MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN NURSING / LEVEL 1
SECOND SEMESTER / 2022-2023

MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS

MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY METABOLIC ENZYMES

• Physiology is the study of the vital life processes of • Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur in
organisms. a cell. The chemical reactions are referred to as metabolic
o Microbial physiology concerns the vital life reactions.
processes of microorganisms. o Metabolic reactions are enhanced and regulated by
• Scientists can learn about human cells by studying the enzymes known as metabolic enzymes.
nutritional needs of bacteria, their metabolic pathways, and • Biologic Catalysts
why they live, grow, multiply, or die under certain conditions. o Enzymes are biologic catalysts; they are proteins
• Bacteria, fungi, and viruses are used extensively in genetic that either cause a particular chemical reaction to
studies because they produce generation after generation occur or accelerate it.
so rapidly.
BIOLOGIC CATALYSTS
NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS • Enzymes are specific in that they only catalyze one
• All living protoplasm contains 6 major chemical elements: particular chemical reaction.
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and • A particular enzyme can only exert its effect on one
sulfur. particular substance, known as the substrate for that
o Combinations of these and other elements make up enzyme.
vital macromolecules of life, including • The unique 3-dimensional shape of an enzyme enables it
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. to fit the combining site of the substrate like a key fits into a
• Materials that organisms are unable to synthesize, but are lock.
required for building macromolecules and sustaining life, • An enzyme does not become altered during the chemical
are termed essential nutrients (e.g., certain essential amino reaction it catalyzes. (They don’t last forever, however!)
acids and essential fatty acids).
Action of specific enzyme (E1) breaking down a substrate
CATEGORIZING MICROORGANISMS ACCORDING (S1) molecule
TO THEIR ENERGY AND CARBON SOURCES
• Terms relating to an organism’s energy source.
o Phototrophs use light as an energy source.
o Chemotrophs use either inorganic or organic
chemicals as an energy source.
• Chemolithotrophs use inorganic chemicals as
an energy source.
• Chemoorganotrophs use organic chemicals as
an energy source.
• Terms relating to an organism’s carbon source:
o Autotrophs use carbon dioxide (CO2) as their sole
source of carbon.
o Heterotrophs use organic compounds other than
CO2 as carbon sources.
• Terms that combine both energy and carbon source:
o Photoautotrophs use light as a carbon source and
CO2 as an energy source.
o Chemoautotrophs use chemicals as a carbon source
and CO2 as an energy source. • Endoenzymes are enzymes produced within a cell that
o Chemoheterotrophs use chemicals as a carbon remain within the cell to catalyze reactions.
source and organic compounds other than CO2 as o Example: digestive enzymes within phagocytes
an energy source. • Exoenzymes are produced within a cell and then released
• Ecology is the study of the interactions between living outside of the cell to catalyze extracellular reactions.
organisms and the world around them. o Examples: cellulase and pectinase, which are
• Ecosystem refers to the interactions between living secreted by saprophytic fungi to break down
organisms and their nonliving environment. cellulose and pectin, respectively
• Interrelationships among the different nutritional types are • Hydrolases and polymerases are examples of metabolic
of prime importance in the functioning of the ecosystem. enzymes.
o Example: Phototrophs, such as algae and plants, are
the producers of food and oxygen for FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE EFFICIENCY OF
chemoheterotrophs, such as animals. ENZYMES
• Many factors affect the efficiency or effectiveness of
enzymes; enzymes function best under optimum
conditions.

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 BIOCHEMISTRY: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
o pH - extreme acidity for example CATABOLISM
o Temperature - heat can denature enzymes by • Catabolic reactions release energy (by breaking bonds) and
breaking bonds are a cell’s major source of energy.
o Concentration of enzyme and/or substrate – may be o Some energy is lost as heat in catabolic reactions.
too high or too low • Biochemical pathways are a series of linked biochemical
o Inhibitors, for example heavy metals like lead, zinc, reactions occurring in a stepwise manner, from a starting
mercury and arsenic material to an end product.
• Think of nutrients as energy sources for organisms and
METABOLISM think of chemical bonds as stored energy.
• As previously stated, metabolism refers to all of the • Glucose, for example, can be catabolized by one of 2
chemical reactions within a cell - reactions known as common biochemical pathways: aerobic respiration and
metabolic reactions. fermentation.
o A metabolite is any molecule that is a nutrient, an
intermediary product, or an end product in a
metabolic reaction.
• Metabolic reactions fall into 2 categories: catabolism and
anabolism.
o Catabolism refers to all catabolic reactions in a cell.
o Anabolism refers to all anabolic reactions in a cell.
• Catabolic reactions involve the breaking down of larger
molecules into smaller ones.
o Whenever chemical bonds are broken, energy is A biochemical pathway with 4 steps. Compound A is ultimately
released. Catabolic reactions are a cell’s major converted to compound E. Four enzymes are required in
source of energy. this biochemical pathway. Compound A is the substrate
• Anabolic reactions involve the assembly of smaller for Enzyme 1, Compound B for Enzyme 2, etc.
molecules into larger molecules, requiring the formation of
bonds. Once formed, the bonds represent stored energy. • Catabolism of glucose by aerobic respiration occurs in 3
• Much of the energy released during catabolic reactions is phases (each is a biochemical pathway):
used to drive anabolic reactions. o Glycolysis
• Energy can be temporarily stored in high-energy bonds in o The Krebs cycle
special molecules, usually adenosine triphosphate (ATP). o The electron transport chain
o ATP molecules are the major energy-storing or • The 1st phase (glycolysis) is actually anaerobic, but the
energy-carrying molecules in a cell. other 2 phases are aerobic.
• ATP molecules are found in all cells because they are used • Glycolysis (also called the glycolytic pathway, the Embden-
to transfer energy from energy-yielding molecules like Meyerhof pathway and the Meyerhof-Parnas pathway) is a
glucose, to energy-requiring reactions. 9-step biochemical pathway. Each step requires a specific
• When ATP is used as an energy source, it is hydrolyzed to enzyme.
adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
• ADP can be used as an energy source by hydrolysis to Aerobic Respiration of Glucose: First Step =
adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Glycolysis.
• The Krebs Cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle, the
Interrelationships among ATP, tricarboxylic acid cycle and the TCA cycle):
ADP, and AMP molecules
o A biochemical pathway consisting of 8 separate
reactions, each controlled by a different enzyme.
o Only 2 ATP molecules are produced, but a number
of products (e.g., NADH, H+, FADH2) are formed,
which enter the electron transport chain.
• In eucaryotes, the TCA cycle and the electron transport
chain occur in mitochondria.
• In procaryotes, both occur at the inner surface of the cell
membrane.

The Krebs Cycle

• Energy is required not only for metabolic pathways, but also

for growth, reproduction, sporulation, and movement of the
organism, as well as active transport of substances across
membranes.
• Some organisms (e.g., marine dinoflagellates) use energy
for bioluminescence.
• Cellular mechanisms that release small amounts of energy
as the cell needs it usually involve a sequence of catabolic
and anabolic reactions.

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 BIOCHEMISTRY: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
• The electron transport chain (also referred to as the electron MUTATIONS
transport system or respiratory chain): • A change in a DNA molecule (genetic alteration) that is
o A series of oxidation-reduction reactions, whereby transmissible to offspring is called a mutation.
energy is released as electrons which are o 3 categories of mutations:
transferred from one compound to another. • Beneficial mutations
o Many enzymes are involved in the electron transport • Harmful mutations (some are lethal mutations)
chain, including cytochrome oxidase, which transfers • Silent mutations
electrons to oxygen (the final acceptor). • Mutation rate (the rate at which mutations occur) can be
o A large number of ATP molecules are produced by increased by exposing cells to physical or chemical agents
oxidative phosphorylation. called mutagens.
• Aerobic respiration is very efficient! • The organism containing the mutation is called a mutant.

Fermentation of Glucose WAYS IN WHICH BACTERIA ACQUIRE NEW

• Fermentation reactions do not involve oxygen. They take GENETIC INFORMATION
place in anaerobic environments. There are many industrial • Ways in which bacteria acquire new genetic information
applications of fermentation reactions. (i.e., acquire new genes):
o First step is glycolysis (anaerobic). o Lysogenic Conversion
o The next step is conversion of pyruvic acid into an o Transduction
end product. The end product varies from one o Transformation
organism to another. Example: yeasts are used to o Conjugation
make wine and beer; the end product is ethanol. • An extrachromosomal DNA molecule is called a plasmid.
o Fermentation reactions produce very little energy (~ An organism that acquires a plasmid acquires new genes.
2 ATP molecules).
• A plasmid that can either exist by itself or can integrate into
the chromosome is called an episome.
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
• Oxidation-reduction reactions are paired reactions in which (A) A disrupted E. coli cell, in which the DNA has spilled out. A
electrons are transferred from one compound to another. plasmid can be seen slightly to the left of top center (arrow).
• Oxidation occurs whenever an atom, ion, or molecule loses (B) Enlargement of plasmid.
one or more electrons in a reaction; in which case, the
molecule is said to be oxidized.
• The gain of one or more electrons by a molecule is called
reduction and the molecule is said to be reduced.
• Within a cell, an oxidation reaction is always paired with a
reduction reaction; hence the term, oxidation-reduction
reaction.
• In a redox reaction, the electron
donor (compound A) is the
reducing agent, and the electron
acceptor (compound B) is the Copyright © 2011
Lysogenic Conversion
oxidizing agent.
• Temperate phages (or lysogenic phages) inject their DNA
• Many biologic oxidations are into a bacterial cell.
referred to as dehydrogenation reactions because
• The phage DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome,
hydrogen ions, as well as electrons, are removed.
but does not cause the lytic cycle to occur – this is known
as lysogeny.
ANABOLISM • A phage is called a prophage when all that remains of it is
• Anabolic reactions require energy because chemical bonds its DNA.
are being formed. The energy that is required comes from • The bacterial cell containing the prophage is referred to as
catabolic reactions, which are occurring simultaneously. a lysogenic cell.
• Anabolic reactions are also called biosynthetic reactions. • The bacterial cell exhibits new properties, directed by the
• Biosynthesis of organic compounds requires energy. The viral genes – this is referred to as lysogenic conversion.
energy may be obtained through photosynthesis (from light)
or chemosynthesis (from chemicals). Transduction (“to carry across”)
o Photosynthetic reactions trap the radiant energy of
• Also involves bacteriophages.
light and convert it into chemical bond energy in ATP
• In transduction, bacterial genetic material is “carried across”
and carbohydrates (e.g., glucose).
from one bacterial cell to another by a bacterial virus; thus,
in transduction, bacteria acquire new bacterial genes.
BACTERIAL GENETICS
• Note how this differs from lysogenic conversion, wherein
• Genetics = the study of heredity.
bacteria acquire new genetic information in the form of viral
• An organism’s genotype is its complete collection of genes. genes.
• An organism’s phenotype refers to its physical traits (e.g., • Only small amounts of genetic material are transferred by
includes hair and eye color in humans). transduction.
• An organism’s phenotype is the manifestation of that
organism’s genotype.
• Genes direct all functions of the cell.
• A particular segment of the chromosome constitutes a
gene.

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 BIOCHEMISTRY: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Generalized Transduction • Viral delivery is the most common method for inserting
genes into cells; specific viruses are selected to target the
DNA of specific cells.
• Genes may someday be regularly prescribed as “drugs” in
the treatment of diseases (e.g., autoimmune diseases,
sickle cell anemia, cancer, cystic fibrosis, heart disease,
etc.)

Transformation
• A bacterial cell becomes genetically transformed following
the uptake of DNA fragments (“naked DNA”) from its
environment.
• The ability to absorb naked DNA into the cell is called
competence and bacteria capable of absorbing naked DNA
are said to be competent bacteria.
• Transformation is probably not widespread in nature.

Conjugation
• Involves a specialized type of pilus called a sex pilus.
• A bacterial cell with a sex pilus (called the donor cell)
attaches by means of the sex pilus to another bacterial cell
(called the recipient cell).
• Some genetic material (usually a plasmid) is transferred
through the hollow sex pilus from the donor cell to the
recipient cell.
• A plasmid that contains multiple genes for antibiotic
resistance is known as a resistance factor or R-factor. A
bacterial cell that receives a R-factor becomes a
“superbug.”

GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology
involves techniques to transfer eucaryotic genes
(particularly human genes) into easily cultured cells to
manufacture important gene products (mostly proteins).
• Plasmids are frequently used as vehicles for inserting
genes into cells.
• There are many industrial and medical benefits from
genetic engineering.
o Examples: synthesis of antibodies, antibiotics, drugs
and vaccines; also, for synthesis of important
enzymes and hormones for treatment of diseases.

GENE THERAPY
• Gene therapy of human diseases involves the insertion of a
normal gene into cells to correct a specific genetic disorder
caused by a defective gene.

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N 5 MICRROBIOLOGY & • When the concentration of solutes in the
external environment of a cell is greater
PARASITOLOGY than that of solutes inside the cell, the
Chapter 8: Controlling Microbial World in Vitro solution in which the cell is suspended is
said to be hypertonic.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT • Plasmolysis – a condition in which the cell
MICROBIAL GROWTH membrane and cytoplasm of a cell shrink
away from the cell wall; occurs when
bacteria with rigid cell walls are placed into
Availability of Nutrients
a hypertonic solution.
• All living organisms require nutrients to
sustain life. • When the concentration of solutes outside
a cell is less than that of solutes inside a
• Nutrients are energy sources. Organisms
cell, the solution in which the cell is
obtain energy by breaking chemical bonds.
suspended is said to be hypotonic.
• If a bacterial cell is placed into a hypotonic
Moisture
solution, it may not burst (because of the
• Water is essential for life. It is needed to
rigid cell wall); if it does burst, the
carry out normal metabolic processes.
cytoplasm escapes—this process is known
• Certain microbial stages (e.g., bacterial
as plasmoptysis.
endospores and protozoal cysts) can
• A solution is said to be isotonic when the
survive a drying process (desiccation).
concentration of solutes outside a cell
equals the concentration of solutes inside
Temperature
the cell.
• Every organism has an optimum growth
• Organisms that prefer to live in salty
temperature.
environments are called halophilic
• The temperature (and pH) ranges over
organisms.
which an organism grows best are largely
• Those that do not prefer to live in salty
determined by its enzymes.
environments, but which are capable of
• Thermophiles – microorganisms that grow
surviving there (e.g., Staphylococcus
best at high temperatures.
aureus) are called haloduric organisms.
• Mesophiles – microbes that grow best at
moderate temperatures (e.g., 37°C).
• Psychrophiles – prefer cold temperatures
(like deep ocean water).
o Psychrotrophs – a particular
group of psychrophiles, prefer
refrigerator temperature (4°C).
• Psychroduric organisms – prefer warm
temperatures, but can endure very cold or
even freezing temperatures.

pH Barometric Pressure
• “pH” refers to the acidity or alkalinity of a • Microbes that can survive in high
solution. atmospheric pressure (> 14.7 psi) are
• Most microorganisms prefer a neutral or known as piezophiles.
slightly alkaline growth medium (pH 7.0 -
7.4) Gaseous Atmosphere
• Acidophiles prefer a pH of 2 to 5 • Microorganisms vary with respect to the
• Alkaliphiles prefer a pH > 8.5 type of gaseous atmosphere that they
require.
Osmotic Pressure and Salinity • Obligate aerobes – prefer the same
• Osmotic pressure – the pressure that is atmosphere that humans do (~20-21% O2
exerted on a cell membrane by solutions and 78-79% N2, other gases < 1%).
both inside and outside the cell. • Microaerophiles – require reduced
• Osmosis – the movement of a solvent, concentrations of oxygen (~5% O2).
through a permeable membrane, from a • Obligate anaerobes – are killed by the
lower concentration of solutes (dissolved presence of oxygen.
substances) to a higher concentration of • Capnophiles – require increased
solutes. concentrations of CO2 (5-10% CO2).
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 • A selective medium has added inhibitors
ENCOURAGING THE GROWTH that discourage growth of certain
OF MICROBES IN VITRO organisms while allowing the growth of a
desired organism; example = PEA agar.
CULTURING BACTERIA • A differential medium permits the
IN THE LABORATORY differentiation of organisms that grow on
the medium; example = MacConkey agar.
BACTERIAL GROWTH • The various categories of media are not
mutually exclusive; e.g., blood agar is
• Think of bacterial growth as an increase in enriched and differential.
the number of organisms rather than an • Thioglycollate broth (THIO) – is a popular
increase in their size. liquid medium in bacteriology labs; it
• Bacteria divide by binary fission (one cell supports the growth of all categories of
divides to become two cells) when they bacteria from obligate aerobes to obligate
reach their optimum size. anaerobes.
• Binary fission continues through many o How is that possible? There is a
generations until a colony is produced on concentration gradient of dissolved
solid culture medium. oxygen in the tube; organisms grow
• Binary fission continues for as long as there only in that part of the broth where
is a sufficient supply of nutrients, water, the oxygen concentration meets
and space. their needs.
• The time it takes for one cell to become two
cells is called the generation time (e.g., E.
coli = 20 minutes).

A Thioglycollate (THIO) Broth Tube

Binary fission of staphylococci.

CULTURE MEDIA

• Media (sing., medium) are used in

microbiology labs to culture (i.e., grow)
bacteria; media prepared in the lab are
referred to as artificial media or synthetic
media.
• A chemically defined medium is one in Bacterial colonies on MacConkey agar
which all ingredients are known. (a selective & differential medium)
• Culture media can be liquid or solid.
• An enriched medium is a broth or solid
containing a rich supply of special nutrients
that promote the growth of fastidious
organisms; example = chocolate agar.

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 • The sterility of the media must be
maintained before inoculation.
o Avoid touching the surface of the
agar!
• Inoculating media within a biologic safety
cabinet minimizes contamination and
protects the laboratorian.

INCUBATION

S. aureus on mannitol-salt agar • After media are inoculated, they must be

(a selective & differential medium) placed into an incubator which will maintain
the appropriate atmosphere, temperature,
and moisture level; the process is known as
incubation.
• 3 types of incubators are used in clinical
microbiology laboratories:
o A CO2 incubator (contains 5-10%
CO2)
o A non-CO2 incubator (contains
room air)
o An anaerobic incubator (the
atmosphere is devoid of oxygen)
Colonies of a β-hemolytic Streptococcus species on a blood
agar plate (in this case, the blood agar is
both enriched and differential) BACTERIAL POPULATION COUNTS

INOCULATION OF CULTURE MEDIA • Microbiologists sometimes need to know

how many bacteria are present in a
• Culture media are inoculated with clinical particular liquid at a given time (e.g., to
specimens (i.e., specimens collected from determine bacterial contamination of
patients with a suspected infectious drinking water).
disease). o Can determine either the total
• Inoculation involves adding a portion of a number of bacterial cells or the
specimen to the medium. number of viable (living) cells
• Inoculation is accomplished using a sterile • A spectrophotometer can be used to
inoculating loop. determine growth by measuring the
turbidity of the medium.
• A viable plate count is used to determine
the number of viable bacteria in a liquid
sample by making serial dilutions of the
liquid and inoculating onto nutrient agar;
after overnight incubation, the number of
colonies is counted.

IMPORTANCE OF USING BACTERIAL POPULATION GROWTH CURVE

“ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE”
• A population growth curve for any
• Aseptic technique is practiced when it is particular species of bacterium may be
necessary to exclude microbes from a determined by growing a pure culture of the
particular area (e.g., when inoculating organism in a liquid medium at a constant
culture media). temperature.
• Unwanted organisms are referred to as o Samples of the culture are collected
contaminants; the growth medium or plate at fixed intervals to determine the
is said to be contaminated. number of viable organisms.

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 o A graph is prepared by plotting the • There is no single medium that is best for
logarithmic number of viable all medically important fungi.
organisms (on the vertical or Y- • Examples of culture media for fungi include
axis) against the incubation time brain heart infusion (BHI) agar, BHI with
(on the horizontal or X-axis). blood, and Sabouraud dextrose agar
(SDA); due to its low pH, SDA is selective
for fungi.
• caution must be exercised when culturing
fungi—some are highly infectious!

CULTURING PROTOZOA
IN THE LABORATORY

• Most microbiology laboratories do not

culture protozoa; some research and
A population growth curve of living organisms. reference labs do, however.
• Examples of protozoa that can be cultured
in vitro are amebae, Giardia lamblia,
Leishmania spp., Toxoplasma gondii,
Trichomonas vaginalis and Trypanosoma
cruzi.
• Due to the severity of diseases that they
cause, it is of greatest importance to culture
amebae: Acanthamoeba spp., Balamuthia
spp. and Naegleria fowleri.

INHIBITING THE GROWTH

OF MICROBES IN VITRO

DEFINITION OF TERMS

Sterilization
• the complete destruction of all microbes,
A Chemostat is used for continuous cultures. including cells, spores, and viruses.
• Accomplished by dry heat, autoclaving
CULTURING OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR (steam under pressure), gas, various
PATHOGENS IN THE LABORATORY chemicals, and certain types of radiation.

• Obligate intracellular pathogens are Disinfection

microbes that can only survive and multiply • the destruction or removal of pathogens
within living cells (called host cells). from nonliving objects by physical or
• Obligate intracellular pathogens include chemical methods; pasteurization is an
example of a disinfection technique.
viruses and 2 groups of Gram-negative
• Disinfectants – chemical substances that
bacteria—rickettsia and chlamydia.
eliminate pathogens on inanimate objects.
• Culturing these organisms in the laboratory • Antiseptics – solutions used to disinfect
is a challenge; they must be grown in skin and other living tissues.
embryonated chicken eggs, lab animals, or
cell cultures. • The suffix –cide or –cidal refers to “killing.”
• Germicidal agents, biocidal agents, and
CULTURING FUNGI IN THE LABORATORY microbicidal agents are chemicals that kill
microbes.
• Fungi (including yeasts, moulds and • Bactericidal agents are chemicals that
dimorphic fungi) grow on and in a variety of specifically kill bacteria, but not necessarily
solid and liquid culture media. bacterial endospores.

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 o Sporicidal agents kill bacterial Autoclave
endospores. • A large metal pressure cooker that uses
o Fungicidal agents kill fungi, steam under pressure to completely
including fungal spores. destroy all microbial life.
o Algicidal agents kill algae. • Increased pressure raises the temperature
o Viricidal agents destroy viruses. above the temperature of boiling water
(above 100°C) and forces steam into
Microbistatic Agent materials being sterilized.
• a drug or chemical that inhibits growth and • Autoclaving at a pressure of 15 psi at
reproduction of microbes 121.5°C for 20 minutes destroys vegetative
microorganisms, bacterial endospores,
Bacteriostatic Agent and viruses.
• one that specifically inhibits the metabolism • Can use pressure-sensitive tape or spore
and reproduction of bacteria strips or solutions as a quality control
measure to ensure proper autoclaving.
Lyophilization
• a process that combines dehydration
(drying) and freezing. This process is
widely used in industry to preserve foods,
antibiotics, microorganisms, and other
biologic materials

Sepsis
• refers to the presence of pathogens in
blood or tissues, whereas asepsis means
the absence of pathogens

Antisepsis
• the prevention of infection
A large, built-in autoclave
USING PHYSICAL METHODS TO INHIBIT
MICROBIAL GROWTH

Heat
• 2 factors – temperature and time
o determine the effectiveness of heat
for sterilization.
• The thermal death point (TDP) of any
species is the lowest temperature that will
kill all of the organisms in a standardized
pure culture within a specified time. Pressure-sensitive autoclave tape showing
• Types of Heat dark stripes after sterilization.
o Dry heat – e.g., oven, electrical
incinerator, or flame Cold
o Moist heat – boiling or use of an • most microorganisms are not killed, but
autoclave their metabolic activities are slowed.

Desiccation
• many dried microorganisms remain viable,
but they cannot reproduce.

Radiation
• an ultra-violet (UV) lamp is useful for
reducing the number of microbes in the air.

Ultrasonic waves
Dry Heat Sterilization; (A) Using a Bunsen burner flame, (B) • used in hospitals and medical and dental
Using an electrical heating device
clinics to clean equipment.

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Filters • Stable as both a concentrate and a working
• used to separate cells/microbes from solution
liquids or gases. • Odorless

Gaseous atmosphere Antiseptics

• can be altered to inhibit growth. • May safely be used on human tissues.
• Reduce the number of organisms on the
USING CHEMICAL METHODS TO INHIBIT surface of the skin; do not penetrate pores
MICROBIAL GROWTH and hair follicles.
o Antiseptic soaps and scrubbing are
Chemical Disinfection used by healthcare personnel to
• refers to the use of chemical agents to remove organisms lodged in pores
inhibit the growth of pathogens, either or folds of the skin.
temporarily or permanently.
• Disinfectants are affected by: INHIBITING THE GROWTH OF PATHOGENS
o Prior cleaning of the object or IN OUR KITCHENS (FROM THE CD-ROM)
surface
o The organic load (e.g., feces, blood, • Many foods brought into our kitchens are
pus) contaminated with pathogens; examples =
o The bioburden; types and numbers E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella and
of microbes Campylobacter spp. on poultry and ground
o Concentration of the disinfectant beef.
o Contact time • Problems arise when handling foods before
o Physical nature of the object being cooking.
disinfected • Remain aware of pathogens when
o Temperature and Ph preparing foods.
• Wash hands frequently.
• Thoroughly clean plates and counter tops
that have had poultry or meat on them with
hot soapy water
• The use of antibacterial kitchen sprays is
controversial.

CONTROVERSIES RELATING TO THE USE OF

ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS IN ANIMAL FEED
AND HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS

• 40% of the antibiotics manufactured in the

U.S. are used in animal feed;
microorganisms resistant to these
antibiotics survive!
o Drug resistant organisms are
transmitted in animal feces and in
food products.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN IDEAL o Efforts are underway to eliminate or
CHEMICAL ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT reduce the practice of adding
antibiotics to animal feed.
• Should have a broad antimicrobial • Use of antimicrobial agents is widespread
spectrum in toys, cutting boards, in hand soaps, and
• Fast acting many other household products; resistant
• Not affected by the presence of organic microorganisms survive!
matter • Controversy: Should children be exposed
• Nontoxic to human tissues and to all sorts of microorganisms for their
noncorrosive immune systems to develop properly?
• Should leave a residual antimicrobial film
on surface
• Soluble in water and easy to apply
• Inexpensive and easy to prepare

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N 5 MICRROBIOLOGY &
PARASITOLOGY
Chapter 9: Controlling Microbial Growth In
Vivo Using Antimicrobial Agents

INTRODUCTION

• Chemotherapy is the use of any chemical

(drug) to treat any disease or condition.
• A chemotherapeutic agent is any drug
used to treat any condition or disease.
• An antimicrobial agent is any chemical
(drug) used to treat an infectious disease,
either by inhibiting or killing pathogens in
vivo. Some antimicrobial agents are The discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming.
antibiotics. (A) Colonies of Staphylococcus aureus are growing well in
this area of the plate; (B) Colonies are poorly developed in
• Antibacterial agents – drugs used to treat this area of the plate because of an antibiotic (penicillin)
bacterial diseases being produced by a colony of Penicillium notatum (a mould),
• Antifungal agents – used to treat fungal shown at C.
diseases
• Antiprotozoal agents – used to treat CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
protozoal diseases IDEAL ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
• Antiviral agents – used to treat viral
diseases The ideal antimicrobial agent should:
• An antibiotic is a substance produced by • Kill or inhibit the growth of pathogens
a microorganism that kills or inhibits growth • Cause no damage to the host
of other microorganisms. • Cause no allergic reaction in the host
• Antibiotics that have been chemically • Be stable when stored in solid or liquid form
modified to kill a wider variety of pathogens • Remain in specific tissues in the body long
or reduce side effects are called enough to be effective
semisynthetic antibiotics; examples include • Kill the pathogens before they mutate and
semisynthetic penicillin such as become resistant to it
ampicillin and carbenicillin.
HOW ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS WORK

The 5 most common mechanisms of action of

antimicrobial agents are:
• Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
• Damage to cell membranes
• Inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis (either
DNA or RNA synthesis)
• Inhibition of protein synthesis
• Inhibition of enzyme activity

ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS

• Bacteriostatic drugs inhibit growth of

bacteria, whereas bactericidal drugs kill
bacteria.
• Sulfonamide drugs inhibit production of
folic acid (a vitamin) in those bacteria that
require p-aminobenzoic acid to synthesize
folic acid; without folic acid bacteria cannot
produce certain essential proteins and die.
o Sulfa drugs are competitive
inhibitors; they are bacteriostatic.

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 • In most Gram-positive bacteria, penicillin Fluoroquinolones
interferes with the synthesis and cross- • bactericidal
linking of peptidoglycan, a component of • inhibit DNA synthesis
cell walls. By inhibiting cell wall synthesis,
penicillin destroys the bacteria.
Cephalosporin Antibiotic
• Cefuroxime is used to treat certain
infections caused by bacteria, such as
o Bronchitis – infection of the airway
tubes leading to the lungs
o Gonorrhea – a sexually transmitted
disease
o Lyme disease – an infection that
may develop after a person is bitten
by a tick
o Infections of the skin, ears, sinuses,
throat, tonsils, and urinary tract.
• Cefuroxime is in a class of medications
The effect of sulfonamide drugs.
called cephalosporin antibiotics. It works by
stopping the growth of bacteria.
• Colistin and nalidixic acid destroy only
• Antibiotics such as cefuroxime will not work
Gram-negative bacteria; they are referred
for colds, flu, or other viral infections. Using
to as narrow-spectrum antibiotics.
antibiotics when they are not needed
• Antibiotics that are destructive to both increases your risk of getting an infection
Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria later that resist antibiotic treatment.
are called broad-spectrum antibiotics
(examples: ampicillin, chloramphenicol
Synergism vs. Antagonism
and tetracycline).
• Synergism is when 2 antimicrobial agents
• Multidrug therapy
are used together to produce a degree of
o Sometimes one drug is not
pathogen killing that is greater than that
sufficient; 2 or more drugs may be
achieved by either drug alone.
used simultaneously, as in the
o Synergism is a good thing
treatment of tuberculosis.
• Antagonism is when 2 drugs actually work
against each other. The extent of pathogen
SOME MAJOR CATEGORIES OF
killing is less than that achieved by either
ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS
drug alone.
o Antagonism is a bad thing
Penicillins
• Bactericidal ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS
• interfere with cell wall synthesis
• Most antifungal agents work in one of 3
Cephalosporins
ways:
• Bactericidal o By binding with cell membrane
• interfere with cell wall synthesis sterols (e.g., nystatin and
amphotericin B)
Tetracyclines o By interfering with sterol
• bacteriostatic synthesis (e.g., clotrimazole and
• inhibit protein synthesis miconazole)
o By blocking mitosis or nucleic
Aminoglycosides acid synthesis (e.g., griseofulvin
• bactericidal and 5-flucytosine)
• inhibit protein synthesis • Antifungal agents and antiprotozoal agents
tend to be more toxic to the patient
Macrolides because, like the infected human, they are
• bacteriostatic at lower doses eucaryotic organisms.
• bactericidal at higher doses
• inhibit protein synthesis

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 Shigella. and N. gonorrhoeae; β–
lactamase-producing strains of
Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Haemophilus influenzae;
carbapenemase-producing
Klebsiella pneumoniae.

HOW BACTERIA BECOME

RESISTANT TO DRUGS

• Some bacteria are naturally resistant

because they lack the specific target site
for the drug or the drug is unable to cross
the organism’s cell wall or cell membrane
and thus, cannot reach its site of action.
ANTIPROTOZOAL AGENTS Resistance of this type is known as
intrinsic resistance.
• Antiprotozoal agents are usually toxic to • If bacteria that were once susceptible to a
the host. particular drug become resistant, this is
• Antiprotozoal agents work by: called acquired resistance.
o Interfering with DNA and RNA • Before a drug enters a bacterial cell, it must
synthesis (e.g., chloroquine, first bind to proteins on the surface of the
pentamidine, and quinacrine) cell; these proteins are called drug-
o Interfering with protozoal binding sites. A chromosomal mutation
metabolism (e.g., metronidazole) that affects the structure of a drug-binding
site can prevent the drug from binding,
ANTIVIRAL AGENTS resulting in drug resistance.
• To enter a bacterial cell, a drug must be
• Antiviral agents are the newest weapons in able to pass through the cell wall and cell
antimicrobial methodology. membrane; chromosomal mutations may
• Difficult to develop these agents because alter the structure of the cell membrane,
viruses are produced within host cells. thus preventing the drug from entering the
• Some drugs have been developed that are cell; this results in drug resistance.
effective in certain viral infections, but not • Bacteria can develop the ability to produce
others; they work by inhibiting viral an enzyme that destroys or inactivates a
replication within cells. drug.
• Antiviral agent “cocktails” (several drugs o Many bacteria have become
that are administered simultaneously) are resistant to penicillin because they
being used to treat HIV infection. have acquired the gene for
penicillinase production during
DRUG RESISTANCE conjugation.
• A plasmid that contains multiple genes for
SUPERBUGS drug resistance is known as a resistance
factor (R-factor).
• Superbugs are microbes (mainly bacteria) • Bacteria can also become resistant to
that have become resistant to one or more drugs by developing the ability to produce
antimicrobial agent. Infections caused by multidrug-resistance (MDR) pumps (also
superbugs are difficult to treat! known as MDR transporters or efflux
• Bacterial superbugs include: pumps).
o methicillin-resistant o An MDR pump enables the cell to
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA); pump out drugs before they can
o vancomycin-resistant damage or kill the cell.
Enterococcus spp. (VRE); • Summary: Bacteria can acquire resistance
multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium to antimicrobial agents by chromosomal
tuberculosis (MDRTB); multidrug- mutation or by the acquisition of new
resistant strains of Acinetobacter, genes by transduction, transformation and,
Burkholderia, E. coli, Klebsiella, most commonly, by conjugation.
Pseudomonas,
Stenotrophomonas,Salmonella,
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 • Patients should take drugs in manner
prescribed

EMPIRIC THERAPY

• Empiric therapy is when drug therapy is

initiated before laboratory results are
available (i.e., before the pathogen is
identified and/or before susceptibility test
β-Lactamases results are available).
• Every penicillin and cephalosporin o Empiric therapy is sometimes
molecule contains a double-ringed necessary to save a patient’s life.
structure (referred to as a “house and o Clinicians make an “educated
garage”). The “garage” is known as the β- guess” based on past experience
lactam ring. with the type of infectious disease
• Some bacteria produce enzymes, β- and the most effective drugs.
lactamases, that destroy this ring; when the • Clinicians must take a number of factors
β–lactam ring is destroyed, the drug no into consideration before prescribing
longer works. antimicrobial agents.
o 2 types of β-lactamases
▪ Penicillinases FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
▪ Cephalosporinases
o some bacteria produce both types • If pathogen identity is known, use the
• Drug companies have developed special “pocket chart” of antimicrobial susceptibility
drugs that combine a β–lactam antibiotic test data from past year.
with a β-lactamase inhibitor. • Is the patient allergic to any antimicrobial
agents?
• What is the age of the patient?
• Is the patient pregnant?
• Inpatient or outpatient?
• In the hospital formulary?
• Site of the infection?
• What other medication(s) is the patient
taking?
• What other medical problems does the
patient have?
• Is the patient leukopenic or
Sites of β-lactamase attack on immunocompromised?
Penicillin and Cephalosporin molecules
• What is the cost of the drug(s)?
SOME STRATEGIES IN THE WAR
AGAINST DRUG RESISTANCE

• Education of healthcare professionals and

patients
• Patients should stop demanding antibiotics
every time they are, or their child is, sick
• Physicians should not be pressured by
patients and should prescribe drugs only
when warranted
• Clinicians should prescribe a narrow-
spectrum drug if lab results indicate that it
kills the pathogen
• Patients should destroy any excess or
outdated medications
• Antibiotics should not be used in a
prophylactic manner
Pocket chart for aerobic Gram-negative bacteria. The chart is
• Healthcare professionals should practice a quick reference whenever empiric therapy is necessary.
good infection control
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 UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS OF
ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS

Reasons why antimicrobial agents should not be

used indiscriminately:
• Organisms susceptible to the agent will die,
but resistant ones will survive; this is known
as selecting for resistant organisms.
• The patient may become allergic to the
agent.
• Many agents are toxic to humans and
some are very toxic.
• With prolonged use, a broad-spectrum
antibiotic may destroy the normal flora,
resulting in an overgrowth of bacteria
known as a superinfection.

SELECTING FOR
DRUG-RESISTANT ORGANISMS

A. Indigenous microflora of patient before

antibiotic therapy.
• (S susceptible; R = resistant)
B. After antibiotic therapy has been initiated
C. Resistant organisms multiply and become
the predominant organisms.

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N 5 MICRROBIOLOGY & Parasitism
• A symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to
PARASITOLOGY one symbiont (parasite) and detrimental to
Chapter 10: Microbial Ecology and Microbial the other symbiont (host).
Biotechnology o Host – living organism that harbors
another living organism.
INTRODUCTION o The parasite may or may not cause
disease in the host.
Ecology
• systematic study of the interrelationships Note: A change in conditions can cause one type
that exist between organisms and their of symbiotic relationship to shift to another type.
environment
Various Symbiotic Relationships
Microbial ecology
• study of the numerous interrelationships
between microbes and the world around
them
• Most relationships between humans and
microbes are beneficial, rather than
harmful.
• Microorganisms are present both on and in (A) Lichen (a mutualistic relationship); (B) Demodex mites in
our bodies; collectively, they are referred to human hair follicles (a commensalistic relationship); (C)
as our indigenous microflora Cause of African sleeping sickness (a parasitic relation-ship)
o normal flora (older term)
INDIGENOUS MICROFLORA OF HUMANS
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS INVOLVING
MICROORGANISMS • Includes all the microbes (bacteria, fungi,
protozoa and viruses) that reside on and
Symbiosis within a person; sometimes referred to as
• two dissimilar organisms living together in our “normal flora”
a close association • Our indigenous microflora is composed of
• The organisms in the relationship are between 500 and 1,000 different species
referred to as symbionts. • Blood, lymph, spinal fluid, and most internal
• Many microorganisms participate in tissues and organs are normally free of
symbiotic relationships. microorganisms (i.e., they are sterile).
• Transient microflora take up temporary
Neutralism residence on and within humans.
• symbiotic relationship in which neither • Destruction of resident microflora disturbs
symbiont is affected by the relationship the delicate balance between host and
microorganisms.
Commensalism
• symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to TWO TYPES OF MICROFLORA
one symbiont and of no consequence to
the other Resident Flora
• Many organisms in the indigenous • organisms that are relatively of fixed types
microflora of humans are considered to be and are regularly found in a given area of
commensals. the body at a given age

Mutualism Transient Flora

• symbiotic relationship that is beneficial to • inhibit the skin and mucous membrane
both symbionts temporarily for hours, days or weeks and
are derived from the environment
• examples include lichens (an alga and a
fungus) and the relationship humans have
with the intestinal bacterium, Escherichia
coli)

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Areas of the body where most of the indigenous microflora Microflora of the Skin
reside: Ears and eyes, mouth and upper respiratory tract, • Primarily bacteria and fungi—about 30
skin, gastrointestinal tract, genitourinary tract (vagina, different types
urethra)
• Staphylococcus spp. – most common
o Staphylococcus epidermidis
o Staphylococcus hominis
• Number and variety of microorganisms
depend on:
o Amount of moisture present
o pH
o Temperature
o Salinity
o Presence of chemical wastes and
other microbes
• 3 regions of the skin
o Axilla, perineum, toe webs –
higher moisture levels, body
temperature and higher levels of
lipids surface. More microorganism
compared to other parts and
inhabited by gram-negative bacilli.
o Hands, face and trunk
o Upper arm and legs

Microflora of the Ears and Eyes

• Middle ear and inner ear are usually sterile;
outer ear and auditory canal contain the
same microorganisms as on the skin
• Eye is lubricated and cleansed by tears,
mucus and sebum—few microorganisms
present

Microflora of the Respiratory Tract

• Divided into upper respiratory tract (nasal
passages and throat) and lower respiratory
tract (larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs)
• Upper respiratory tract (nasal passages
and throat) has an abundance of
microorganisms; many are harmless, some
are opportunistic pathogens
o Carriers harbor virulent pathogens
in their nasal passages or throats,

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 but do not have the diseases BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL ROLES OF
usually caused by these pathogens INDIGENOUS MICROFLORA
o Examples: people harboring the
bacteria that cause diphtheria, • Humans derive many benefits from their
pneumonia, meningitis, and indigenous microflora
whooping cough • Examples – vitamins K and B12.
• Lower respiratory tract is usually free of
microbes Microbial Antagonism
• “Microbes versus microbes”
Microflora of the Oral Cavity (Mouth) • Many members of our indigenous
• A shelter for numerous anaerobic and microflora are beneficial in that they
aerobic bacteria prevent other microbes from becoming
• remaining food particles provide a rich established
nutrient medium for bacteria • Other examples of microbial antagonism
• Careless dental hygiene may cause: involve:
o Dental caries (tooth decay) o Production of antibiotics and
o Gingivitis (gum disease) bacteriocins (antibacterial proteins)
o Periodontitis ▪ Colicin, produced by E. coli
• The most common organisms within the
indigenous microflora of the mouth are Opportunistic Pathogens and Biotherapeutic
various species of alpha-hemolytic Agents
streptococci • Opportunistic pathogens
o microorganisms that “hang
Microflora of the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract around,” waiting for the opportunity
• The GI tract is designed for digestion of to cause infection
food, absorption of nutrients, and o E. coli, other members of the family
elimination of undigested materials Enterobacteriaceae, S. aureus,
• The colon (large intestine) contains the and Enterococcus spp.
largest number and variety of • The delicate balance of the indigenous
microorganisms of any colonized area of microflora can be upset by antibiotics, other
the body; an estimated 500-600 different types of chemotherapy, and changes in pH
species—primarily bacteria. • Biotherapeutic agents (probiotics)
• Colon is anaerobic; bacteria in colon are o Bacteria and yeasts used to
mostly obligate-, aerotolerant-, and stabilize the microbial balance are
facultative anaerobes.
• Many of the microflora of the colon are MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES (BIOFILMS)
opportunists.
• It is rare to find an ecologic niche in which
Microflora of the Genitourinary (GU) Tract only one type of microorganism is causing
• The GU tract consists of the kidneys, a particular effect
ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, and parts • Microorganisms are often organized into
of the female/male reproductive systems biofilms—complex communities of
• Kidney, ureters and urinary bladder are assorted organisms. Biofilms are
usually sterile; the distal urethra and its everywhere
external opening harbor many microbes o Ex. – dental plaque.
including bacteria, yeasts and viruses • Biofilms consist of a variety of different
• Most frequent causes of urethral species of bacteria plus a gooey
infections include polysaccharide that the bacteria secrete;
o Chlamydia trachomatis the bacteria grow in tiny clusters called
o Neisseria gonorrhoeae microcolonies, separated by water
o Mycoplasmas channels
• The male and female reproductive systems • Biofilms have medical significance; they
are usually sterile, with the exception of the form on urinary catheters and medical
vagina equipment and can cause diseases like
endocarditis

• Microbes commonly associated with

biofilms on medical devices include the
yeast, Candida albicans, and bacteria like
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 Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus
spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
• Biofilms are very resistant to antibiotics and
disinfectants
o Antibiotics that are effective against
pure cultures of organisms have
been found to be ineffective against
those same organisms within an
The nitrogen cycle
actual biofilm
• Bacteria in biofilms produce different types
of proteins that may not be produced by the
bacteria in pure culture.

Synergistic Infections
• 2 or more organisms “team up” to produce
a disease that neither could cause by itself
• The diseases are called synergistic (A) Soybean root nodules, which contain nitrogen-fixing
infections, polymicrobial infections, or Rhizobiumbacteria. (B) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (arrows) can
be seen in this cross section of a soybean root nodule.
mixed infections
o Examples:
Other Soil Microorganisms
▪ Acute necrotizing ulcerative
• There are a multitude of other
gingivitis (ANUG, trench
microorganisms in soil—bacteria, fungi,
mouth, or Vincent’s
algae, protozoa, viruses, and viroids; many
disease).
are decomposers.
▪ Bacterial vaginosis (BV)
• A variety of human pathogens live in soil
AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY including Clostridium spp. (such as C.
tetani and C. botulinum) and the spores of
Bacillus anthracis.
• There are many uses for microorganisms in
agriculture (e.g., their use in genetic • The types and amount of microorganisms
engineering). living in soil depend on many factors (e.g.,
amount of decaying matter, available
Role of Microbes in Elemental Cycles nutrients, moisture, amount of O2, pH,
temperature and the presence of waste
• Bacteria found within other microorganisms
products of other microbes).
are known as endosymbionts.
• Microorganisms play an important role in
Infectious Diseases of Farm Animals
the cycling of nutrients and elements like
• Diseases of farm animals are caused by a
nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, sulfur, and
wide variety of pathogens
phosphorus.
o N2 is converted by nitrogen-fixing • These diseases can be transmitted to
bacteria and cyanobacteria into humans
ammonia (NH3) and ammonium ion • These diseases are of economic concern
(NH4). to farmers and ranchers
• Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g.,
Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium spp.) Microbial Diseases of Plants
live in and near the root nodules of legumes • Microbes cause thousands of different
like alfalfa, soybeans and peanuts plant diseases
• Nitrifying bacteria include: • Most plant diseases are caused by fungi,
o Nitrosomonas viruses, viroids, and bacteria
o Nitrosospira
MICROBIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
o Nitrosococcus
o Nitrosolubus
Biotechnology
o Nitrobacter spp.
• technological application that uses
• Denitrifying bacteria include some species
biological systems, living organisms, or
of Pseudomonas and Bacillus
derivatives thereof, to make or modify
products or processes for specific use

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 • Microbes are used in a variety of industries,
including the production of certain foods
and beverages, food additives, vaccines,
and antibiotics.
• Microbes are used in the production of
foods like bread, cheeses, olives, pickles,
vinegar and yogurt, as well as in the
production of alcoholic beverages like beer
and wine.
• Many antibiotics and drugs are produced in
pharmaceutical companies by fungi and
bacteria (e.g., penicillin).

Bioremediation
• use of microorganisms to clean up various
types of wastes, including industrial and
toxic wastes, and environmental pollutants
(e.g., herbicides and pesticides).
• Some microbes are genetically
engineered to digest specific wastes (e.g.,
petroleum-digesting bacteria to clean up
oil spills).
• Methanotrophs – bacteria that normally
consume methane in the environment
o have been used to remove highly
toxic solvents like trichloroethylene
and tetra-chloroethylene from the
soil.

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N 5 MICRROBIOLOGY & Sporadic Disease
• occurs only occasionally within the
PARASITOLOGY population of a particular geographic area
Chapter 11: Epidemiology and Public Health • example, tetanus

EPIDEMIOLOGY Endemic Disease

• always present within the population of a
Epidemiology particular geographic area
• study of disease • example, gonorrhea
• Epidemiologists study the factors that
determine the frequency, distribution, and Epidemic Disease
determinants of diseases in human • greater than usual number of cases of a
populations. disease in a particular region, usually within
• Epidemiologists also develop ways to a short period of time
prevent, control, or eradicate diseases in • example, the Legionnaire’s disease
populations. epidemic of 1976.

EPIDEMIOLOGIC TERMINOLOGY Pandemic

• disease that is occurring in epidemic
Communicable Disease proportions in many countries
• infectious disease that can be transmitted simultaneously.
from one person to another • Examples include:
o Influenza
Contagious Disease ▪ Spanish flu pandemic of
• communicable disease that is easily 1918 during which more
transmitted from person-to-person than 20 million people were
killed worldwide (500,000 in
Zoonotic Diseases the U.S.)
• diseases that humans acquire from animal ▪ H1N1 or “swine flu
sources pandemic of 2009-2010.
o HIV/AIDS
Incidence o Tuberculosis
• number of new cases of that disease in a o Malaria
defined population during a specific time
period INTERACTIONS AMONG PATHOGENS,
HOSTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Morbidity Rate
• number of new cases of a particular Whether an infectious disease occurs depends on:
disease that occurred during a specified • Factors pertaining to the pathogen (e.g.,
time period per a specifically defined virulence of pathogen, mode of entry,
population (usually per 1,000, 10,000 or number of organisms)
100,000 population) • Factors pertaining to the host (e.g.,
health status, nutritional status, hygiene,
Prevalence age, travel, lifestyle, etc.)
• Period Prevalence – number of cases of a • Factors pertaining to the environment
disease existing in a given population (e.g., physical factors such as climate,
during a specific time period season, geographic location; availability of
o (e.g., during the year 2009). appropriate reservoirs; sanitary and
• Point Prevalence – number of cases of a housing conditions; and availability of
disease existing in a given population at a potable water)
particular moment in time
o (e.g., right now).

Mortality Rate
• ratio of the number of people who died of a
particular disease during a specified time
period per a specified population

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 CHAIN OF INFECTION • Examples:
o Rabies
There are 6 components in the infectious disease o Lyme disease
process: o Many others
• Pathogen
• Source of the pathogen (a reservoir) Arthropods
• Portal of exit • Many different types of arthropods serve as
• Mode of transmission reservoirs of infection, including insects
• Portal of entry (e.g., fleas, mosquitoes, lice) and
• Susceptible host arachnids (e.g., mites and ticks)
• When arthropods are involved in the
transmission of infectious diseases they
are referred to as vectors.
• Examples of arthropod-borne diseases:
o Lyme disease
o Malaria

RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION

Reservoirs of Infection
• sources of microorganisms that cause Inanimate Vectors of Infection (Fomites)
infectious diseases are many and varied
• known as simply reservoirs
MOST COMMON MODES OF TRANSMISSION
• Living reservoirs – humans, pets, farm
OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
animals, insects, arachnids
• Nonliving Reservoirs – Air, soil, dust,
• Direct skin-to-skin contact
contaminated water and foods, and fomites
o Fomites – inanimate objects • Direct mucous membrane-to-mucous
capable of transmitting pathogens membrane contact by kissing or sexual
(e.g., bedding, towels, eating and intercourse
drinking utensils, hospital • Indirect contact via airborne droplets of
equipment, telephones, computer respiratory secretions, usually produced by
keyboards, etc.) sneezing or coughing
• Human carriers: • Indirect contact via food and water
o Passive carriers contaminated by fecal matter
o Incubatory carriers • Indirect contact via arthropod vectors
o Convalescent carriers • Indirect contact via fomites
o Active carrier • Indirect contact via transfusion of
contaminated blood or blood products or by
Animals parenteral injection using nonsterile
• Infectious diseases that humans acquire syringes or needles
from animal sources are called zoonotic
diseases or zoonoses.
• Zoonoses may be acquired by direct
contact with an animal, inhalation or
ingestion of the pathogen, or injection of
the pathogen by an arthropod.
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 prevent the spread of the pathogen to
others
• Identify and control potential reservoirs and
vectors of infectious diseases

BIOTERRORISM AND
BIOLOGICAL WARFARE AGENTS

• Microbes purposely used to harm others in

wartime are called biological warfare (bw)
agents.
• Pathogens used to create fear, chaos,
illness, and death in situations other than
war are called bioterrorism agents
o Examples:
▪ Bacillus anthracis (cause
of anthrax)
▪ Clostridium botulinum
PUBLIC HEALTH AGENCIES (cause of botulism)
▪ Smallpox virus (Variola
World Health Organization (WHO) major)
• A specialized agency of the United Nations ▪ Yersinia pestis (cause of
founded in 1948; www.who.org plague)
• Mission: to promote technical cooperation
for health among nations; to carry out WATER SUPPLIES AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL
programs to control and eradicate
diseases; to improve the quality of human • Water is the most essential resource
life necessary for the survival of humanity!
o Investigates outbreaks of Ebola • The 2 general types of water pollution:
virus, etc. o Chemical pollution
o Eradicated smallpox o Biological pollution (e.g., fecal
o Attempting to eradicate polio and material and garbage)
dracunculiasis • The 1993 cryptosporidiosis epidemic in
Milwaukee, WI, was the largest
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention waterborne epidemic in the U.S.
(CDC)
• federal agency administered by the U.S.
Department of Health and Human
Services; located in Atlanta, GA;
established in 1946; www.cdc.gov
• Mission: “to collaborate to create the
expertise, information, and tools that
people and communities need to protect
their health …”
• Certain infectious diseases, known as
nationally notifiable diseases must be
reported to the CDC. Steps in Water Treatment
• Publishes Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
Report (MMWR).

Measures for prevention and control of epidemics:

• Increase host resistance through the
development and administration of
vaccines that induce active immunity and
maintain it in susceptible persons
• Ensure that persons exposed to a
pathogen are protected against the disease
• Segregate, isolate and treat those who
have contracted a contagious infection to
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