fh Revised and Enlarged Edition

.'I,,
rt

' i.

I •

_Vinay Kumar trall

 32
Post-Cold War Perspective and Revision of the Charter

In the period prior to 1991 it was generally believed that the-~nited Nations could not functi
properly as per the wishes of it~ founding f~t};lers owing to cold war_and polari~ation. After~~
end of the cold ~ar in 1991 a ray of hope appeared on the horizon thatw!th ~e ter~ationofEast-
We~t. confr~ntahon the UN would function more smoothly and effectively; that Jong pending
reV1s1on of its charter would be effected and that its organization would be restructured and
~e~?cratized keeping· in view changed environment since 1945. It is known as post-cold war
~ersp:cti~~ regafdirig. the UN. Even a decade after the end of th:e cold war no trace of change is in
sight m the_UN's_functioning. Nevertheless, it is interesting to discuss in some detail the post-cold
war perspective.
- . POST-COLD WAR ERA AND PERSPECTIVE
Nev~r ~efore Ynited Natio~ so well poised to .~chieve the great objective of its Charter,
maintaining international peace ·and-security, securing justice and human rights and promoting
social prog_:res.,,s. and.p~tter §~andai:_ds of life as it is .41_ the- present time, that is, in the post-cold war
era. With the demise of thP cold war the world seem_to have been liberated to some extent from the
shackies of a debilif~;ting competition, opines Dr. Bo1/tros Bourtros Ghali, sixth Secretary General
(1992-97) of the United Nations. The post-:cold war perspective provides a unique oppor~ty for
the United Nations to play a more effective role. Simultaneously the complexities of t~e emerging
global agenda offer new challenges to the world organization, seemingly widening gap between
promise and performance. •
There have been vast changes in, human society since 1945. Then the notion of national
sovereignty was considered to be the basis of international organization in the UN Charter, now,
national borders matter less relative to global problems like environment, population growth,
NDS, drugs, migrations, money, poverty, sustainable development, human rights ands? ~n.
Sdcurity, today, is defined in much broader terms. The classic notion of security meant contai.1U.ll1
conflict and the prevention of war. But today it includes the tac_kling of the complex globa
.
The post-cold war era is ushering in a new world order that provides a more cond~civ~
·environment for the United Nations to play a promising role in the maintenance of internation~t
peace and security and fulfilling its responsibilities toward social and economic developmen}he
is necessary for the UN to understand the inextricable link between peace and develo~ment. the
economic and social problems often-cause politifal turmoils and military conflicts. This way,
UN face·s a dilemma and-oscillates between h?fe and despair.
The fear of great instability iii the next decades is still there. In an interdependent world pe;r~:
are increasingly connected _with a.nd reliant 01' each other. 'The governments do not contro

111111111111
 .,

Post-Cold War Perspective and Revision of the Charter 443

ing the future is accepted reality. In the light of all these developmen ts the
orces sha_P being recognized as the only organization having the mandate with a· truly
·ordf N"atl·o).15 15 cter Restructunn
JJ131 •
g and re form1ng
• the United Nations to strengthen
·te 1chara • . it to _meet
Vfll '1tiona nd demands of the post-cold war era 1s an urgent task 1 Many in the world feel·
. terfl" ents a • ,
i!l quireJll ealistic new outlook. .
.11e re
v· VN ne
eds a r
UN ,
t}lat Activities of the system as well as suggestions from influential inemhers of the
1
t,[N'S Ro;~0 the evolving role of the United Nations indicate significant orientations for UN
tJN ifl.reg~r the next quarter century. The UN's new activist and multidimens ional role in
activitie~ Jllnew post-cold war world order has been explained by J.N. Dixit, India's former
1111cturing t ry in the following ways. 2
5 ·gn secre a
. •
forei. the UN system itself, led by the then Secretary-Ge neral Boutros Ghali was inclined
Ftr5t, ""ore assertive role in its peace-keepi ng activities immediately after the end of cold war
wards a t. .
~o
J,~•

_From peace-keepin g 1 ts ~ovmg on to assume the role of preventive crisis managemen t

• •

1 92
.Ll1 ~ eace-making'. Boutros Ghab s report An Agenda for Peace published in June 1992 generated
nd
a e~scale debate in the world as it contained many intriguing suggestions and ambitious
Jarg ntial security role of the UN._ The deployment of outside military personnel under,.UN
0
P:mand could be expanded usefully, the secretary-ge neral proposes, in areas similar to thos~ in
cohich they have been used .effectively in the past. With the consent of the parties and using force
:n1y as a last resort an~ 1°: self-def~nce , such dep~oyments include supervising co~id~nce-·
building measures, fact-fmdmg, staffmg early warrung centers and acting as buffers m either
interstate or intrastate conflicts.
For many of the activities me'.!ltioned above, however, there is no UN track recorq.; and where
there is one, it is least impressive and poor. Moreover, there is no consensus among members
states. The protection of UN civilian and humanitaria n personnel is another great challenge.
The most significant and surprising term propounded by An Agenda for Peace was 'peace-
making'. The normal definition of peace making concerns measures such as mediation and the use
of good offices outlined under the "pacific settlement of disputes" of Chapter VI of the UN
Charter. The report, however, also includes every type of international effort, including coercive
economic and military sanctions under
Chapter VII.
Another significant departure is the proposal to create peace-enforc ement units. Cease.:.fires
would be guaranteed by UN soldiers when warring parties no longer agree to respect a negotiated
~alt to carnage. When there is no peace to keep., UN soldiers thus would make-peace -and enforce
it. Th~se soldiers would be more heavily armed than traditional ·peace keepers. The recent
experience in several situations- with at least 30 cease-fires for Bosnia and various agreements for
Somalia and Rwanda-su ggests how this kind of "peace making" exceeds the expectation of
governments and the abilities of the UN.

In SuPPlement to An Agendafior Peace, a progress report issued in January 1995 on the occasion
0f the UN' f'f •
. s 1 beth anniversary the Secretary Genera1 w hi tt1e
• d d own his ear1·1er proposa1s. H' .1s
earlier oPtinusm
• subdued and he ' recommend ed caution becau~e f
o events th a t h a d b een padta• 11y
or totallYunforeseen in 1992.
qualit - These events are• mtense
· •
mterna 1 con n·1cts, .and the quan t·t t·
1 a ~ve an
d
e . ative changes in the· UN's efforts to deploy multifunctio nal opera hons. The later document
nv1sages b
a su dued expectations and reduced UN act1.v1. t~es.
. 3
_
th
e new s_ecurity enviFonmen t has placed new demands on the ~Nin ~eneral and_the Security
444 lnterna'tional Relations
cil became comm· .
Coun cil in partic ular. Cons ensus withi n the Secur ity Coun 1n the p
the UN and its
war era. Parad oxica lly, the gap betw een the dema nds upon
wide. The expa adihty to llleitt•co1d
whet her with cash or troop s has becom e e~ba rrass ingly
ing oper atii et DN Pea thell\,
secur ity respo nsibi lities inclu de not only tradit ional peace -keep
peace-making an~s, ttt also efe
mcnitoring, huma n rights observations, huma nitari an security,
the post-cold wa peace enforce:tlon
The UN has unde rtake n more peace -keep ing opera tions in
same time the ~~e:rs than in ~t.
cold- war years . Henc e it faces a large and grow ing bill. At the as reduced it:
financial comm itmen t to the UN. .
essential global 0
Anot her task befor e the UN is to devis e a mean s of mana ging
gove rnme nt in the prese nt turbu lent world can mana ge to solve f~
its problems as blezns. No 1
Hum an society today fa e emerging
issue s are no longe r dome stic but.a re of globa l ramifications.
enges and problem~ a:s::e sof
probl ems whic h have globa l ramifications. Some of these chall
Lank a etc.), population ee 1 c~ni
and ethni c strikes (e.g., in Russia, Yugo slavia /Serb ia, Sri
abuse and trafficking, bad go~p osion,
envir onme ntal degra datio n, fundamentalism, terrorism, drug ernance
in many deve lopin g coun tires etc.
izatio ns ~ik_e UNCTAD, IAEA,
Movi ng away from the tradit ional activities throu gh organ
OC are getting directly involved
UNID O, UNESCO, etc. the UN General Assembly and the ECOS
movi ng into a more intrusive and
in envir onme ntal, devel opme ntal .and social issues. The UN
rences held under its aegis since
activ ist role has cataly sed throu gh a numb er of intern al confe
cil Summ it ~f Heads of State and
Janua ry 1992. The most impo rtant of these was the Security Coun
Janua ry 31, 1992. The Summit was
Gove rnme nt who were mem bers of the Security Council on
cturin g of the organization itself for
devo ted to plann ing out the new role of the UN and the restru
this purpo se.
Global Environment heldinRio
The summ it was followed by the International Conference on
erence held in Vienna in June 1993,
in June 1992, followed by the Intern ation al Hum an Rights Conf
nome nclat ures of the conferences
and the Worl d Popu lation Conference held in Cairo in 1994. The
issue s whic h the UN wishes tode~l
indi~ate the wide range of sooial, economic and devel opme ntal
Social Development was held in
with. The year 1995 was equal ly active. The World Summ it for
Cope nhag en from Marc h 6 to 12, 1995. The UN Intern ation al
Prolif eratio n Treat y held in Vienn a in June- July 1995._ An
Conference for removal_of theNonf
intern ation al conference o~ the
on huma n habitation m Istan u
st a;::
wom en was held in Beijing in Septe mber 1995 and anoth er
1996. • 1992 was a
er docu ment prepa red. by the· ·u~D ~ _m f fne (]N's
-~ addit ion to 'The Agend a for Peace' anoth ° .
report on sustainable developmen.t. Both these docu ment s revea
led the overallpro1ect1on
the world .
role in reord ering the political, social and economic order· of
d
DEFECTS: NEE D FOR REST RUC TUR ING • g an
have necessitated reforJlllll
The following flaws and defects in t.I:ie work ing of the UN . y
restructuring of this intem a tional organization. Jllibtar
cial crunch~ ~ith ~:e vN nas
Suffer~d by dimi~ishing. fin~ncial resources and a great finanpolitical'dec~s1ons, the wor~d
muscle of its own, anci constitutionally disab led from takin g firm
_debating so_c1ety :..Ue the bJg
0
been red.uced to be a .pape r ti~er. _"At .best, it ~as ~~come and frustrations w (now 189)
comnu.1~ty w~ere. natio ns ventd ate their p~nt- up grievances tion and over l~O
powers listen m silent amus emen t With• topLheavy admi nistra criticizes ParanJpee-
,"4
member countries, i~ ~as become a virtua l Ivory Tower of Babel

l
tf . -
Post-Cold War Per .- . -
- . spectzve and Re·v. .
· · °! the Charter 445
zswn
enties, the Sov•iet veto had blocked th
·U tJie sev he UN started showing some si e functioning of the UN
and
!\,iJle tiefsf~ !ts by the UN to take action to me!~:hoefclri_fe b~t all its .initiati;e~:~deeedigm_htif·e~l a1 ure.
l ises insoma1ia, Rwanda and B .
at, ·ve e l • I
e ces51 It was on y m raq a e so-called UN
th t th . ·r
;:ve bore some fruit. But a~: :~; ::
faUed, ation was carried out by the US in the nam~n;,
The UN. In Bosnia, the UN initiative to
~oleoper havens' for refugees ended in dismal failure
~te 'saf:eement there by brow beating all sides conc
~rne~r:_fter the Americans have 'forged'
I thout any reference to the UN
ace ag the nam e of th UN ·
ape t America was keen to use
w!; car7y out its political design and
Ill the0 r:;;i ons as in Korea and _Iraq. But in the post-c~ld
Fro period_ the US as sole superpower
otlfilatY ~e!ll to feel the n~e~ of ~smg the facade of the UN. ea: Bos~1a to K?sovo, the US seems
Inst
doesnots ting a course of a.ction i~dependent of the UN.
iobe a~o~ 15 ow direc tly ta.km ~ actio n throligh its Own agencies Iii! ~mg UN name ~nd b~nner,
ATO to impose its will and
the US cred1•t where such actio_n succ:eeds . :
kiJtg ~-
.. -. - .
ta
ten into its Charter. It could. not inter .
the failu .. ," . • . Writ
re of-U N was
. .
C

fere m the conduct

In asense, _ •
of any roerober _na~on beca~se it was sovereign
and the UN had to respect it, The UN can take
th ~Ifonding party never invited the UN.
action if it was_ mv~t-ed ~y e country c,oncemed, and the ect of controversy: Articles 2(7) of the
anitarian intervention by the abuses has been the sub1
"are essE!ntially Within the dotrit?Stic
:ter excludes 'involvement by the UN in matters that
tfiat gross and persistent_violatio_ns of
·unsdiction of states':: Many i? the c?ntemp~rary,\Vorld feel
iuman rights cons_titute threat to _mtemati~nalnaypeace _ and tlieref~re a ~atter. of ~ternaho~al
ncem. Under Article 39 th~ Secµr1ty Coun~dJ ~ec1de w~et~er inter al1a foroble mterventi~n
security. The present UN is confined to
: necessary to maintclin ,or restore international peace·and
on of nations.
national sovereignties and inte rnal / domestic jurisdicti
enJoy an overriding power of veto-which
The five permane~t m_ember.,s of the~Security Council
decisions. One veto would have been bad
made it impossible for the UN ·to fake any_worthwhile
inaction. The veto right of a few privileged
enough, but five vetoes h"d vi~~ally sealed· its fate to _ •
.. .
powers is an anti-democratic provis1ori .!fl. the Charter.
t~ rich Western, countries. The~ had
The UN has a top-heavy administt~tion.dominat~d by
which th~_ average membe~ co~ ~ne s-
set up the UN salary. scales _as per thei~ own. standard
~ord. As_ the funds came prunai:lly from
mostlf from the impoverished third-World-could ill-af c,e_consisted largely of th~ whites. The
Amenca and the Euroyeiin cotmtries, the UN civil serv1
COuntry who could ta_e the lme of the US.
Secretary-General w3S usually choseri frOm a small weak
in crisis management durin~ poli ti~
Indeed the UN- -; 1 - usefu.l; and effective role blem in recent years is that t~i f1c
Illilita . . . can pay-_~ th prod ropriate consultatiOns.-al\d a
acti ry cn~s m different parts of the world. But 0 e
! f
at~~n:f for restructuring-the Security
gen: dealing wiµt these crisis situations are ~ ba:\ f th vastly increased membership of ,J

Co _e consensu!i among the member~states. This

IS

lhe ; making it more democratic and repr esen tat:: ;ber : who constituted ,the UN in ~e
•
be· . Which now stands at 189 com.pared to 5l odd .
glllning.. . . . ternational legal system wor~-tne
•
legi_slatioi:is,t.ao ~:;1Court of Justice is st~l a rlella~yelleyt
nah\De.spite a vast amount of international The Inter na 1 t f internationa aw,
~le 1s n t . . in the present w~rld • ~nito ring. µie respe c or ke in the way of
~eak b o existing
chial in~erests pu~s~;emerit Capacity in
alone fody. There is little or no machm~ry for~ paromonitor1llg and e o
ellfor .or enforcing it. National .sovereignty adnevelop ,
- • • 1 to
Clllg •
'
lllternational law. It is essentta - • , :' ·; . •

i
 ..'

'
446 International Relations

a
many vital areas. There is a great need to develop an effective interna tional legal system nct to
strengt hen the Interna tional Court to over several global problems.
It is also needed to induce the US and other states to pay back their legally obligated ha k
bi;io dues
to put the UN on strong financial footing~. The ~efaulters, w??se dues to UN run into g bank ns of
dollars, can emascu late the system with thet.r persistent lackada1s1cal stance; the growin
ruptcy
of UN has ma~e its Secreta ry Genera l "a kind of super beggar ."
REVIS ION OF THE UN CHARTER
-----
the
Restru cturing and reform ing the United Nation s to make it effective in order to meet
~ee:s
an~ deman_d~ of the post-co ld war era is an urgent task. There is a need to have a world 0 Y
which has militar y muscle , econom ic strengt h and univers al jurisdiction.
Charter Provisions for A1nendn1ent. The ·UN Charte r provid es two method s of propdsin
may b!
amend ments .bu_t a single formul a for ratification. ·According to Article 1,08, amendments
will then
propo~ ed by a vote of two-th irds of the total membe rship of the General-Assembly and
membe r~, includin g all the
come into force if ratifie_d by the govern ments of two-thirds of the
Article
perma nent membe rs of the Securit y Council. Amend ments may also be propos ed under
convened
109 by a two-th irds vote of a genera l review conference. Such a review conference can be
may be called
at any time by the Genera l Assem bly and the Security Council. A rev.iew confer~nce
rs of the
- by a two-th !rd vot~ of all membe rs of the General Assembly and a vote of any nine membe
become effective only when
Securit y Counci l. Amend ments propos ed by a review c~nf-erence can
rs of the
ratified by two-th irds of the membe rs of the UN includi ng all the perman ent membe
Securit y·Counci l. ,

Basic~Ily, there is little differe nce from a legal point of view betwee n Article 108 and Article
1
as adopted
109. "Never theless , the states most dissatisfied with various provisi ons of the Charter
confere nce in the hope of re-
in San Francis co insi5t"ed on the possibi lity of calling a review
eal proposal s
examin ing a broade r ·,range of fundam ental change s than might result from piecem
5
from the Genera l Assem bly," points out Bennett.
annual
. Article 109 also provid es that if a review conference has not been held before the tentJ,,
on the
session of the Genera l Assem bly, the propos al to call such a conference shall be placed
y of all membe rs of the ~eneral
agenda of that session and the require d vote is .reduce d to. a majorit d d' • ·rmg m 1955 i
,
Assem bly and any seven membe rs of the Securit y Council. Col war con 1tions prevai
there ~as •
in the world and in the UN preven ted calling of such a· review conference. Moreover
ement among membe rs upon previou sly sugges ted-ref orms ..Thus provisi on rega rdmg
disagre
review conference remain ed imprac ticable . ·\ •.
- • . -.. a1 d"ff' lti'es, the UN Charter was
Amendn ients. Despit e rigid proced ure and pracbc 1 icu . do ted
Formal
_PThe
formally amend ed four times. Amend ments to Article 23, 27 an~ 61 of the C?harter _w~r~;65
The
\.
by the General Assem bly in Decem ber 1963 and these came mto force m Augus 11 t~ 15·uers
amendm ent to Article 23 enlarge d the membe rship of the Securit y Counci l from
amendment to Article 27 provid es that decisions of the Securit y Counci l on proced ura ma by
0ther matte;sthe
shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine membe rs (forme rly seven) and on all
;n affirmative vote of nine membe rs (formerly seven) includi ng th~ con~ur r~g votes: 1965
the·
ermanent Members. The amend ment to Article '61 of the Charte r effective m Augusb nd { 73
~nlarged the membership of ECOSOC from 18 to 27. The Article was further am~ ed5t 9
in:~:::~ Assembly resolution adopte d in December 1971 which became effective in
g the membership of ECOSOC from 27 to 54. 6 .
Augu
.
' :l
l'

L
 Post-Cold War p .
erspective and Revision of the Charter 447
th •
Changes. Like ever y cons titut iona l docu men t . e UN Cha rter has been chan ged
ber of time s
,i1 r11tal num thro ugh the follo wing
1~·0 ll}' at a ways.
ough the non- impl eme ntati on or non- a lie t'
~orJl'la
rter in~rr a :o~ of certain provisions of the Charter;
(1) ~ou gh a proc ess of info rmal Cha
ahon and insti tutio nal adap tion;
(2) through the conc lusio n of supp leme ntar y t pr~_
(3) tt.....ough the crea tion of spec ial orga ns and enc1es.
raega ie~ or agreements; and
(4) 1u..
s of info rmal chan ges are num erouc·e· s Alth ou h
1 entio ns and absen •. S g. cont rary to the term s of the Char ter,
£xarnP efd'sregarding abst ty Cou nc'l t' • f' ml bli
Ill o fi Unit ing for Peace Reso lutio n in 19SOsin becun . . • 1
vo mg is tr Yesta shed.
wecusto. O C . . ~u st_anhally alter ed the relat ive roles of the
assing . •
out a forinal amendme • e prac ice of bloc votin
·nt Th t· , .
rhe P 1Assembly and Secu rity ounc ll with g
Gnera .1 h G IA bl . ge. The Gen eral Asse mbly 's
15 her such informal chan
ecertain issues ~ t e ~ner a ss~m Y anot .
on :nterpreta. tton
I ~· of its auth ority to dem and informati. on from coloru·a1 pow ers, to exercrse
llbera d. 1 • 1 1 nd to ~eclare the inde pend ence of Nam ibia from Sout h
ressure toward en mg co orua_ rue, a
the colonial sphe re unfo rese en in a stric t
~ca are _examples of expans_i~ns of author~ty in
on-implementation appl ies to Article -43,
interpretation °_f Cha rter Pl'.'OVtsions.\ Examples of_n
lable to the Security Council-by all m·embers
according to which ~rm eq fqrce~ we~e _to b_e mad e avai
peace and security. The agre eme nts·u nder
of the UN_.for the.p urpo se of main_tairung inter natio nal
ng the major pow ers over the term s of
this article could. not be Qlade owin g to disa gree men t amo •
the agreements and over secu rity matt ers.. .
Restructuring and Ref ont\ ing of the UN •
ugh revision of the Cha.rter. The following
The UN can only be restr uctu red and refo rmed thro •
revisions are sugg este d in its Cha rter: =

ision of the Char ter was grea tly misu sed

1. Replacement and Modification_ of Vet~.•- As veto prov
during the cold war peri_od it is ess~ntial"'to consi
_d~r·it.s replacement or modification by anot her
one which prov i~es for effec tive. deci sion s byJh,ree-
fqurth of the members.of the Security Council
or some such ·sinµl~_ ~~ch ~nis Ql. _rhis' refo rm who
se,~im is to depoliticize and democratize the
~ra the. oppo rnmi ties open to the Security
Security Council is, nece ssar y ~s .~the- post-c;old~ war
dominance at pres ent by one supe rpow er,
Council un~er Arti cle 39 have:gr,eatly _incr~ased a~d its
the United States, i~ patenJ~-In r~ali ty,.h owe ~er, it
1 is ·very. difficult to realize this.revision. •
that is neede_d is to expand, d~mbcratiz_e
2. Expansion of the Secu rity Council. Ano ther reform
ns of othe r continents. The ~cur 1ty Council
and make room for ~deq uat~ repr esen tatio n of natio
as Permanent Members of it. All -~long, all
can be made more effective. by in(iu ~ing new countries was a
the five powers w-ho were ~~a de Perm. anen t Mem bers in 1945 whe n the_UN membersdhip that has
• • . and they seem to igno re a worl t l89
rnere 51 h .. • tlege d posi tion, . h • •
, ave been en1·o ying'"'the_priv ·d UN hose membership as now risen o
llnderg •
a mod :e the.interest of countries of Asia , Africa
The Sec:~~ dramati~ and mau mati ~ chan ges an_ m G • nd Japan as the new Permanent
and L . ity C.ounctl need s to be wide ned to acco - erml?ny af 1·ndia the la_rgest democracy in
Mernbahn Ameriea. Whi.le the Wes t is keen to spon sor , • . cla~ .
. h port ed o
the c aimt Mem India has stake d its
ers m ber.
thew ' any coun tries hke Cub a ave SUJ:>
~e:i teria -pop ulat ion, size of economy,
for Pe~r1d, for indu ction in the Secu rity Coun~il-a s a ~erm
n ad y eace keeping, democratic governance
contribm~nent Mem bers hip stati ng that it quahf1ed g~ve • .
an P
and fu:o n to the main tena nce of peac e and security
, f 11m·.g within the domestic jurisdiction
e pote ntial . "des that matt.er a(Article 2 Para 7). Th'15 provision • • 1·s
3·Do • Cha rter prov i
of nzestzc Juris dicti on The
~en:~o:e meaningful and effective has to have
tes~;ta!e shall not be iiab le for inter natio nal inter d •
.nsible for ~he imp oten cy of the UN. A worl bo y
448 Inter11ational Relations
• b This provisio n needs to be amende d, sug
overridin~ powers,,ov~r a~l ~et:s::~ i not prejudic e the applicat ion of preventi ve o~:sts Das, b
ad~ng a nder that this prm~1p tters which are the subject of internat ional obligationf~rceltielt
action under Chapter VII an ma . hts and fundame ntal freedom s."7 n 111cludin
the observance of and respect for human rig g
. . . It • su gested to confer compuls ory jurisdict ion in place f
·ur:d~~ i~~u~:i !~::::~:~ i:nat5co !-t of Justice. The !nternat ional Co~rt also be ~ul!?ilal
J h
to ear appea1s from JU • dgement of Municip al (nationa l) Courts adJud1c ahng upon
d . . . ised
mariti
. th
captures d urmg e war. The Cotirt may also be empowe re to exercise cr1nunal jurisdi'cti tne
. S . onove
individu als accused of dimes against Internati onal Law. The ecunty ~ouncil. and Genera;
Assembly can refuse to consider legal disputes -and reco~e nd to the parties that such disputes
be taken to the court. · • •
s. Criteria for Determining Breach of Peace. There sho:uld be precise yet flexible criteria for
determin ing whether there is real pr~ach of the pe_ac_e ora real t~reat to peace t~at ~-eq~esforcible
interven tion under.C hapter VII ofthe·C~arter·. It 1s most essentia l that the deternun ahon whether
such criteria are attracted in a g-iven situation should be entruste d to a non-poli ti~al body. Sorabjee
suggests that a 'standing judicial committ ee of the Security Council ' may be -set up for trus·
purpose.8 It ·may consists of statesm~n,. judges, jurists- and ·military personn el of integrity and
independ ence from different regions. Th~ judicial committ ee, ~fter consult_ing the concerned states
and assessing the situation , can make the_ requisite detetmii lation, which is a pte!requisite for UN
determination..This objective device will minimiz e, if not eliminat e, partisc}ll considerations from
vitiating the decision -making process. 9 •

6. Humanitarian Military ln.terve1ztio.n. Th:is suggesti on is to overcom e the UN's military

inadequacies. To make the peace keeping and enforcem ent forces more effective, the world boqy
would need a nwdus operandi by which such forces could be deploye d at short notice. It has, often,
been seen in recent times that a few countri~-s have usurped the role of the UN in so-called peace-
keep_ing, but, in reality, re~ucing themselves to the.role_ of gunboat diploma cy as the case of the US
role m the Gulf War, Bosnia and Kosovo and 'the Prance involvem ent in Rwanda . The creation of
one ef~ective and adeq~ate rapi~. d_eplorment force under the auspices of. the United Nations is
esse~tial. ~t woul~ be_ 1n pos1~on to. respond immedia tely and thus head off or reduce th~
massi~e viole~ce m situation s like Rwanda, or some compara ble human disaster in B~undi,
Somalia, Bosrua, Kosovo or elsewhere. 1 .

.7· International Security Sicbcontract. In the eve~t of non-feasibility of the creation of a permanent
~!'id deploym e~t force an alternati ve method of subc·ont racted interven tion may be ernployedd.
~~cent past expenence favours this p Th UN ..
to coalitions of • . roposa1• e
ma1or or regional powers R • dec1s1ons to interven e should be subcontrade . :n
. . . . d Russia
the former Soviet re ublics f • egiona1 power (N1ger1a 1n West Africa an . al or
JJ.•

global coalitions. Pe!'haps ont:~: :te~ could take the lead, combine d with la_r~e~ r~gt~~ouid
larger powers (France in Rwid ~g~n~l powers cannot or will not take the llllttattved do·
. a or e mted States in Somalia· for example ) be expecte 10
_The Security Council in recent past ind· . . . ntionbY
ma1or powers in regions of thei·r t ct· . icated the growing relevanc e of military 1nterve IoY ns
• .
troops m Georgia to end the thre ra 1tional int t • For instance
. . I to dep
. · e-year-ql - .eres a Russian p an t help
end genocidal conflict; and the Unit d S . d civi"l wa_r; the French interven tion in . d~ 0
Rwan ntilltarY
camp in Haiti. Inadequa te UN n-,.~lite t~tes 1scheme to launch an invasion to reverse the r evell
ary capa ·r
hegemons, operating under theuuscruf f c1 ies could be overcom e by regional powers, untableo
this type of international.security sub:no _the w~rld ~o?Y· By making interveners_ acco acY·
tract can ~e distingu ished from gunboat diploJl\
P"9
llil
Post-Cold War Perspective -and Revision of the Charter • 449

; . n Action in War Zones. While military forces have an important logistic capacity
r1µ,r1artt.
·tarta ·rcumstances, the vas t ma1onty • • of human needs should continue to be the
8•Pp:1ost diref c1•vilian organiza • t·ions. Th.is · -. · entity should be created to deliver
new civilian
ii' t1te..4;jt,ility ? c~tive war zones with Chapter VII economic or military sanctions. This specialized
resrr,OJ""eJ.lC'/a1d ill truly
a "internationa• l" In terna t·iona1 C ommittee of the Red Cross The volunteers
erg ld be rt of the common UN staff system since
· •
eJJl shOll they would have to be properly insured
cadreJdf.lOt be . • pa
t d. Weiss • f ur ther suggests, " separating this unit • from the secretary general and
s11od cotrlP~nsd_ae:tly to the Security Council would insulate the office of the UN's chief executive-
3Jl • 1t ir
aclti11g. ui·pped to manage the use O f mi·1·t i ary force-from Chapter 7's call to arms against
3tt • ill-eq • I h ld b
which Th UN secretary genera s ou
15 e avai·1able for more impartial tasks, especially
vi}lain• . e trusteeship or. its equivalent for failed states." 10
3 (lliltlstermg · •-
ad Role for· Trusteeship Council. Weiss gives ~no~er very useful suggestion concerning
9•New·ty ·giving a·-dmnus · • • tr• a t·ion •o f the fai·1e d states to th e Trusteeship
• Council.• Many states
teIIl~:::m civil war and internal strik~s. In so~e states there i~_ no gov~rnme~t ~orth the ~ame.
suff the recent past example o! C~m~odia, Namibia, Uganda, Syria, Somalia, Indonesia, Afgharustan,
fro~ t n etc. can be cited. For such· failed states a modified system of trusteeship is urgently
r::e~- In 1994 th~ last UN_lrtis~ territory became ~dependent, thereby lea~ing the Trust_eespip
n'th no work. This Council may be entrusted with a new task of handling temporarily the
:\oblems of states that have ceased to function, and to provide breathing space for civil society
p
to be reconstitute d" , suggests W. e1ss.-u . . - •
\ . . ..
10. Reform of General Assembly:. Though the G~neral Assembly has assumed great powers and
significance by way of informal changes, resolutions, declarations yet many feel that it should
enjoy more powers. Its major ~opunittees. ·should.meet in continuous sessions. To save time and
money more and more working and study groups should be set up to prepare resolutions and
chalk out future progranunes. President of lhe General -Assembly arid Chairmen_ of corrµnittees
sh·ould have more authority ttflimit discussion. 'Fhe seats to different stales should be all~tted in
accordance with the population·and financial·i:ontributions made ·by the- member-~-states to th~
UN budget. The larger States-·are opposed to· the concept of equality of voting rights of. the mini
and the micro states. They insist on some limitations on the voting pow'er of these numerous s~all
states as that would unfavourably tilt the:balance of power against the big States who are less in
~umber in the Ge~er~l As~embJy~ ~t is.suggested that to improve the representaiive char~ct~r of
e General As~embly some._ syste~ Q.f weighted yo_ting ~us_t l;)e ·introduced. .. _.
11
a •. Financial Reforms. The. expen~es of the UN are apportioned by the General Assembly
~!
;~r~g to_the_capacio/' the meml;>~r~ to pay: While ~xpenditure on pe;ice keep~g, developmental
preci ~~mtarian activities are _ev.er increasing, Member-St~tes don -t pay therr dues. -re~arly
the· p attng a financial crisis. Efforts-have been made to persuade the defaulter states_ to make
i.rn; contributi9ns 'but ~ithout much success. Even affluent states like the US are defaulters. Tq
rne;~:;s~ collection,; effective measures should be adopte_d to collect payments especially from
hose capacity to pay is beyond doubt.
Acrucial
arrears of f oc~s for the UN recently was the O~ganizaho~ • ' s f1nanc1a
• • I crisis:
• • in• p~rti~u- -1ai: the
Despit th e United States which is the larg·est single contnbutor_of the UN s regular budget.
telatio e the. success the seventh
' Secretary-General Kofi• Annan h as h a d_ in
• ·es ta_blish.mg c1oser
arrear~ With US'Adntlnistration and Congressional leaders, the United States remain.sin substantial
O
WU} be c t~e UN. Fulfilment by all Member-States of the obligation to pay dues in full and on time
Cenera1~1~1 to the success of the present reforin effort$. "Th~ reform programme", the ~ecretary-
fi ~an has explained, "will create a United Nations that has a leaner and more cost-
 450 l11ter11atio11al Relations

effective structure, a budget that is more committed to solvency d d

a management that 1s • better coordinated
· and accountable. 12 11
an eveloPlllen~ prioritt
•
To_ overcome f1nanc1a •1 . . d . . es, and
cns1s an put the international organization
following sources of revenue are suggested by Bennett: 13 on sound fo t·
0 Ing th
1. A surcharge on international mail or on international comm . . e
for the United Nations. unications to be earh-.
• ~,ark
2. A fee for the use of international water ways. _ ed
3. Substantial
. fees for services performed by the United N t·.
a ions or th
agencies. : . e specializ d
4. A 'finder's fee' for aid in discovering and developing new res6ur e
5. Exploitation of the resources of the oceans and seabeds throughces.U .
•
opera ting agency or, more hkely, a IUted Nat'10ns
through leasing rights to private or naf
6. Exploitation of the resources of Antarctica. iona1agencies.
-7. L1cencing fees _or other charges (or the use of outer space.
8. Taxes ear?'arke~_for United Nations use but col_lected by member - states.
9. Taxes_ on international travel or international passport fees.
10. Private or foundation contributions with ~uitable exemptions from national taxation.

It ~snot easy to put the above suggestions in practice. Sound financial health of the UN shall
make 1t less dependent on the big powers' contribution. By agreeing to the above suggestions the
big powers will not like to diminish their influence in the organization.

LATEST REFORM EFFORTS IN THE UN

The demand and need for structural changes and reform began to be articulated in 1990-91 when
the ending of the cold ~ar fundamel}tally altered relatiqns among states, regions and political
blocs. But very little organizational reform hc;td in fa~t_ taken place, a result primarily of suspicion
that change would be driven by the powerfttl at the expense of some of the Organization's long-
standing commitments,_ particularly to development. No less~important was the absence of a
vision of such change that could be supported by all Member - States. ·
It is therefore remarkable that Secretary-General Kofi Annan succeeded within a year in
mobilizing the General Assembly behind the ambitious programme of reform he embarked on as
soon as he took office in January, 1997.
Secretary-General Annan has a clear mandate to continue his reform efforts, and. :e~~
address areas in which he himself recognizes more headway needs to be made. The accomp~ ral
of these tasks has been made easier with the creation of the post of Deputy Secret:y- : ; a~
which will facilitate the drive to strengthen the Organization's work across the boar ' as
raise the profile of its development activities.
Building a Reform Consensus • s of
h t the proces
Mr. Annan's ability to forge consensus on contentious issues has meant t a . ll since he
reforming the United Nations, under way for anumber of years, deep.e_ned dramattca Ytrearnline
took office. In Mar_ch 1997, the Secretary-General undertook wide-ranging measures t~ 5 din the
the Secretariat. In addition to propos~g a cut in staffing of 10 per cent-which ~as achieV:erred to
"!;
98 1999
- budget-aggressively reducing administrative costs (with the savings tra7 9gand
evelopment activities), _sl~shing Secretari~t documentation by.25 per _cent by the end O 19 ·
 . •
Post-Cold War Pers pectm e and Revision of the Charter
451
.
the Secretary-Gen 1
' •• negative-growth bu dg et, nt int o on e e:~a c:n so hd ated the three departments
i~l de ve lop me nd rtmental
roPositl~ e~onomic and so~ tte r co ord ina tio n an d~ ~1 ~d u ert~ok other depa s
ilitate be te duplicatio~ of work. He ha
fvol~ed 1~ designed to fac entities int o fou r the ma tic e ~u na
c and
; 5tr11cwritl!ther some 30 UN
; an d hu ma nit arianaref~s: rs. peace and security; economi
era tio ns •J
o-rot1Pe~, t~gs· development op · a 1a1
.
D • afial! ,
1 .
IMPLEMENTING REFORM
~a
h
vember·.1997 the Ge neral As sembly put its stamp of approva1on t e reforms that
No • • . h
On 12 tary-GeneraI has taken or 1n1t1ated since March 1997• Among t em:
the ~A M'e
idating the w k 0 f
omic and Social Affairs consol
iP-. .

lish a J?e ~a rtm en t of Ec on or

• Estab the se are as;
the Secretariat 1n
king, money
Vi en na -b~ se~ pro gr~ mm es on fighting crime, drug traffic rector;
1 Combin~ the e Di
nd ter ror ism int o a sin gle office, headed by an Executiv
Iaunderu~g '"a
a single office
tHe Ge ne va -ba sed pro gra mmes on human rights into '
• Combine iss ion er for Human Rights;
headed by the Hi gh Co mm
assistance, headed
ure Se cre tar iat ma ch ine ry for coordinating humanitarian
• Restruct inator;
by an Emergency Relief Coord
ri~ s an ~ p'r og ram me s wi th development operations into a
• Bring· together thelJl'ifu fac ilitate common goals, and con Coordinator;
solidate the UN
UN De ve lop me nt Gr ou p to Resident
o a ~ingle ~lJN House" under a
presence at the country level int the disarmament
a De pa rtm en t of Di sar mament Affairs to advance
• Establish
, agenda. '- ' ,. "
the Department of
en ca pa dty for po st- co nfl ict peace-bui~ding by making
• Strength
nt" within the UN;
Political Affairs the focal poi neral Assembly
ate co nfe ren ce ~u pp ort ser vices into i:i Department of_ Ge
• Consolid
ces; -
Affairs and Conference Servi llion;
nis tra tiv e co sts ov er the n~ xt four years by at least$ 200 mi
• Cut admi rvi~, str ea m ~g
nso lidati ng procurementse
• Upgrade th:UN admi nis tra tio n, by co
· procurement, dev.elo ping .a single service tod
. ..
procedures, expandon ing electronic mm un ica tio n infrastructure, an
inf orm ati tec hn olo gy and teleco
provide . . . .:
ing the use of do cu me nts in electronic form; coo per atio n wi th civil
expand • ltation and iza tions
con~u • n-governmentalor gan
tia tiv ~s to inc r~a se l!N
• Un~ertake ini ess community, labou~ unions, no
society-the busin e
.
all UN wo rk_to enh anc its
1partfvities especially to national
. of
activi tie s as an integr a f
• Consolidate informationy its role and range o ac i ,
ability to explain dearl
ing set of
audiences. t t ward the most far-reach
~os~d
S •
Se cre tar y- Ge ne r~ ~~ e/: o the General Assembly. Pro rk to
the d wo
Prap~bsequentiy, in July, 1997Organization ever su . Secretariat structures an
step als on restru ctu rin g the As sem bly and the
er rat ion ali zin g an d str engthde~n!uch as the General
re.co~~nged fro
m furth . . of UN•bo ies_.,_ . . •
b_ ......1..nend . a11 ce the fun cti on mg
1.:.Con0 . ations to enh ·,. • : . • • •
e details belo~)! •-
lllic an~ Social Council._ (Se
 ;:m.: ............. ;,t""

-
452 International Relations
REFORM
GENERAL ASSEMBLY SUP POR TS
a's July 1997
_1997 embra~ed Secretary-General Ann
The Gen eral Ass emb ly on 19 December
1t app rov ed included:
package_of refo rm pro pos als. Elements
ry~General to hel p ~an age Secretariat
• Establishing the pos t of ~ep uty ~ecreta file and lead ersh ip 1n the economic and
pro
ope rati ons and raise the United Nations
social sph eres ;
ting the efforts by the Secretary-General
• In the area of pea ce and security, sup por
flicts and to enh anc e the Organization's
and the Security Council to pre ven t con
men t capacity; _
info rma tion -ga ther ing and rap id dep loy
ner ated
velo pme ntac cou ntfu nde dby sav ing sge
• App rov ing the establishment of ade es;
d for dev elop men t pro gra mm
from adm inis trat ive reforms, to be use
ta1
ineJ urth er the wor k of the inte~governmen
• Con firm ing its wil ling nes s to stre aml Soci al
as well as. those of the Ec9nomic and
org ans , incl udi ng its ow n pro ced ure s, ,_ - -
jes;
Council and sev eral of its sub sidi ary ~o_d
of a new Sec;retariat lead ersh ip and
management
• Enc our agin g the esta blis hme nt
stru ctur e;
policies,
Sup por ting a . tho
. ro~ gh ove rha ul of the Secretariat's hum an resources
•
pra ctic es and methods~ • -:
example:
a f_ew of the Secre.t~ ry~G t:ne ral's.pr oposals, decisions are still pen din g; for
On
p his
ted . the Sec reta ry-G ene ral to dev elo
• : The Gen era l Ass em bly req ues
nium General Ass emb ly" in the yea r 2000
rec om men dat ion s reg ard ing a "Millen 's
Ass~m_bly." brin gin g tog ethe r the UN
and a,co trip anio n "'~eople's Millennium
re challenges;
par tne rs in civil'society to-deal.w1t}1 .fµtu
ring -proposals for a clo ~r relationship
• The Gen eral Assembly. is still conside of
/UN FPA and UNICEF to ens ure review
bet wee n the Executive. Boards of UNDP
issu es of com mo n con cern ; /

n's
ng Cre dit Fun d to assu re the Organizatio
• It still has to dec ide on a pro pos ed Revolvi
financial solv enc y;
s
dec isio n on esta blis hin g a high -lev el commission to rev iew the relationship
• A
spe cial ized agencies is still pen din g;
betw een the· UN and its aut ono mo us
a review
dec ide whe the r ECOSOC sho uld initiate
• The Gen eral Ass emb ly has also to cts for further
mis sion s to eva lua te pro spe
of the fun ctio ns of the five Regional Com
r wor k.
rati ona liza tion and con soli dati on of thei
. bl ,, butta
et of "th e Ref orm Ass em y,
B . acti. ons , the Ass em bly has ear ned itse lf the sob riqu l~
0
Yits ups set up by the Ass e~b
Thr ee of the five Wo rkin g Gro
num ?er of cru cial dec isio ns rem ain . t the ir rec om men dat ion s, inc lud ing those co
nsiclertng
es stil l hav e to pre sen • tha t d eter mi dues to
·ne
consider wid er refo rm issu C . ass ess me nts
th s •
the refo rm of e ecur1ty oun cil and cha nge s to the sca le of
the Org aniz atio ns. 14 f

Fundamental Reforms Sti ll Pen din g . n going

emb l h . rm of the Un ited Nat ion s 1s an° the
The Gen eral Ass as rec ogr uze d tha t the refo 1
process and tha t ·t Y nat ure to enab e
r cha nge s of a mo re fun dam ent al
Org a~a tion to ad~ nee ds to con side in the yea rs ahe ad. .. . .
. • ress_the _challe~ges
•

L
 ts
._ ., .~ .. ,} ib P
'
.,
.

.
.
. • . -·
Post-Cold War Pers ctzve and Revision of the Charter 45
3
• • pe
an
A s~ em bl y m us t gr ap pl e With th e ch ?~s th at ar e beyond the Secretary-
this en d, !h e pr op os al s ra ng in g fr om
th d
place specific time lim
its
It w il l co ns id er he th et ec is io n to
1oward~Orify. em bl y w bu dg et in g
op te d by th e A ss ~ pt a results-based
rt1l's aut an da te s ad bo di es a e~ C ~ ~ pr ov en
tr ea m fu tl ng of pr oc ed ur es fo r su ch bl y w o sk. C. O th er changes ha ve form
(je#ertY peW the 5 w ill re qu ir e m or e tim e. A n A ss em
Ill rity Council re
o/l ~ ' to d co ns en su s on ch : m g gr o1 :; on Secu w or ki ng
us ive .:n m ar at ho n ef fo rt to re ac h fl ec t: !: : to t_t ebmlemb~~ship anddeconomic
sl'5re e1 le it to re
eq ui a Y political an
il th at w ou ld en ab
JJ1illres1J1IleO1/ th e C ou nc
wroeedures
-
e
th at were w ith in th
s .
P jitieS• 1 th U N . .I ar ia t~ pa rt ic ul ar ta l
• cr et
rea s m e • m ge ne ra -an~ it sthSe e te nu re of K of i A nn H ow·ever, fund am en
ucw.ral re fo rm ha d be en effected du rm g an.
C etc.) ar e possible
only
Str fSecretary-General • C . 1 us te es hi p C ou nc il, EC O SO
er o other or ga ns (S. ec ur it y ou n~ i, Tr 10 8 an d it is an uphill
task.
f" ' es in en ts un de r A rt ic le
chartg h formal am en dm N
tJttOUg
RY ACTION PLA
U N 's 21 st CENTU ted N at io ns
w or k. fo r pe op le in every nation, Uni tailed
ld le ad er s to m ak e gl ob al iz at io n re d hi s 21 st C en tu ry Action_ Plan, a de all
• g wor il 2000 offe an calls on
i A nn an on 3 Apr d N at io ns Miliennium Summit. The Pl
u:;ary-General Kof al ity , im pr ov in g ed
ucation,
rt th at se ts th e ag en da fo r th e U ni te po ~e rt y an d ~e qu
Se en di ng
~ t th em se lv es to e environment.
:~ e r- States to c o cm g H IV / AIDS, an d pr ot ec tm g th
increasing security, re
du
id M r._ A nn an . "N o calling.is m or e •
hi ng w e do," sa ie s: an d
t pu t pe op le at "t he ce nt re of ev er yt abling:men, women,and-children, in ol e
"We mus
on si bi li ty gr ea te r, th an th at of en nl y w he n th at be gi ns to -h ap pe n will w16
noble,.and no re sp es better. O ruties. " -
ar ou nd th e w or ld , to m ak e th ei r liv i ve , al lo w in g e: ve ry one to sh ar e its o.portu
villages ing incJµs
know that gl ob al iz at
io n is in ~e ed }?ecom illennium Su m m it
on "6-8
a sp ec ia l M
G en er al 's re po rt w as co ns id er ed by
ov er nm en t fr om ar ou nd the world,
• The Se cr et ar y- ate an d G e the
00 , a ra re ·m ee ti ng - of he ad s of St bl y of the ne w millennium. The r~port, "W n
September 29 ta tio
th e ev e of th e fi rs t U N G en er al A ss e~ ry/' is the most comprehensive pr es en
scheduled on e 21st Centu og ra m m e
U ni te d N at io ns in th s specific goals alld pr
::eples: Th e Ro le of th e nt ~i ni ng nu m er ou
Peo y, co
ft y- fi ve ye ar hi st or
~ 's mission in it s fi ld le ad er s _c~ns1der.
to _
atives Mr. A nn an
as ke d w or da including:
iv es to an am bi tio us 21st C en tu ry agen
s to co m m it th em se
The report ur ge s na ti on op le liv in g jn extreme povert
y, an d the
:ti on of pe
by 20 15 th e pr op gi • • •
• C ut ti ng in ha lf .
eliminating the
1

fo rd ab l~ w at er , - an d
la ck in g sa fe an d af et e p ri ~ ry ed uc ation,
pr op or ti on co m pl
;W IS al l ch il dr en .within 10
• En su ri ng th ~t by ea rs old by 25 pe r cent
n;
l level~ of ed uc at io 15 24
• ~e nd er $a p at alin fe ct io n ra te s fo r pe rs on s - Y s ,, ac t·io n p 1an, which
R ed uc in g H IV "c ·u es w ith ou t Sl um
• ye ar s·,
th ro ug h su pp or ~! 0 th: ~
1
dwellers by 2020; for goods pr od uc ed
ed countries d quota-free
~p gr ad in g sl umes,th e li ve s of 100 nu lli on . d ustr·ia1iz· of du ty -f re e an
au ns to im pr ov f th e m po lic y
ark e ts O .
tries by March 2001;
• Gra nt ·m g fr ee ac ce ss to th e amfi rs t st ep , adoptingda eloped coun •
an d as the leastInde ev ed Poor Countries p ro g ra ~ e
in po or co un tr ie s ' f
rt s ro rn . hi bt couni:r1es
access fo r es se nt ia ll y al l ex po
_ i:1 1f d bt so f th eh eavilyindebtedpoor reduction;
the mitments to poverty
th e ex pa ns io n of
• Im pl el ll en ti ng an d ca nc el lin g al l off1c1a •etrable com
ag re ed la st ye ar, . ki n de m on s . •
. co un tr ie s m a g
In re tu rn fo r th
os e
 454 Inten1ational Relations

• Doin g more to ensu re the secu rity of peop le and comm

uniti es, as Well
throu gh firm er enfo rcem ent of inter natio nal hum anita rian
• Crea ting grea ter trans paren cy in arms trans fers, supp
• to oth e~ areas the "
and hum an·. as nations
ortin g regio nal drt~hts law; '
meas ures, and exten ~1ng weap ons for good s" progrisartn all'tent
have been succ essfu l 1n Moz ambi que, Pana ma, El Salv a
ador and Alba nia· ll'Unes that
• Impl emen ting the Kyot o Proto col to lowe r gree nhou se gas
dang erou s warm ing of the plane t.
emis sions and' and
prevent the
In the repo rt, Mr. Ann an also stron gly embr aces new infor
mati on techn ology and se .
role for it in fight ing pove rty and prom oting hum an deve
lopm ent, as well as in impr ov;s 11\~Jor
Nati ons oper ation s. 17
· g ntted
REFERENCES
1. B. Meen a Rao and M. Vijay alaks hmi, "Uni ted Natio ns:
Prob lems and Prospects", Third Cone t
(New Delh i), Augu st 1995, p. 7. .
2. J.N. Dixit , "Fift y years of UN- Mid- life Crisi s", Indian Expre
•
I ep
p. 4. ss (Cha ndiga rh), February 28, 1995
• '
3. Thom as G. Weis s, "The Unite d Natio ns at Fif~y: Recent
1995, p. 224. Lesso ns," Curre nt History. (USA), May'
_
4. V.V. Paran jpee, "The UN Toda y-Ho stage to the US", In.dia
n Express, Febru ary 1, 1996, p. 6.
5. A Lero y Benn ett, International Organizations-Principles
and Issues (Englewood Cliffs, New
Jerse y: Pren tice Hall, 1988, 4th Edn.), p. 90.
6. B.N. Mehr ish, _International Orgcnizations-Structures and
Processes (Delhi: Vishal Publications,
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7. Hari Hara Das, Principles of International Law and Orga
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8. Soli J. Sorab jee; 'The Unite d Natio ns at 50', Span (New
Delhi), Septe mber 1995, p. 14.
9. Ibid.
10. Thom as G. Weis s, n. 3, p. 228.
11. Ibid., p. 227.
• - .
12. Quot ed in "Secr etary Gene ral sets cours e for long- awai
ted UN revita lizati on", United Nations
Focus Series (Yew York: UN Dept . of Public Infor matio n, Janua
ry 1998), p. 8.
13. Supra n. 5, p. 97.
14. Supra n. 12, pp. 1-6.
15. "Dyn amic s of Unite d Natio ns refor m felt syste m wide ", y k'
United Nations Focus Series (New or •
UN Dept . of Publi c Infor matio n, Septe mber 1998), p. 6.
16. 'UN Secre tary- Gene ral Kofi Anna n offers 21st Cent t, in
ury Actio n Plan in Millennium Repo r'
UN Newsletter (New Delhi: UN Infor matio n Centr e),
Vol. 55, No. 14, 1 April 2000, P· 1.
17. Ibid. p. 2.