Intelligence

Definition
“Intelligence is a fundamental faculty to solve problems. This faculty is a judgment, which is
called good sense, initiative, the faculty of adapting one’s self to circumstance. To judge well, to
comprehend well, to reason well; all these are essential activities of intelligence.” (Binet and
Simon)
“Intelligence activity consist in grasping the essentials in a situation and responding appropriate
to them”. (Heim)

Theories of Intelligence
Different theory tries to answer the question whether intelligence is one ability or multiple
abilities. These do not agree upon one clear cut answer.
Single Factor theorists:
A few theorists proposes that intelligence is one general ability which affects all cognitive
processes e.g., the neurobiological theorists like Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer. Hebb Hunt,
Bianche and Ebbinghaus:
According to Charles Darwin and Herbert spencer animals adapt to their environment on the
basis of their instincts and human beings learn to adjust to their environment with the use of
intelligence. The study of Neurology is necessary for understanding instinctive intellectual
activities and the study of biology is must to understand living organism.
According to Herbert Spencer, Cognition and Affection are two aspects of intelligence,
and the brain performs all mental activities in a unit.
According to Hebb, all the developments of mental, physical, moral, social and emotional
aspects occur with the development of nervous system.
According to Hunt brain cells working in a group system create intelligence.
According to Bianche, the sensory areas of cerebrum are important in the function of
intelligence.
Intelligence as one ability can be measured through intelligence tests in terms of I.Q. Scores I.Q.
is a very general measure of intelligence.
Multiple Factor theorists:
The people having average I.Q. may have higher score on their special fields of interest for
highly develop abilities. Spearman, Thurston, Burt Guilford, Gardner and Carrol studied specific
abilities and made use of factor analysis by giving a series of test to many people to obtain scores
of each individual on each test for getting inter- correlation to identify the main factor
intelligence. These theorists are called factor theorists.

Spearman’s two factor theory of intelligence:

Spearman presented his theory of intelligence as “General or specific Abilities” firstly in 1904
and then in 1927. Charles Spearman suggested there is one mental attribute “g” used to perform
any mental risk but each requires some specific abilities in addition to “g”. According to
spearman, general abilities or general intelligence “g” is a mental potential required for all types
of work, found in every individual by birth as a hereditary effect in different potency. This
general intelligence works in learning every mental activity and problem solving in all
departments of life and can be transferred from mental activity to another whereas specific
abilities cannot be transferred from one mental risk to another.
Spearman named his theory as “Two- factor Model” in 1984. He said that intelligence consists
of two factors i.e.,
1. General Factor or “G” factor.
2. Specific Factor or “S” factor.
G- Factor is found in general intelligence used for all type of tasks and can be transferred in
homogeneous mental tasks and helps in solving new problem.
For Example, a person having general intelligence can do equally good in all subjects.
Special Factor “S” factor of intelligence is only a unique expression in one mental task and
cannot be transferred to other tasks e.g., the specific factor required for Engineering is different
from medical. “S” factor works in special skills.
According to Spearman, positive correlation between the scores of two tasks refers to general
factor while negative correlation between the scores of two tasks refers to special factor. Both of
these G and S are important for a successful profession.

Theory of Primary Mental Abilities by Thurston

Thurston disagreed with Spearman’s basic assumption that there was just one general factor
leading to similarities in intelligence test scores. Thurston assumed that test performance is
depended on a number of primary abilities.
Thurston, felt that intelligence could be broke down into number of primary abilities. To
determine these abilities, he applied factor analysis to the result gained from large number of
different tests. One set of test items was designed to measure verbal comprehensive, another to
measure arithmetical computation and so on. After inter-correlating the scores of all the tests.
Thurston applied factor analysis to arrive at set of basic factors. After several studies of this kind
Thurston identified seven factors as the “Primary Mental Abilities “revealed by intelligence tests
Verbal Comprehension it is the ability to understand the meaning of word, vocabulary tests
represent this factor.
Word Fluency it is the ability to think of words rapidly, as in solving anagrams of thinking of
words that rhyme.
Number it is the ability to work with numbers and perform computations. Generally, it is known
as mathematical ability.
Spatial Visualization the ability to visualize space-form relationships as to recognize the same
figure presented in different orientations.
Memory it is the ability to recall verbal stimuli , such as word pairs or different statements.
Perceptual Speed the ability to grasp visual details quickly and to see similarities and
differences between pictures objects.
Reasoning it is the ability to find a general rule on the basis of presented instance, as in
determining how a number series is constructed, after being presented with only a portion of that
series.
Thurston devised a battery of tests, known as the “Test of Primary Mental Abilities” to measure
each of these abilities.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory:

According to Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence eight separate intelligence e.g.,
1. Linguistic
2. Musical
3. Spatial
4. Logical-mathematical
5. Bodily kinesthetic
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalist
Gardner does not take these eight intelligences as magic number and speculates the personality
of additional intelligence like spiritual intelligence and an existential intelligence or the abilities
to contemplate big question about the meaning of life. According to Gardner brain damage often
interferes with functioning in one area and not in other areas likewise a person may excel in one
area and not in others. Gardner takes intelligence as an ability to solve problems and creates
products valued by a cultural e.g., a naturalistic intelligence is critical in framing cultures; verbal
and mathematical intelligences are important in technological cultures. He says “intelligence is a
biological and physiological potential which is capable of being realized to a greater or lesser
extent as a consequence of the experiential, cultural and motivational factor that affect a person”.

Cattel’s theory of intelligence:

Rymond Cattel (1963) and Horn (1998) presented theory of Fluid intelligence and Crystalized
intelligence.
Fluid intelligence is the mental non-verbal and cultural free mental efficiency granted in
brain development. It increases till adolescence and declines gradually with age and his sensitive
to injuries.
Crystalized intelligence is the ability of applying culturally approved problem, solving
methods as outcome of invested fluid intelligence throughout life span learning skills and
knowledge.
Hunt (2000) and Sattler (2001) that by investigating fluid intelligence in problem solving, we
develop our crystallized intelligence but many tasks in life such as mathematical reasoning draw
on both fluid and crystallized intelligence.
Sternberg (2000) says that the most popular view of today is that intelligence like self-concept
has many facts and is a hierarchy of abilities, with general ability at the top and more specific
abilities at lowest levels.
Jhon Carrol (1997) as shown in the hierarchical model of intelligence describe one general
ability “g” at the first level eight broad abilities like fluid crystallized, learning and memory,
visual and auditory perception, retrieval, capacity, cognition speediness and processing speed
decision at the second level and more than 70 abilities at the third level.
Brynes & Fox (1998) relate General ability to maturation and front libe’s function while they
connect specific abilities to other parts of brain.
Robert Sternberg’s (1985, 1990) Triarchic theory of intelligence is a modern cognitive process
approach which implies that intelligent behavior is that product of applying thinking strategies,
analytic componential, creative experiential and practical in adapting to contexts by selecting and
reshaping.
 Measurement of Intelligence
The First Test
The first test of intelligence was devised by French psychologist Alfred Binet. In 1881 the
French government passed a law and made school attendance compulsory for all children. It
created many problems for school teachers. Because some children seemed incapable of
benefiting from the regular school curriculum and appeared to need special classes. So, Paris
officials decided to try to identify children who could not learn well in regular class rooms.
Government asked Binet to create a test would detect children who were too slow intellectually
to benefit from a regular school curriculum.

Binet Simon Scale 1905

Binet in collaboration with another French psychologist Theophile Simon develop
a way to measures school child’s ability to judge, reason and comprehend.
The 1905 Binet Simon Scale was an individual test consisting on 30 items
presented in an increasing order of difficulty. They argued that they the nature of
intelligence changed with age, so their measuring system include different tests for
each age.

The 1908 Scale

Binet and Simon revised their test in 1908. In this scale, Binet and Simon retained
the principle of age differentiation. The 1908 scale was an age scale, which means
items were grouped according to age level rather then simply increasing difficulty.
The 1911 Scale
Binet and Simon again revised their intelligence scale in 1911, but this third
revision contained only minor improvements. By this time, the potential utility of
the Binet scale had recognized throughout Europe and in the United States.
The 1916 Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale
The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales (or more commonly the Stanford–Binet) is an
individually-administered intelligence test that was revised from the original Binet–Simon Scale
by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon. The Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale is now in its fifth
edition (SB5), which was released in 2003. It is a cognitive ability and intelligence test that is
used to diagnose developmental or intellectual deficiencies in young children. The test measures
five weighted factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal subtests. The five factors being
tested are knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and
fluid reasoning.

The Intelligence Quotient

IQ, or intelligence quotient, is a measure of your ability to reason and solve problems. It reflects
how well you did on a specific test compared to other people of your age group.
Wechsler Adult intelligence Scale WAIS
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is an IQ test designed to measure intelligence
and cognitive ability in adults and older adolescents.[1] The original WAIS (Form I) was
published in February 1955 by David Wechsler, as a revision of the Wechsler–Bellevue
Intelligence Scale, released in 1939.[2] It is currently in its fourth edition (WAIS-IV) released in
2008 by Pearson, and is the most widely used IQ test, for both adults and older adolescents, in
the world.
WAIS comprises of different subsets each if which is related to a basic underlying ability. Each
of the various subsets is also a part of the verbal or performance scale.
Verbal Scales Performance Scale

Vocabulary Picture completion

Similarities Digit Symbol

Arithmetic Block Design
Digit span Matrix Reasoning
Information Picture Arrangement
Comprehension Symbol Search
Letter Numbering sequence Object Assembly
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Wechsler intelligence scale for children was first published in 1949, revised in
1974. Most recently it was revised in 1991. Its age range is 6 through 16 years,11
month, 30 days.
The original for of the WISC-III is based on its previous edition of. The WISC III
contains 13 subtests, three of which are supplementary.

Verbal Scales Performance Scale

Information Pictures Completion

Comprehension Pictures Arrangement

Arithmetic Bloc Design

Similarities Object Assembly

Vocabulary Coding
Digit Span Mazes ( Two series)