовнопрядильний, водомірний,
водоплавний, переробний; and verbs: благодіяти, боготворити, зубоскалити,
хліборобству вати.
Similar compounds can be observed in English as well. Cf. the nouns whole-
heartedness, schoolboyishiness, warming-pan, and also adjectives/participles: absent-
minded, heart-shaped, three-coloured, and several others.
Abbreviation. As a word-forming means it represents a generally common type of
word-formation in the contrasted languages, though it is
not devoid of some national divergences either. Common and equally productive in
both contrasted languages are the following types:
1.The so-called initial abbreviation, wich presents cases like USA, UNO, BBC,
TGWU, AFL-CIO, CNN, TV, SOS, IMF, EC, EEC, UK, UNESCO, OPEC (oil
producing and exporting countries), MP (member of parliament or military police),
AIDS, SALT (Strategic Anns Limitation Talks), VAT and other acronyms. Similarly
in Ukrainian: США, OOH, ЮНЕСКО, АФП-КПП, СОЇ, СНІД, МВФ, etc.
Specifically English is the combined abbreviation of acronyms and complete words
as A-life (artificial life in computers), H-bag (handbag), N-bomb, U-language (up per
class English), V-Day (victory Day), VE-Day (victory in Europe Day), VJ-Day
(victory over Japan Day), etc. Rather productive in En glish and Ukrainian is also
shortening like a. for acre, end. for command er, govt. for government, dz. for dozen,
ft. for foot, in. for inch, gal. for gallon, m. for mile, t. for ton, oz. for ounce, Ib. for
pound, a. m. for ante meridian, and i.e. (Lat.) for id est, etc. Respectively in
Ukrainian: ra, c/ r, CM, T, KM, KB, M, CM, c. (сторінка), т (тонна), etc.
Many English shortenings originate from colloquialisms and jargon-isms, as it is
the case with such nouns as bike (bicycle), dub (double), bod (body, fellow), demo
(demonstration), doc (doctor), envo (envoy), info (information data), op
(opportunity), to up (increase), to ink (authorise, sign) fridge (refrigerator), mike
(microphone), pop (popular as in pop-music), profie (a professional), prof
(professor), telly (TV), trunk (tranquilizer), vac (vacuum cleaner), van (railway
carriage), vet (veteran), lab (laboratory), coop (co-operation), exam, prep
(preparation), ec/ ecco (economics), pro (professional), math (mathematics), trig
(trigonometry) and others.
The number of thus shortened words of this kind in Ukrainian is restricted to some
nursery shortenings as ма (мамо), та (тату), ба (бабо) and to colloquialisms like
тра (треба), хо (хочу), зав, зам, спец.
2.Partial abbreviation of words is generally rare in English. It is observed in
English in such examples as Colo (Colorado), Indi (Indi ana), Okla (Oklahoma),
Canwood (Canadian Woods), Irricanal (Irri gation Canal), and some other
geographical names like these. Partial abbreviation in Ukrainian, however, is rather
productive, being used to
designate a variety of notions like держстрах, Донбас, Кривбас, головбух,
завгосп, ботсад, кербуд, сільбуд, комунгосп, начмед, начпостач, and several
others of the kind.
3. Combined abbreviation is also less productive and less wide-spread in English
than in Ukrainian. Cf. CONUS (Continental US), COSPAR (Committee on Space
Research), INTERPOL (International Criminal Police Organisation), COMECON
(Council of Mutual Economic Assitance/Aid). This way of partial plus/and initial
abbreviation is very productive in Ukrainian, for example: міськвно (міський відділ
народної освіти), облвно, райвно, облсу (обласне статистичне управління), etc.
Apart from the aforementioned, there exist some other ways (both productive and
non-productive) of word-formation in English and Ukrainian. They are as follows:
1. Blending, which is a rather productive type of compounding in English. It has
in recent decades become familiar in Ukrainian as well. Blends or "telescoped" words
are formed by confrontation (поєднання) of two (in Ukrainian) or even more
truncated (усічених) words or roots of words, for example: avia(tion) + (electr)onics
> avionics, fan(tasy) + (maga)zine > fanzine, mo(torist) + (ho)tel > motel, sm(ock)
+ (f)og > smog, meri(t) + (aristocracy > meritocracy, fl(y) + (h)urry > flurry, etc. In
recent years some more blends have appeared in English as, for instance,
baggravation (from bag + aggravation) a feeling of annoyance and anger of air
travellers awaiting their baggage at the baggage carousel; ginormous (from gigantic +
enormous), meanderthal (meander + underthal), an annoying person moving slowly
and aimlessly in front of other individuals who are in a hurry; netizen (internet +
citizen), popaganda (popular/pop + propaganda), i.e. propaganda of popular music or
songs, sarcastrophy (sarcasm + catastrophy), i.e. an attemptor's failure to use
humorous sarcasm, wardrobe (word + wardrobe), i.e. a person's vocabulary (a web
page on the internet), Modem (moderate Democrat), Clinlarry (Clinton+Hillary),
brunch (breakfast+lunch), etc.
There exist some ways of making blends or types of blanding in English. The
main of them are as follows:
1. Blends which are made up from the initial part of the first word or word-group
and the complete second word consisting of a root morpheme or a stem only:
cinem(a) + actress = cinematress, para(litic gas)
+ bomb = parabomb, super(sonic) + jet = superjet, para (chute) + glider = paraglider,
bas(ket) + cart = bascart, etc.
2.By combining the root morpheme/stem of the first word and the stem of the
trancated initial part of the second word: hay + (si)lage - haylage (силосна яма), pay
+ (pa)triotism = paytriotism, sea+(heli)copter = seacopter, motor + (caval)cade =
motorcade, etc.
3.By combining blends of the initial stem and the final part of the second word:
man + (En)glish = Manglish, radio + (elec)trician = rediotrician, cinema +
(m)agnate = cinemagnate, book + (ad)vertising = bookvert-izing, etc.
All Ukrainian (like Russian) blends are generally restricted to similar
contaminations in which truncated are final elements of the initial words/ word-
groups and the initial/final elements of the succeeding words as in пірам(ідон) +
(кофе)їн — пірамеїн, ас(пірін) + кофе(ї)н-аскофен (ходити на) витріщатик
(jocular) ходити по Хрещатику, витріщивши очі, i.e. loiter aimlessly, etc.
2. Back-formation (reversion) is a rather productive type of word-formation in
English, where many short words are inferred from longer words. It is in this way
that verbs are derived from nouns: own < owning, beg < beggar, brag < bragging,
broke < broker, edit < editor, hawk < hawker, kittle < kittling, infract < infraction,
catalise < catalysis, emplace < emplacement, reminisce < reminiscence, etc.
English compound verbs are often formed by back-formation from compound
nouns: to aircondition < air conditioning, to baby-sit < baby sitter, to house-clean <
house-cleaner, to house-keep < housekeeping, etc.
Similarly formed are also English verbs from adjectives: luminisce < luminiscent,
reminisce < reminiscent, frivol < frivolous, etc.
Also nouns are formed quite in the same way from adjectives: greed < greedy,
nast < nasty, cantankar < cantankerous (уїдливий, сварливий), etc.
Back-formation in Ukrainian is restricted only to nouns which are formed from
verbal (or rather from their infinitival) stems. For example: біг < бігати, брід <
бродити, піт < пітніти, крик < кричати, галас < галасувати, шамкіт <
шамкотіти, говір < говорити, etc.
3.Reduplication is a common means of compounding in the con trasted
languages, but it is more productive in English than in Ukrainian. Cf. .fifty-fifty,
goody-goody, hush-hush (secret), pooh-pooh, so-so. Similarly in Ukrainian: де-де,
ні-ні, ледве-ледве, так-так, ось-ось, от-от, тільки-тільки, тихо-тихо.
It is interesting to note, that English reduplications are often only somewhat
different ablaut combinations. Cf.: bibble-babble, chit-chat, clitter-clatter (all
denoting idle talk), dilly-dally (loiter), knick-knacks (small article of ornament), riff-
raff (the mob), shilly-shally (hesitate), ding-dong (equivalent to the Ukrainian дзінь-
дзелень), tip-top (first-rate), zigzag (зиґзаґ), etc.
Unlike Ukrainian the English language is especially rich in rhymed reduplications
which are rare in our colloquial speech. Cf. boogy-woogie, fliggerty-glibberty
(frivolous), helter-skelter (in disordered haste), higgledy-piggledy (disorder), hurry-
scurry (great hurry), lovey-dovey (darling), willy-nilly (compulsory), pow-wow (a
noisy assembly), Humpty-Dumpty (вайло), walkie-hearie (device for the
reproduction of recorded speech), walky-lookie (a portable TV set), walkie-pushie
(movable TV station for transmitting sports events), walkie-talkie portable two-way
radio set, etc.
Note. Pertaining to English only are also compounds with post-positives like
camp-out (sleep in open air, not in tent), look-in (n) a quick look, look-out (n)
vigilance, observation; sit-in/sit-ins (demonstration, strike without leaving the
premises); walk-on (mute, dumb performer), walkout (general strike), walk-in (a)
having a separate entrance (apartment), walk-over (easy task, easy victory), walk-up
(apartment without a lift).
4.Accentual word-formation. This way of word-formation is iso morphic in the
morphological systems of both languages. Nevertheless, words thus formed in
English generally change both their lexico-gram matical (morphological) nature and
meaning. Cf. 'accent (n) — ac'cent (v),'conduct (n) — con'duct (v),'export (n) —
ex'port (v),'permit (n) — per'mit (v), though 'mankind (n) (чоловіча половина
людства) — man'kind (n) людство, but: 'comment (v) - 'comment (n), ex'cuse (v),
ex'cuse (n), re'port (v), re'port (n), etc.
The change of accent in Ukrainian, however, usually does not effect

the lexico-grammatical nature of the word but only its semantics. Cf. 'замок -
за'мок, 'жила - жил'а, 'мука - му'ка, 'приклад -прик'лад. Though not without
exceptions. Cf.: 'бігом (n),— бігом (adv), вго'рі (adv) - в'горі (n), 'слідом (п),-
слід'ом (adv). Sometimes, however, there may be no differentiation of the lexico-
grammatical nature of homonymous sense units through accent in Ukrainian. This
can be seen from the following examples: до'низу (adv) -до 'низу (prepos, noun),
до'віку (adv) - до (такого-то) 'віку (n), тим 'часом (adv) - він скористався тим
'часом (n), etc.

Substantivization, Adjectivisation, Verbalisation and

Adverbialisation in English and Ukrainian

This type of word-formation is common and equally productive both in English

and Ukrainian. It finds its realisation in a definite word acquiring a part of or all the
lexico-grammatical features of some other part of speech. Thus, abjective may
become wholly substantivised or partially substantivised. 1) Wholly substantivised
adjectives acquire all properties of regular nouns. Eg: a criminal, a black, a white, a
liberal/ radical, a European/African, a Ukrainian/German, a weekly (тижневик), a
monthly (альманах), etc. 2) Partially substantivised adjectives have only some
features of nouns (no genitive case, no plural form): the deaf and dumb, the French,
the invited, the useful, in the open, in the affirmative, etc. It is often difficult,
however, to distinguish between Wholly and partially substantivised adjectives in
Ukrainian. Cf. поранений, молодий (з) молодою, старий (зі) старою, милий,
чорнобрива, завідуючий, братова, or substantivised adjectival proper names like
Ніжин, Львів, Сватове, Милове, etc. Or: гнідий/карий (horse), гаряче/холодне
(dishes), прийомна, німецька/англійська (languages), давнє, минуле, старе,
особисте, etc.
Partially substantivised in English may also be other parts of speech , for example, a)
Verbs: that is a must with me; let's have a go: a quiet read, after supper? the haves
and have-nots; b) Numerals: a sign of four, King Charles the First, page ten, to
receive a one/a two: c) Pronouns: a little something, a good for nothing, the all of it;
those I's_ of his; d) Adverbs: I don't know his whereabouts, he is on leave, etc.
On the other hand, nouns may be adjectivised. Cf. the market prices; London
docks, average incomes/wages, Kyiv streets, the Dnieper_ banks, the Ukraina hotel,
etc.
Nouns may also be adverbialised. Cf.: going home, to come by chance, on the
outskirts of Kyiv, to come by air/ by train, in English (where?).
Similarly in Ukrainian where there are partially substantivised different parts of
speech as well: a) pronouns as мій/твій іде (коханий, чоловік); моя прийшла
(кохана, дружина, мати); він (чоловік, брат) у хаті? and b) numerals: Георг
П'ятий, Єлизавета Друга, отримати два / п'ять (mark).
Nouns in Ukrainian can also be adjectivised, though to a smaller degree than in
English, being used as appositives only. For example: джаз-оркестр, поет-воїн,
місто Київ, фабрика-кухня, вагон-ресторан, дівчина-танкіст, жінка-
космонавт/космонавтка, etc.
Ukrainian nouns can be adverbialised as well: зайти в гості, проситися у
відпустку (куди?), бути на канікулах (де?), брати в борг, їхати зайцем (як?),
домовитися по телефону (як?), підписати (щось) з переляку (як?), etc.

Specifically English Types of Word-Formation

Among the productive word-forming types completely foreign to Ukrainian is to

be pointed out first of all conversion. The latter is performed according to some
models of "converting" nouns into verbs or verbs into nouns, adjectives into nouns or
nouns into adjectives.
Among other specifically English types of word-formation the following should be
first of all pointed out:
a)The sound interchange (i.e. short vs. long): bit - beat, cot - court, kin - keen,
live - life, prove - proof, rid - read, sit - seat, etc.
b) Lexicalisation of some plural forms of nouns like colour — co lours (military
banner), glass — glasses (eye-glasses, opera-glasses), line - lines (poetic works), etc.
c)The phonomorphological word-formation which is closely con nected with the
abbreviation proper. Cf. Mr. for mister, Mrs. (mistress), govt. (government), Sgt.
(sergeant), memo (memorandum), demo (dem onstration), D (Lady D) princess
Diana, and many others.
7. Typology of Idiomatic and Set Expressions

The idiomatic and set expressions, i.e. lexically and often structurally stable units
of lexicon present a universal phenomenon. Structurally, they may be in all
languages 1) Sentence idioms (time and tide wait for no man, на козаку нема
знаку); 2) Word-group idioms (Ten Commandments, to be or not to be, десять
заповідей, бути чи не бути);
3) Metaphorically generalised proper names (sometimes geographical names) as Jack
Ketch (hangman), Tom Pepper(great Her), Tom Tailor (tailor), Tom Thumb (a small
man, a Liliputian), Mrs. Grundy, Tom, Dick, and Harry (перший-ліпший), Nosy
Parker (людина, що втручається/суне ніс не в свої справи). Similarly in
Ukrainian: Макар Касян, i.e. (ненажера), Чалий (підступна, зрадлива людина);
Герострат, Ксантипа (сварлива Сократова дружина), язиката Хвеська,
сердешна Оксана and many others. Their transparent metaphorical meaning is
indisputable in the contrasted languages.
Presumably common in all languages are also the paradigmatic classes of idioms
which may be substantival (the Trojan horse, the sword of Damocles; троянський
кінь, дамоклів меч); verbal (to have one's heart in one's mouth, to take the bull by
the horns; брати бика за роги, пекти раків); adverbial (by and again, tit for tat;
no всіх усюдах, тут і там, скрізь і всюди), etc. Idiomatic expressions in English
and Ukrainian and in all other languages may perform common functions in the
sentence, namely, that of a) the subject (Hobson's choice is an idiom); b) the
predicate/predicative (That was a Hobson's choice for him); c) the object (He
translated correctly the idiom "Hob-son's choice " into Ukrainian); d) the adverbial
modifier (He will do it by hook or by crook). Similarly in Ukrainian: дамоклів меч ~
ідіома; він утре їм носа; вона не хоче пекти раків; кров з носа, а зроблю це.
Besides, idiomatic expressions exist in all languages either as 1) absolute
equivalents having all components the same and absolutely identical or slightly
different meaning in some languages of a historically, culturally and mostly
geographically close region, as is the case with the idiomatic expressions of the
European area as the heel of Achilles ахіллесова п'ята, the Trojan horse
троянський кінь, the tree of knowledge дерево/древо пізнання, thirty pieces of
silver тридцять срібняків, etc. 2) Idiomatic expressions may also exist as near
equivalents, i.e. when having in some (usually different) languages one or more
components missing or different as in other (contrasted) languages. For example: to
kiss the post поцілувати замок, as pale as paper блідий як стіна', grass widow —
солом'яна вдова, measure twice, cut once сім раз одміряй, а раз одріж; to know
smth. as one knows
languages constitute genuine and approximate idiomatic analogies. The latter have in
English and Ukrainian similar meaning but different componental structures. Cf. a fly
in the ointment, make haste slowly; ложка дьогтю в бочці меду, тихіше їдеш —
далі будеш.
National idioms present a separate universal feature pertained to all languages.
These idioms are formed on the basis of the component parts/ images characteristic
of a definite national community and its language. Thus, only in English exist such
idioms as to dine with Duke Humphry, to cut off with a shilling, or to accept the
Chiltern Hundreds, and only in Ukrainian such idioms as передати куті меду,
впіймати облизня, ставити на карб, пекти раків,утерти носа, etc.
Typologically relevant is also the identification of the group of regular
international idioms, which are common, however, only in some groups of
geographically closer languages (cf. European, South-Asian, Far Eastern).
Nevertheless there scarcely exist universal idioms of the same lexical meaning and
the same component structure. This is the result of the historical development of
languages which were exerted in different geographical/racial areas to different
cultural, religious and other influences. Thus, all European nations and their
languages have been influenced by Greek and Roman cultures and by Christianity.
As a result, there are many not only words but also idioms borrowed from Greek,
Hebrew and Latin (cf. Pandora's box, Herculean pillars, Gordian knot, between
Scylla and Charybdis, to cross the Rubicon; 1 came, I saw, I conquered; the Ten
Commandments, wise Solomon, prodigal son/to be in (the) seventh heaven and many
others). These and the like idiomatic expressions, including several proverbs and
sayings, have usually absolute or near equivalents in languages of one culturally and
geographically common area. Such common historical, semantic, componental and
sometimes even structural equivalents can be seen on the following few examples
given below.
It must be pointed out that these and many other international idioms are alien,
however, to Chinese, Japanese, Aleutian, Indonesian and other
languages whose peoples have been brought up in other historic, cultural and
religious (Moslem, Buddhist, etc.) conditions. As a result, there exist no universally
equivalent idioms of identical semantic, componental, picturesque or syntactic
structure. And yet, because of the existence of many common vital needs of all
humans the world over and to a great measure due to many common natural
conditions of life, and not in a smaller measure due to common living working
conditions, which people practically experience during their everyday activities in
 different parts of the world, there appeared some correlating/relevant idiomatic
expressions of semantically similar/analogous or even common nature even in
genealogically and culturally non-related languages. These idiomatic expressions
comprise apart from some regular idioms also proverbs/sayings and stable/set
expressions. A most fitting language for the рифове would naturally be the one
standing farthest from the European languages as, for example, the Japanese
language. It has undoubtedly several grammatical and other peculiarities of its own
that are not available in all other European languages. Because of this it was found
apt enough for contrasting some of its idiomatic expressions with the English and
Ukrainian ones.
There exist, however, a comparatively larger number of near equivalents in the
three contrasted languages. These are idiomatic expressions, proverbs or sayings
containing one or more common component and having close to identical or similar
meaning in English, Ukrainian and Japanese. For example, the English and Ukrainian
idiom habit is a second nature has in Japanese a somewhat different semantic and
componental equivalent: Habit becomes nature Narai sei to naru. Therefore, one
component (the second] is missing in Japanese. Similar omissions or non-
coincidences can be observed in some other near equivalents of the contrasted
languages. Cf. the Japanese idiomatic expression shiro hire to in which means to call
white black (as in Ukrainian називати біле чорним), whereas in English one says to
talk black into white. Similar slight differences are observed in other Japanese and
European idiomatic expression. Cf. in Japanese: Migi no mimi kara hideri no mimi —
to go in at the right ear and out at the left or in English go in at one ear and out at
the other, which is in Ukrainian в одне вухо влітає, а з другого вилітає.
All in all, therefore, the number of absolute or nearly absolute idiomatic
expressions, having in each of the contrasted languages the same or almost the same
semantic and componental structure, may rise to ten or even to a few more.
Nevertheless, it gives scarcely any ground for a serious assumption as to the
existence of universal idiomatic expressions of the same meaning, nothing to say
about their componental and structural identity.
And yet the environmental and social conditions of life and regular vital needs may
define and even predetermine not only the behavior of people, but also their ways of
thinking in different parts of the world. Consequently, it may be assumed that some
near idiomatic equivalents and analogies may still come to being (and exist) in
absolutely different languages. Moreover, one can come across some near equivalents
and still more across genuine idiomatic analogies, which are sense units similar only
in sense in genealogically not related languages.