UNIT-I

Electronic Measurement fundamentals

INTRODUCTION:

 Measurement is the process of determining the amount, degree or capacity by comparison with the
accepted standards of the system units being used.
 Instrumentation is a technology of measurement which serves sciences, engineering, medicine and etc.
 Instrument is a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
 Electronic instrument is based on electrical or electronic principles for its measurement functions.

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS:

 Performance characteristics are the characteristics that show the performance of an instrument like
Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, and Sensitivity.
 They allow users to select the most suitable instrument for a specific measuring job.

It consists of two basic characteristics namely Static and Dynamic.

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:

The Static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments which are used to measure an
unvarying process condition. All these are obtained by a process called calibration.

Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.

Precision: A measure of consistency or repeatability of measurement, i.e., successive readings do not differ.

Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output of instrument to a change of input or measured variable.

Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.

Error: The deviation of the true value from the desired value.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION:

Precision is composed of two characteristics: Conformity and the number of Significant Figures.

For example, that a resistor, whose true resistance is 1,384,572Ω, is measured by an ohmmeter which
consistently and repeatedly indicates 1.4 M Ω. This is as close to the true value as we can read the scale by
estimation. Although there are no deviations from the observed value, the error created by the limitation of the
scale reading is a precision error.

Significance: Conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision. Similarly, precision
is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:

An indication of the precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures in
which the result is expressed. Significant figures convey actual information regarding the magnitude and the
measurement precision of a quantity.

10
 Significance: The more significant figures, the greater the precision of measurement.

For example, if a resistor is specified as having a resistance of 68 Ω, its resistance should be closer to
68 Ω than to 67 Ω or 69 Ω. If the value of the resistor is described as 68.0 Ω, it means that its resistance is closer
to 68.0 Ω than it is to 67.9 Ω or 68.1 Ω. In 68 Ω there are two significant figures; in 68.0 Ω there are three. The
latter, with more significant figures, expresses a measurement of greater precision than the former.

Note:
• Significant figures are the meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity.
• The number of significant figures that a measuring device can provide is depended on the resolution
(division, mark, scale, etc.) of the device.
• The last digit is understood to be uncertain, which is estimated.
Rules of Determining Significant Figures:

• Any digit that is not zero is significant

 4.2183 m: 5 significant figures
• Zeros between nonzero digits are significant
 80.0054 lb: 6 significant figures
• Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant
 0.0000349 g: 3 significant figures
• For numbers contain decimal point; all the trailing zeros count as significant figures
 3.400 cm: 4 significant figures
 0.0200500 kg: 6 significant figures
• For numbers do not contain decimal point; the trailing zeros may or may not be significant
 6800 mi: 4, 3, or 2 significant figures
 Use scientific notation to avoid this ambiguity.
Examples of Significant Figures:

• Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements:

1. 328 cm Answer: 3
2. 6.01 g Answer : 3
3. 0.805 m Answer : 3
4. 0.043 kg Answer : 2
5. 1.510×1022 atoms Answer : 4
6. 5000 mL Answer : 1, 2, 3, or 4
7. 5.0×103 mL Answer : 2
8. 5.000×103 mL Answer : 4
9. 0.030200 m3 Ans: 5
4
10. 6.40×10 molecules Ans: 3
ACCURACY Vs PRECISION:

ACCURACY PRECISION
Accuracy refers to the degree of conformity. Precision refers to the degree of agreement with in a
group of measurement.
Single factor or measurement. Multiple measurements or factors are needed.
Accuracy must also be Precise. Precision need not be Accurate.

11
TYPES OF STATIC ERRORS:

The static error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the true value of a
quantity and its value as obtained by measurement. Static errors are categorized as Gross errors or human errors,
systematic errors and random errors.

Gross Errors: These errors are due to human mistakes in reading or in using instruments or errors in recording
observations. Errors may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of instruments and computational mistakes.

One of the basic gross errors that occur frequently is the improper use of an instrument. The error can be
minimized by taking proper care in reading and recording the measurement parameter.

Systematic Errors: These errors occur due to shortcomings of the instrument, such as defective or worn parts or
aging or effects of the environment on the instrument. A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an
instrument is known as a systematic error. There are basically three types of systematic errors namely
Instrumental Errors, Environmental Errors and Observational Errors.

Instrumental errors: Instrumental errors are inherent in measuring instruments, because of their mechanical
structure (friction in bearings of moving components, irregular spring tensions, stretching of spring etc)

Instrumental errors can be avoided by:

(a) Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement applications.
(b) Applying correction factors by determining the amount of instrumental error.
(c) Calibrating the instrument against a standard.

Environmental errors: Environmental errors are due to external conditions effecting the measurements
including surrounding area conditions such as change in temperature, humidity, pressure etc.

Environmental errors can be avoided by:

(a) Using air conditioner.
(b) Sealing certain component in the instruments.
(c) Use magnetic shields.
Observational errors: Observational errors are errors introduce by the observer. The most common error is the
parallax error introduced in reading a meter scale, and the error of estimation when obtaining a reading from a
meter scale.
To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edge
pointers etc. Now a day’s instruments are available with digital display which can largely eliminate such
observational errors.
Systematic errors can also be subdivided into static and dynamic errors. Static errors are caused by
limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior. Dynamic errors are caused by the
instruments not responding fast enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.
Random errors: These errors are due to unknown causes and occur even when all systematic error have been
accounted for.
Random errors can be avoided by:
(a) Increasing number of readings
(b) Using statistical means to obtain best approximation of true value of the quantity under measurement.

12
The errors, which occur due to unknown sources during measurement time are known as random errors.
Hence, it is not possible to eliminate or minimize these errors. But, if we want to get the more accurate
measurement values without any random error, then it is possible by following these two steps.
 Step1 − Take a greater number of readings by different observers.
 Step2 − Do statistical analysis on the readings obtained in Step1.
Following are the parameters that are used in statistical analysis.
 Mean
 Median
 Variance
 Deviation
 Standard Deviation
Now, let us discuss about these statistical parameters.

Mean
Let x1, x2, x3, ...., xN are the N readings of a particular measurement. The mean or average value of these
readings can be calculated by using the following formula.

Where, m is the mean or average value.

If the number of readings of a particular measurement are more, then the mean or average value will be
approximately equal to true value

Median
If the number of readings of a particular measurement are more, then it is difficult to calculate the mean or
average value. Here, calculate the median value and it will be approximately equal to mean value.
For calculating median value, first we have to arrange the readings of a particular measurement in an ascending
order. We can calculate the median value by using the following formula, when the number of readings is
an odd number.

We can calculate the median value by using the following formula, when the number of readings is an even
number.

Deviation from Mean

The difference between the reading of a particular measurement and the mean value is known as deviation from
mean. In short, it is called deviation. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Were,
di is the deviation of ith reading from mean.
xi is the value of ith reading.
m is the mean or average value.
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Standard Deviation
The root mean square of deviation is called standard deviation. Mathematically, it can be represented as

The above formula is valid if the number of readings, N is greater than or equal to 20. We can use the following
formula for standard deviation, when the number of readings, N is less than 20.

Were,
σ is the standard deviation
d1, d2, d3,…,dNd1,d2,d3,…,dN are the deviations of first, second, third, …, Nth readings from mean
respectively.

Note − If the value of standard deviation is small, then there will be more accuracy in the reading values of
measurement.

Variance
The square of standard deviation is called variance. Mathematically, it can be represented as

Where,
V is the variance
σ is the standard deviation

The mean square of deviation is also called variance. Mathematically, it can be represented as

The above formula is valid if the number of readings, N is greater than or equal to 20. We can use the following
formula for variance when the number of readings, N is less than 20.

Where,
V is the variance
d1,d2,d3,…,dNd1,d2,d3,…,dN are the deviations of first, second, third, …, Nth readings from mean
respectively.
So, with the help of statistical parameters, we can analyse the readings of a particular measurement. In this way,
we will get more accurate measurement values.

ERROR IN MEASUREMENT:
The most important static characteristic of an instrument is its accuracy, which is generally expressed
in terms of the static error. Errors may be expressed either as absolute error or relative percentage error.
14
 Absolute error may be defined as the difference between the expected value of the variable and the
measured value of the variable and it is given by
e  Yn  X n
Were
e  absolute error
Yn  exp ected value or true value
X n  measured value
The absolute error does not indicate precisely the accuracy of measurements. For

example, absolute error of 1 V is negligible when the voltage to be measured is of the order 1000 V but the
same error of 1 V becomes significant when the voltage under measurement is 5 V. Hence, generally instead
of specifying absolute error, the relative or percentage error is specified.

Mathematically the relative error is expressed as

Absolute error e Y  Xn
er =   n
Expected value Yn Yn
The percentage relative error is expressed as
Y  X n 
% er =  n   100
 Yn 
From the relative error,the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as
Yn  X n
A=1-
Yn
Where A is the relative accuracy.
Accuracy is expressed as % accuracy
a=100% - %error
a=A 100%
where a is the % accuracy
If a measurement is accurate, it must also be precise, i.e accuracy means precision .However, a
precision measurement may not be accurate .Precision can be expressed mathematically as

Xn  Xn
P=1-
Xn

where X n  value of the nth measurement

X n  average value of measurement

15
 PROBLEMS
1. The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80V. However, the measurement gives a value
of 79V.Calculate (i) absolute error (ii) % error (iii) relative accuracy and (iv) % of accuracy.

Solution :
i  Absolute error e  Yn  X n  80  79  1 V
Y  X n   80  79 
 ii  %Error =  n   100   100  1.25%
 Yn   80 
 iii  Relative Accuracy
Yn  X n 80  79 1 79
A=1- =1- =1- = =0.9875
Yn 80 80 80
 iv  % of Accuracy a=100  A=100  0.9875 =98.75%
or a=100- % of error =100%-1.25%=98.75%

2. The set of 10 measurements that were recorded in the laboratory are

98,101,102,97,101,100,103,98,106,99. Calculate the precision of the 6th measurement.

Solution :
The average value of the set of measurement is given by

Sum of the 10 measurement values 1005

Xn    100.5
10 10

Xn  Xn
Pr ecision  1 
Xn
For the 6th reading

100  100.5 0.5 100

Pr ecision  1   1   0.995
100.5 100.5 100.5

Note: The error can also be expressed as a percentage of full scale reading as,

Yn  X n
Error as a percentage of full scale reading 
f .s.d
where f .s.d  Full scale deflection

3. The expected value of the voltage to be measured is 150 V. However; the measurement gives a value
of 149 V. Calculate the error expressed as percentage of full-scale reading, if the scale range is 0-
200 V.

Solution :
Yn  X n 150  149 1
% error exp ressed as percentage of full scale reading   100   100  100  0.5%
f .s.d 200 200

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SENSITIVITY:
The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds.

It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the
quantity to be measured.

Mathematically it is expressed as,

Infinitesimal change in output

Sensitivity 
Infinitesimal change in input

qo
 Sensitivity 
qi

The sensitivity is always expressed by the manufacturers as the ratio of the magnitude of the quantity
being measured to the magnitude of the response. Actually, this definition is the reciprocal of the sensitivity and
is called inverse sensitivity or deflection factor. But manufacturers call this inverse sensitivity as sensitivity.

Inverse Sensitivity  Deflection factor

1 q
 Deflection factor   i
Sensitivity qo

Thus, if the calibration curve is linear, as shown in the figure (a), the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of
the calibration curve.

PROBLEMS

1. A particular ammeter requires a change of 2 A in its coil to produce a change in deflection of the
pointer by 5mm. Determine its sensitivity and deflection factor.

Solution : The input is current while output is deflection

Change in output 5mm
Sensitivity    2.5 mm
Change in input 2A A
1 1
Deflection factor    0.4 A
Sensitivity 2.5 mm

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 2. The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
0
temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in Ohms / C.

Resistance  310 318 326 334

Temperature  C
0
200 240 280 320

Solution: If the calibration curve is linear, as shown in the figure (a), the sensitivity of the instrument is
the slope of the calibration curve.

Infinitesimal change in output

Sensitivity 
Infinitesimal change in input

qo
 Sensitivity 
qi

8 1
Sensitivity    0.2
40 5

Significance: For better performance of the instrument the sensitivity should be as high as possible.

RESOLUTION: The minimum change input which causes the change in the output is called resolution.
PROBLEM

1. A 30 cm scale has 30 uniform divisions. 1 th of a scale division can be estimated with a fair
20
degree of certainty. Determine the resolution of the scale in mm.

Solution :
Full scale deflection 30cm
1 scale division=   1cm  10mm
Number of divisions 30

1 1
 Resolution=  Scale division   (10mm)  0.5mm
20 20

2. A voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions. The full-scale reading is 5V and 1 th of the
5
division can be read. What is the resolution of the instrument?

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 Solution :
Full scale deflection 5
1 scale division=   0.05
Number of divisions 100

1 1
 Resolution=  Scale division   (0.05)  0.01
5 5
Significance: The higher the resolution the higher will be the ability of an instrument to detect the
small changes in the input quantity.

Limiting Errors:

The manufacturers specify the accuracy of the instruments within a certain percentage of full-scale
reading. The components like the resistor, capacitor and inductor are guaranteed to be within certain percentage
of rated value. The limits of these deviations from the specified values are known as limiting errors or
guarantee errors.

For example, if the resistance of a resistor is given as 500Ω 10% , the manufacturer guarantees that
the resistance falls between the limits 450Ω and 550Ω.The maker is not specifying a standard deviation or a
probable error, but promises that the error is no greater than the limits set.

Another example, the manufacturer of a certain instrument may specify that the instrument is accurate
within 1 % of full-scale deflection. This means that a full-scale reading is guaranteed to be within 1 % of
a perfectly accurate reading. But for a reading less than full scale, the limiting error increases.

The actual value with the limiting error can be expressed mathematically as,

Aa  As   A
where Aa  Actual value
As =Specified or rated value
 A  Limiting error or tolerance
Relative Limiting Errors:

This is also called fractional error. It is the ratio of the error to the specified magnitude of a quantity.

A
Thus e
As
where e  Re lative lim itng error

From the above equation ,we can write ,

 A  e. As
and Aa  As   A
Aa  As  e. As
 Aa  As 1  e 
The percentage relative limiting error is expressed as
%e  e 100
The relative limiting error can also be expressed as
A  As
e a
Aa

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 PROBLEMS

1. A 0-150 V voltmeter has a guaranteed accuracy of 1 per cent full scale reading. The
voltage measured by this instrument is 83 Calculate the limiting error in per cent.
Comment on the result.

Solution : The limiting error at full scale is

1
 A=1% of 150 V=  150 V  1.5 V
100
The percentage error at a meter indication of 83 V is
1.5 V
%e   100  1.81 %
83 V

Significance: With the readings less than the full scale the limiting error increases.

2. A voltmeter reads 111.5 The error taken from an error curve is 5.3%. Find the true value
of the voltage.

Solution : A s  111.5 V %e = 5.3 %

Aa  As A  111.5
 %e =  5.3 = a  100
Aa Aa
 0.053 A a  Aa  111.5
A a  117.74 V

3. A voltmeter reading 70 V on its 100 V range and an ammeter reading 80 mA on its 150-
mA range are used to determine the power dissipated in a resistor. Both these
instruments are guaranteed to be accurate within 1.5 % at full scale deflection.
Determine the limiting error of the power.

Solution : The limiting error at full scale for the voltmeter is

1.5
 A=1.5 % of 100 V= 100 V  1.5 V
100
The percentage error at a meter indication of 70 V is
1.5 V
%e   100  2.143 %
70 V
The limiting error at full scale for the ammeter is
1.5
 A=1.5 % of 150 mA=  150 mA  2.25 mA
100
The percentage error at a meter indication of 80 mA is
2.25 mA
%e   100  2.813 %
80 mA
The limiting error for the power calculation is the sum of the individual limiting errors
 Limiting error=2.143 %+2.813 %= 4.956 %

4. Three resistances are specified as: R1=200Ω ± 5%, R2=100Ω ± 5% and R3=50Ω ± 5%.
Determine the magnitude of the resultant resistances and the limiting errors in
percentage and in Ohms. If they are connected in Series.
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 Solution : The resistances are in series
R T  R1  R2  R3  200  100  50  350 
e1  e 2  e3  5 %
a1  R1  200 
a 2  R2  100 
a 3  R3  50 
R R R   200 100 50 
 % eT =  1 .e1  2 .e 2  3 .e3    .5 %  .5 %  .5 % 
 RT RT RT   350 350 350 
 350 
= 5 %  5%
 350 
Thus the limiting error in percentage is ,
eT   5 %

 RT
Now % eT  100
RT
 RT
 5=  100
350
5  350
  RT    17.5 
100
Thus  17.5  is the limiting error in Ohms.

5. The two resistances are specified as: R1=36Ω ± 5% and R2=75Ω ± 5%. Calculate the
magnitude of limiting error in Ohms and in percent if the two resistors are connected in
parallel.

Solution : When the two resistances are in parallel ,

R1 R2 36  75
RT    24.324 
R1  R 2 36  75
Now to calculate the limiting error,consider
R1 R 2
RT 
R1  R 2
For the product ,the limiting error gets added .
 For R1 R 2 the e1  5 % + 5 %  10 %
For the summation R1  R 2 the error is ,
 R1 R2 
e2   .( Error of 1) + .( Error of 2) 
 R1  R 2 R1  R2 
 36 75   111 
=  5%+  5 % = 5 %  =5%
 111 111   111 

21
 Now R T which is the quotient of (R1 R 2 ) and (R1  R 2 ) then
the resultant error is addition of two errors.
 e T  10 % + 5 % =15 %
Thus the resultant limiting error is  15 %.
The magnitude of the limiting error can be obtained as ,
 RT
eT 
RT
 RT
 0.15 =
24.324
  RT  0.15  24.324   3.65 
Thus  3.65  is the limiting error in Ohms.

MEASUREMENT ERROR COMBINATIONS

Useful relations:

Sum of Quantities: Where a quantity is determined as the sum of two measurements, the total error is the sum
of the absolute errors in each measurement.

E  V1   V1   V 2   V 2 
E  V1  V 2     V1   V 2 

Difference of Quantities: A potential difference is determined as the difference between two measured voltages.
Here again, the errors are additive

E  V1   V1  - V 2   V 2 
E  V1 - V2     V1   V 2 
Product of Quantities: When a calculated quantity is the product of two or more quantities, the percentage error
is the sum of the percentage errors in each quantity.

P  EI
P  E  E   I  I 
E  E
R 
I  I

For X  A  B , error in X     error in A    error in B  

For X  AB , % error in X     % error in A    % error in B  
For X  A / B , % error in X     % error in A    % er ror in B  
For X  A B , % error in X   B ( % error in A )

6. A resistor R1 has a potential difference of 25V across its terminals and a current of
63mA.The voltage measured on a 30V analog instrument with an accuracy of ±5% of full
scale. The current is measured on a digital instrument with ±1mA accuracy. Calculate
the resistance of R1 and specify its tolerance.

22
 5
Solution : Voltage error = 30 V  5 %=30 V  = 1.5 V
100

Potential difference across the resistor = 25  1.5 V = 25  6 % V

V 25  6 % V
R=   396.83  7.59 % 
I 63  1.59 mA

R  396.83  7.59 % 

7. The voltages at opposite ends of a 470Ω ± 5% resistor are measured as V1=12V and
V2=5V.The measuring accuracies are ±0.5%V for V1 and ± 2% for V2. Calculate the level
of current in the resistor and specify its accuracy.

Solution : V1  12  0.5 V V2  5  2 % V = 5  0.1 V

R  470  5 % 

V 12  0.5 V    5  0.1 V 

I= 
R 470  5 % 

7   0.5  0.1 V
=
470  5 % 

I  0.01489  (8.57 % + 5 %)A

I=14.89  13.57 % mA

8. An 820 resistance with an accuracy of ±10% carries a current of 10 mA. The current
was measured by an analog ammeter on a 25-mA range with an accuracy of ±2% of full
scale. Calculate the power dissipated in the resistor, and determine the accuracy of the
result.

Solution :
P  I 2R
10 mA
2
P   820 
 82 m W
error in R   10%
error in I   2% o f 25 m A
  0.5 m A
0.5 m A
   100%
10 m A
  5%
% error in P  % error in I 2    % error in R 
 2   5%     10% 
  20%
23
STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT
A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement, in other words a
known accurate measure of physical quantity is termed as a standard. These standards are used to determine the
values of other physical quantities by the comparison method.

A unit is realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to natural phenomena including

physical and atomic constants.

For example, the fundamental unit of mass in the international system (SI) is the kilogram, defined as
o
the mass of a cubic decimeter of water as its temperature of maximum density of 4 C .This unit of mass is
represented by a material standard: the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram, consisting of a Platinum-
Iridium alloy cylinder.

1
The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval
299 792 458
o
of a second. International Prototype meter is defined as the straight-line distance at 0 C between the engraved
lines of a platinum-iridium alloy of 1020 mm of total length and having a tresca cross-section as shown in the
figure. The graduations are on the upper surface of the web, which coincides with the neutral axis of the section.

Note: All these standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, near
Paris.

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CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS

Depending on the functions and applications the standards of measurement are classified in the following
categories:

(a) International Standards

(b) Primary Standards

(c) Secondary Standards

(d) Working Standards

International Standards: The International standards are defined by international agreement. They represent
certain units of measurement to the closest possible accuracy attainable by the science and technology of
measurement. International standards are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms
of the fundamental units.

These standards are maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and are not
available to the ordinary users of measuring instruments for the purposes of comparison or calibration.

Primary Standards: The primary standards are maintained by the national standards laboratories in different
parts of the world. The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in Washington is responsible for maintenance of
the primary standards in North America. Other national laboratories include the National Physical Laboratory
(NPL) in Great Britain and Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) the national standards body of India.

The primary standards are not available for use outside the National Laboratory. These primary
standards are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be used as ultimate reference standards. The principal
function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of Secondary standards.

Secondary standards: Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration
laboratories in industries. These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to which they
belong. Each industry has its own secondary standard. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary
standards to the National standards laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standard. After
comparison and calibration, the National Standards Laboratory returns the Secondary standards to the particular
industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a primary standard.

Working standards: Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These standards are
used to check and calibrate laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance.

Standards of luminous intensity: The primary standard of luminous intensity is a full radiator (black body or
Planckian radiator), at the temperature of solidification of platinum (2,042 K approx). The candela is then

defined as one-sixth of luminous intensity per cm 2 of the null radiator.

Secondary standards of luminous intensity are special tungsten filament lamps, operated at a
temperature where by their spectral power distribution in the visible region matches that of the basic standard.

IEEE STANDARDS

IEEE abbreviated as Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers is an engineering society with its
headquarters in New York City, USA maintains and publishes slightly different types of standards. These
standards define standard procedures, nomenclature, definition, schematic and logic symbols etc., in the field of
instrumentation.
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 These standards are not the physical items that are available for comparison and checking of secondary
standards.

These standards are also used by some other agencies and societies such as American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), Electronic Industries Association (EIA), Institute of Telecommunication Union –
Telecom Sector (ITU-T) as standards for their organizations.

IEEE STANDARDS IN ISTRUMENTATION: IEEE 488 Standard, Digital interface for

programmable instrumentation for computer operated test equipment. Standardizing the interface between test
equipment makes it possible to interface various pieces of laboratory test equipment, regardless of manufacture,
to create sophisticated automatic test equipment systems.

ELEMENTS OF ISO 9001

ISO 9001:

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a Federation of National Standard

Organizations from 156 countries, located in Geneva, Switzerland since 1947.

ISO 9001 was first published in 1987, updated in 1994, and again in 2000 and 2008. The current
version was published in September of 2015 and is the fifth edition of the ISO 9001 standard. It cancels and
replaces all previous editions.

The purpose of this standard is to help organizations to provide products and services that meet all
relevant customer needs and expectations and comply with all relevant regulatory and statutory requirements.
According to ISO 9001, any organization can achieve these important objectives if it establishes a quality
management system (QMS) and if it continually tries to improve the suitability, adequacy, and effectiveness of
this system.

A quality management system (QMS) is a set of interrelated or interacting elements that organizations use to
formulate quality policies and quality objectives and to establish the processes that are needed to ensure that
these policies are followed and these objectives are achieved.

ELEMENTS

ISO 9001 has 21 elements covering Design, Development, Production, Installation and Servicing.
These 21 elements organized into five major sections:

• System Requirements

• Management Responsibility

• Resource Management

• Product Realization

• Measurement, Analysis, and Improvement

System Requirements:

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 • Establish a quality management system

• Document the quality management system

Management Responsibility:

• Management Commitment

• Customer Focus

• Quality Policy

• Planning

• Administration

• Management Review

Resource Management:

• Provision of Resources

• Human Resources

• Facilities

• Work Environment

Product and/or Service Realization:

• Planning of Realization Processes

• Customer-Related Processes

• Design and/or Development

• Purchasing

• Production and Service Operations

• Control of Measuring and Monitoring Devices

Measurement, Analysis, and Improvement:

• Planning

• Measurement and Monitoring

• Control of Nonconformity

• Analysis of Data

• Improvement

QUALITY MANAGEMENT STANDARDS

Quality of any product is regarded as the degree to which it fulfills the requirements of the customer.
Quality means degree of perfection. Quality is not absolute but it can only be judged or realized by comparing
with standards.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has developed a series of standards in Quality
Management Systems (QMS). The principle standards for Quality Management Systems is currently the
ISO 9000.These standards are not specific to any particular product. They can be used to manage the quality of
output of manufacturing and servicing industries.

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 The table given below lists the Quality Management Standards.

Standard Title Scope

Serves to help companies to introduce and work with Quality

Management Systems.

Quality Management Systems The fundamentals of Quality Management Systems are

ISO 9000:2000
Fundamentals and vocabulary outlined and terms used in Quality Management Systems are
defined and explained ‘

Specifies the requirements for the organization of Quality

Management Systems. Here organization needs to
Quality Management Systems demonstrate its capability to meet customer’s requirements for
ISO 9001:2000
Requirements products and or services.

Provides guidelines and proposals relating to the introduction

Quality Management Systems
and improvement of Quality Management Systems
ISO 9004:2000 Guidelines for performance
improvements

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