2 POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Based on (i) turn-on and turn-off characteristics and (ii) gate signal requirements, the
power semiconductor devices can be classified as under:
(a) Diodes: These are uncontrolled rectifying devices. Their on and off states are
controlled by power supply.
(b) Thyristors: These have controlled turned-on by a gate signal. After thyristors are
turned-on, they remain latched-in on-state due to internal regenerative action.
(c) Controllable switches: These devices are turned-on and turned-off by the application
of control signals. The devices which behave as controllable switches are BJT, MOSFET,
GTO, SITH, IGBT, SIT and MCT.
SCR, GTO, SITH and MCT require pulse-gate signal for turning them on; once these
devices are on, gate pulse is removed. But BJT, MOSFET, IGBT and SIT require
continuous signal for keeping them in tum-on state.
The devices which can withstand unipolar voltage are BJT, MOSFET, IGBT and MCT.
Thyristors and GTOs are capable of supporting bipolar voltages.
Triac and RCT (reverse conducting thyristor) possess bidirectional current capability
whereas all other remaining devices (diode, SCR, GTO, BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT,
SITH, MCT) are unidirectional current devices.

Power Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors

Power semiconductor diodes are similar to low-power p-n junction diodes, called signal
diodes. Similarly, power transistors are identical with npn or pnp signal transistors. As a
matter of fact, power semiconductor devices are more complex in structure and in
operation than their low-power counterparts. This complexity arises because low-power
devices must be modified in order to make them suitable for high-power applications, for
example, power diodes are constructed with n- layer, called drift region, between p+ layer
(anode) and n+ layer or substrate (cathode). This is done to support large blocking
voltages. This n- type layer is, however, 1tot present in signal diodes. The voltage, current
and power ratings of power diodes and transistors are much higher than the
corresponding ratings for signal devices. In addition, power devices operate at lower
switching speeds whereas signal diodes and transistors operate at higher switching
speeds. Power semiconductor devices are used extensively in power-electronic circuits.
Some applications of power diodes include their use as freewheeling diodes, for AC to
DC conversion, for recovery of trapped energy etc. Power transistors, used as a switching
device in power-electronic circuits, must operate in the saturation region in order that
their on-state voltage drop is low. Their applications as switching elements include dc
choppers and inverters.
2.1. POWER DIODES
Power diode is a two-layer, two-terminal, p-n semiconductor device. It has one pn-
junction formed by alloying, diffusing or epitaxial growth. The two terminals of diode are
called anode and cathode, Fig. 2.1 (a). Two important characteristics of power diodes are
now described.

2.1.1 Diode V-I Characteristics

When anode is positive with respect to cathode, diode is said to be forward biased. With
increase of the source voltage v. from zero value, initially diode current is zero. From Vs
= 0 to cut-in voltage, the forward-diode current is very small. Cut-in voltage is also
known as threshold voltage or turn-on voltage. Beyond cut-in voltage, the diode current
rises rapidly and the diode is said to conduct. For silicon diode, the cut-in voltage is
around 0. 7 V. When diode conducts, there is a forward voltage drop of the order of 0.8 to
1 V.
When cathode is positive with respect to anode, the diode is said to be reverse biased. In
the reverse biased condition of the diode, a small reverse current, called leakage current,
of the order of microamperes or milliamperes (for large diodes) flows. The leakage
current increases slowly with the reverse voltage until breakdown or avalanche voltage is
reached.
At this breakdown voltage, diode is turned on in the reversed direction. If current in the
reversed direction is not limited by a series resistance, the current will become quite high
to destroy the diode. The reverse avalanche breakdown of a diode is avoided by operating
the diode below specified peak repetitive reverse voltage V RRM .· Fig. 2.1 (c) illustrates
diode characteristics where V RRM and cut-in voltage are shown.

Fig. 2.1. (a) p-n junction (b) diode symbol (c) V-I characteristics of diode.

Diode manufacturers also indicate the value of peak inverse voltage (PIV) of a diode.
This is the largest reverse voltage to which a diode may be subjected during its working.
PIV is the same as V RRM ·
The power diodes are now available with forward current ratings of 1 A to several
thousands of amperes and with reverse voltage ratings of 50 V to 3000 V or more.

2.1.2. Diode Reverse Recovery Characteristics

After the forward diode current decays to zero, the diode continues to conduct in the
reverse direction because of the presence of stored charges in the two layers. The reverse
current flows for a time called reverse recovery time t rr. The diode regains its blocking
capability until reverse recovery current decays to zero. The reverse recovery time t rr is
defined as the time between the instant forward diode current become& zero and the
instant reverse recovery current decays to 25% of its reverse peak value I RM as shown in
Fig. 2.2 (a).

The reverse recovery time is composed of two segments of time t a and t b, i.e., t rr =t a +t b
Time t a is the time between zero crossing of forward current and peak reverse current
I RM .
During the time t a, charge stored in depletion region is removed. Time t b is measured
from the instant of I RM to the instant where 0.25 I RM is reached, Fig. 2.2(a). During t b
charge from the two semiconductor layers is removed. The shaded area in Fig. 2.2(a)
represents the stored charge, or reverse recovery charge, Q R which must be removed
during the reverse recovery time t rr. The ratio t b /t a is called the softness factor or S-
factor. This factor is a measure of the voltage transients that occur during the time diode
recovers. Its usual value is unity and this indicates low oscillatory reverse recovery
process. In case S-factor is small, diode has large oscillatory over voltages. A diode with
S-factor equal to one is called soft-recovery diode and a diode with S-factor less than one
is called snappy-recovery diode or fast-recovery diode. In Fig. 2.2 (b) is shown the
waveform of forward-voltage drop V f across the diode. The product of V f and i f gives
the power loss in a diode. Its variation is shown in Fig.2.2 (c). The average value of v f i f
gives the total power loss in a diode. Fig. 2.2 (c) reveals that major power loss in a diode
occurs during the period t b.
Fig. 2.2. Reverse recovery characteristics (a) variation of forward current i f (b) forward
voltage drop v f and (c) power loss in a diode.

It is noticed from Fig. 2.2 (a) that peak inverse current I RM can be expressed as
di
I RM =t a …….. (2.1)
dt
di
Where, is the rate of change of reverse current.
dt
The reverse recovery characteristics of Fig.2.2(a) can be taken to be triangular. Under this
assumption, storage charge QR, from Fig.2.2(a), is given by

1 2Q R
Q R= I RM ⋅t rr
2 I RM = ¿ …….. (2.2)
t rr
¿
If t rr ≅ t a , then from Eq. (2.1),
di
I RM =t rr ⋅ ..…… (2.3)
dt
From Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3), we get
di 2Q R
t rr ⋅ ¿
dt t rr
..…… (2.4)
[ ]
1 /2
2 QR
t rr ¿
(di/ dt)
From Eq. (2.1), with t a ≡ t rr , we get

[ ]
1 /2
di 2 QR di
I RR ¿ t rr ⋅
= ⋅ ..…… (2.5)
dt (di/dt ) dt
¿ ¿
It is seen from Eqs. (2.4) and (2.5) that reverse recovery time and peak inverse current are
di
dependent on storage charge and rate of change of current . The storage charge
dt
depends upon the forward diode current I F . This shows that reverse recovery time and
peak inverse current depend on forward field current.

A power-electronics engineer must know peak reverse current I RM stored charge Q R, S-

factor, PIV etc in order to be able to design the circuitry employing power diodes. These
parameters are usually specified in the catalogue supplied by the diode manufacturers.

2.2. TYPES OF POWER DIODES

Diodes are classified according to their reverse recovery characteristics. The three types
of power diodes are as under:
(i) General purpose diodes
(ii) Fast recovery diodes
(iii) Schottky diodes.
These are now described briefly.
2.2.1. General-purpose Diodes
These diodes have relatively high reverse recovery time, of the order of about 25 μs.
Their current ratings vary from 1 A to several thousand amperes and the range of voltage
rating is from 50 V to about 5 kV. Applications of power diodes of this type include
battery charging, electric traction, electroplating, welding and uninterruptible power
supplies (UPS).
2.2.2. Fast-recovery Diodes
The diodes with low reverse recovery time, of about 5 μs or less, are classified as fast-
recovery diodes. These are used in choppers, commutation circuits, switched mode power
supplies, induction heating etc. Their current ratings vary from about 1 A to several
thousand amperes and voltage ratings from 50 V to about 3 kV.
For voltage ratings below about 400 V, the epitaxial process is used for diode fabrication.
These diodes have fast recovery time, as low as 50 ns. For voltage ratings above 400 V,
diffusion technique is used for the fabrication of diodes. In order to shorten the reverse-
recovery time, platinum or gold doping is carried out. But this doping may increase the
forward voltage drop in a diode.
2.2.3. Schottky Diodes
This class of diodes use metal-to-semiconductor junction for rectification purposes
instead of pn-junction. Schottky diodes are characterised by very fast recovery time and
low forward voltage drop. Rectified current flow is by majority carriers only and this
avoids the turn-off delay accompanied with minority carrier recombination. Their reverse
voltage ratings are limited to about 100 V and forward current ratings vary from 1 A to
300 A. Applications of Schottky diodes include high-frequency instrumentation and
switching power supplies. The electrical and thermal characteristics of power diodes are
similar to those of thyristors
POWER TRANSISTORS
Power diodes are uncontrolled devices. In other words, their turn-on and turn-off
characteristics are not under control. Power transistors, however, possess controlled
characteristics. These are turned on when a current signal is given to base, or control,
terminal. The transistor remains in the on-state so long as control signal is present. When
this control signal is removed, a power transistor is turned off.
Power transistors are of three types as under:
(i) Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
(ii) Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs)
(iii) Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs)

These three types are now described one after the other.

2.3.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors

A bipolar transistor is a three-layer, two junction npn or pnp semiconductor device. With
one p-region sandwiched by two n-regions, Fig. 2.3(a), npn transistor is obtained. With
two p-regions sandwiching one n-region, Fig. 2.3(b), pnp transistor is obtained. The term'
bipolar 'denotes that the current flow in the device is due to the movement of both holes
and electrons.
A BJT has three terminals named collector, emitter and base. An emitter is indicated by
an arrowhead indicating the direction of emitter current. No arrow is associated with base
or collector.

Fig. 2.3. Bipolar junction transistors (a) npn type and (b)pnp type.

2.3.1.1. Steady-state Characteristics. Out of the three possible circuit configurations for
a transistor, common-emitter arrangement is more common in switching applications. So,
henceforth, npn transistors will only be considered.
;Input characteristics. A graph between base current I B and base-emitter voltage V BE
gives input characteristics. As the base-emitter junction of a transistor is like a diode, I B
versus V BE graph resembles a diode curve. When collector-emitter voltage V CE 2is more
than V CE 1 base current decreases as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b).
Fig. 2.4.(a) npn transistor circuit characteristics, (b) input characteristics and (c) output
characteristics.

Output characteristics. A graph between collector current I C and collector-emitter voltage

V CE gives output characteristics of a transistor. For zero base current, i.e. for I B=0, as
V CE is increased, a small leakage (collector) current exists as shown in Fig. 2.4 (c). As
the base current is increased from I B=0to I B 1 , I B 2 etc, collector current also rises as
shown in Fig. 2.4 (c).

Fig. 2.5 (a) shows two of the output characteristic curves, 1 for I B=0 and 2 for I B ≠ 0.
The initial part of curve 2, characterised by low V CE , is called the saturation region. In
this region, the transistor acts like a switch. The flat part of curve 2, indicated by
increasing V CE and almost constant I C, is the active region. In this region, transistor acts
like an amplifier. Almost vertically rising curve is the breakdown region which must be
avoided at all costs.
Fig. 2.5. (a) Output characteristics and load line for npn transistor and (b) electron flow
in an npn transistor.

For load resistor RC , Fig. 2.4 (a), the collector current I C is given by

V CC−V CE
I C= ….. (2.6)
RC
This is the equation of load line. It is shown as line AB in Fig. 2.5 (a). A load line is the
locus of all possible operating points. Ideally, when transistor is on, V CE is zero and
I E =V CC / R E . This collector current is shown by point A on the vertical axis. When the
transistor is off, or in the cut-off region, V CC appears across collector-emitter terminals
and there is no collector current. This value is indicated by point B on the horizontal axis.
For the resistive load, the line joining points A and B is the load line.

Relation between α and β Most of the electrons, proportional to I E given out by emitter,
reach the collector as shown in Fig. 2.5 (b). In other words, collector current I C, though
less than emitter current I E , is almost equal to I E . A symbol α is used to indicate how
close in value these two currents are. Here α , called forward current gain, is defined as

IC
α=
IE
As I C < I E , value of α varies from 0.95 to 0.99.

In a transistor, base current is effectively the input current and collector current is the
output current. The ratio of collector (output) current I C to base (input) current I B is
known as the current gain β .
I
∴ β= C ….. 2.7
IB
As I B is much smaller, β is much more than unity; its value varies from 50 to 300. In
another system of analysis, called h parameters, h FE is used in place of β .
IC
β=h FE=
lB
Use of KCL in Fig. 2.4 (a) gives
I E =I C + I B ….. 2.8
Remember that emitter current is the largest of the three currents, collector current is
almost equal to, but less than, emitter current. Base current has the least value. Dividing
both sides of Eq .(2.8) by I c, we get
and
 IE IB
=1+
IC IC
1 1
=1+
α β ….. 2.9, 2.10
α
β=
1−α
β
α=
β +1
Transistor Switch. Transistor operation as a switch means that transistor operates either
in the saturation region or in the cut-off region and nowhere else on the load line. As an
ideal switch, the transistor operates at point A in the saturated state as closed switch with
V CE =0 and at point B in the cut-off state as an open switch with I C =0 , Fig. 2.5 (a). In
practice, the large base current will cause the transistor to work in the saturation region at
point A' with small saturation voltage V CES . Here subscript S is used to denote saturated
value. Voltage V CES represents on-state voltage drop of the transistor which is of the order
of about 1 V . When the control, or base, signal is reduced to zero, the transistor is turned
off and its operation shifts to B' in the cut-off region, Fig. 2.5(a). A small leakage current
I CEO flows in the collector circuit when the transistor is off.
For Fig. 2.4 (a), KVL for the circuit consisting of V B , R B and emitter gives
V B−R B I B −V BE =0
or
V B−V BE
I B=
RB
Also, from Fig. 2.4 (a)
V CC =V CE + I C RC
or
V CE ¿ V CC −I C RC =V CC− β I B R C
….. 2.11
¿ ¿
Also
V CE =V CB + V BE
or
V CB =V CE −V BE ….. 2.12
If V CES is the collector-emitter saturation voltage, then collector current I CS is given by
V CC −V CES
I CS= ….. 2.13
RC
and
I CS
I BS= ….. 2.14
β
Where, I BS is the base current that produces saturation.
If base current is less than I BS, the transistor operates in the active region, i.e, somewhere
between the saturation and cut-off points. If base current is more than I BS ,V CES is almost
zero and collector current from Eq. (2.13) is given by I CS=V CC / RC . This shows that
collector current at saturation remains substantially constant even if base current is
increased.
With base current more than I BS, hard drive of transistor is obtained. With hard
saturation, V CES becomes low and on-state losses of transistor are reduced. Under hard-
drive conditions, the ratio of I B and I BS is defined as the overdrive factor (ODF).
IB
ODF= ….. 2.15
I BS
The ratio of I CS to I B is called forced current gain β f where;
I CS
β f = < natural current gain β or h FE ….. 2.16
IB
The total power loss in the two junctions of a transistor is
PT =V BE I B +V CE I C ….. 2.17
V V V
Under saturated state, BES is greater than CES and Eq. (2.12) shows that CB is negative.
It means both transistor junctions are forward biased under saturated condition.

2.3.1.2. Transistor Switching Performance.

A transistor cannot be turned on instantly because of the presence of internal
capacitances. Fig. 2.6 (b) shows switching waveforms of an npn transistor with resistive
load between collector and emitter Fig. 2.6 (a). When base-emitter voltage V BE is applied,
the base current rises to I BS ; the collector current, however, remains zero or equal to
collector-emitter leakage current I CEO as shown. After sometime delay t d, called delay
time, the collector current begins to rise. This delay is due to the time required to charge
base-emitter capacitance to V BES =0.7 V . After this delay t d, collector current rises to
steady state value I cs in time t r, which is known as rise time. This means that turn-on time
for BJT is t on=t d +t r. Rise time depends upon the input capacitances. During rise time t r,
collector-emitter voltage falls from V CC to V CES. The transistor remains in the on and
saturated state so long as forward base current is maintained.
When the base-emitter voltage V BE is removed at time t 1, the collector current does not
change for a time t s, called storage time. During t s, saturating charge is removed from the
base. After t s, collector current begins to fall and at the same time, collector voltage starts
building up. After times t f called fall time, I C decreases to I CEO (almost zero) and
collector-emitter voltage rises to V CC . Sum of storage time and fall time gives the transistor turn-off time, i.e.
t off =t s+t f . The various waveforms during transistor switching are shown
Fig, 2.6. (a) Transistor with resistive load and (b) switching waveforms for npn
transistor.
in Fig. 2.6 (b). In this figure, t n=¿ conduction period, t 0=¿ off period and T =1/ f is the
periodic time.

2.3. 1.3. Safe Operating Area.

The safe operating area (SOA or SOAR ) of a power transistor specifies the safe operating
limits of collector current I C versus collector-emitter voltage V CE For reliable operation
of the transistor, the collector current and voltage must always lie within this area.
Actually, two types of safe operating areas are specified by the manufacturers, FBSOA
and RBSOA.
The forward-base safe operating area (FBSOA) pertains to the transistor operation when
base-emitter junction is forward biased to turn-on the transistor. For a power transistor,
Fig. 2.7 shows tyoical FBSOA for its dc as well as single-pulse operation. The scale for
I C and V CE are logarithmic. Boundary AB is the maximum limit for dc and continuous
current for V CE less than about 80 V . For V CE for more than 80 V , collector current has
to be reduced to boundary BC so as to limit the junction temperature to safe values. For
still higher V CE , corrent should further be reduced so as to avoid secondary breakdown
limit. Boundary CD current should further be reduced so as to aroid secondary
breakdown limit. Boundary CD for this particular transistor.
For pulsed operation, power transistor can dissipate mare peak power so long as average
power loss is within safe limits of junction temperature. In Fig. 2.7 ; 5 ms , 500 μ s etc.
indicate pulse widths for which transistor is on. It is seen that FBSOA increases as pulse-
width is decreased.
It should he noted that FBSOA curves, as given by the manufacturers, are for a case
temperature of 25∘ C and for dc and single-pulse operation. In order to take into
consideration, the actual working temperature and repetitive nature of the pulses, these
curves must be modified with the help of thermal impedance of the device.
Fig. 2.7. Typical forward biased safe Fig, 2.8. Typical reverse-block safe
operating area (FBSOA) for a power operating area (RBSOA) for a power
transistor (logarithmic scale) transistor.
During turn-off, a transistor is subjected to high current and high voltage with base-
emitter junction reverse biased. Safe operating area for transistor during turn-off is
specified as reverse blocking safe operating area (RBSOA). This RBSOA is a plot of
collector current versus collector-emitter voltage as shown in Fig. 2.8. RBSOA specifies
the limits of transistor operation at turn-off when the base current is zero or when the
base-emitter junction is reverse biased (i.e. with base current negative). With increased
reverse bias, area RBSOA decreases in size as shown in Fig. 2.8.

Example 2.1.
For a power transistor, typical switching waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.6 The various
parameters of the transistor circuit are as under:
V CC =220 V ,V CES =2 V , I CS =80 A , t d =0.4 μ s ,t r =1 μs ,t n=50 μs ,
t s=3 μ s , t f =2 μ s ,t o=40 μ s , f =5 kHz . Collector to emitter leakage current ¿ 2 mA .
Determine average power loss due to collector current during t on and t n. Find also the
peak instantaneous power loss due to collector current during turn-on time.
Solution.
During delay time, the time limits are 0 ≤ t ≤ t d . Fig. 2.6 (b) shows that in this time,
i C (t)=I CEO and v CE (t )=V CC
∴ Instantaneous power loss during delay time is
−3
Pd (t)=i C U CE =I CEO V CC=2 ×10 × 220=0.44 W
Average power loss during delay time with 0 ≤ t ≤ t d is given by
td
1
T∫
Pd ¿ ❑i C (t)⋅v CE (t)dt
0
3 −3 −6
¿ ¿ 5 ×10 ×2 ×10 ×220 × 0.4 ×10 =0.88 mW
1
f = = frequency of transistor switching
T
Where;
0 ≤ t ≤ tr ,
During rise time, and
I CS
iC (t) ⋅t ¿
tr

[
v CE (t ) ¿ V CC −
V CC−V CES
tr
⋅t
]
∴ Average power loss during rise time is

[ ]
t
1
r
I V −V CES
Pr ¿ ∫ ❑ CS ⋅t V CC − CC ⋅t dt
T 0 tr tr

¿ ¿ 5× 103 ×80 ×1 ×10−6 [ 220 220−2

2
−
3 ]=14.933 W
Instantaneous power loss during rise time is
Pr ( t) ¿
{
I CS
tr
⋅t V CC −
]
V CC−V CES
tr
⋅t

¿ ¿
d P r (t)
=0 gives time t m at which instantaneous power loss during t r would be maximum.
dt
It is seen from Eq. (i) that
V CC ⋅t r 220 ×1 ×10
−6
t m= = =0.5046 μ s
2 [ V CC−V CES ] 2[220 ×−2]
Peak instantaneous power loss Prm during rise time is obtained by substituting the value
of t=t m in Eq. (i).
I CS ( V CC ⋅ t r ) [ V CC −V CES ]
2
I CS V 2CC ⋅t r
Prm ¿ ⋅ −
t r 2 [ V CC−V CES ] t 2r 4 [ V CC−V CES ]
2

¿ ¿
Total average power loss during turn-on
Pon =P d + Pr =0.00088+14.933=14.9339 W
During conduction time, 0 ≤ t ≤ t n
i C (t)=I CS and V CE (t)=V CES
Instantaneous power loss during t n is
Pn (t )=i C v CE =I CS V CES =80 × 2=160 W
Average power loss during conduction period is
t
1
n

Pn ¿ ∫ ❑ iC ⋅ vCE ⋅dt=f I CS ⋅V CES ⋅t n

T 0
¿ ¿

Example 2.2.
Repeat Example 2.1 for obtaining average power loss during turn-off time and off-period,
and also peak instantaneous power loss during fall time due to collector current.
Sketch the instantaneous power loss for period T as a function of time.
Solution.
During storage time, 0 ≤ t ≤ t s,
i C (t)=I CS and v CE (t)=V CES
Instantaneous power loss during t s is
Ps ( t) ¿ i C (t)U CE (t)
¿ ¿
Average power loss during t s is
ts
1
Ps ¿ ∫ ❑ I CS ⋅V CES ⋅dt =f ⋅ I CE ⋅V CES ⋅ t s
T 0
¿ ¿

[
During fall time, 0 ≤ t ≤ t f ,i C (t)= I CS−
I CS −I CEO
tf
⋅t
]
During t f I CEO is negligibly small in comparison with I CS,
and
iC (t)
[ ]
¿ I CS 1−
t
tf
V CC −V CES
v CE (t ) ¿ ⋅t
tf
Average power loss during fall time is

( )[ ]
t
1 t V CC−V CES
f

Pf ¿ ∫ ❑ I CS 1− ⋅t dt
T 0 tf tf
I CS
¿ ¿ f ⋅t f ⋅
6
[ V CC−V CES ]
¿ ¿
Instantaneous power loss during fall time is
Pf (t) ¿ I CS 1−
[ ][ t V CC −V CES
tf tf] t

¿ ¿
d P f (t)
=0 gives time t m at which instantaneous power loss during t r would be maximum.
dt
Here t m=t f /2 .
∴ Peak instantaneous power dissipation during t f is

( )(
Pfm=I CS 1−
2 2 )
1 V CC −V CES I CS ( V CC −V CES )
=
4
80(220−2)
¿ =4360 W
4
Total average power loss during turn-off process is
Poff =P s+ P f =2.4+ 43.6=46 W
During off-period, 0 ≤ t ≤ t 0
i C (t)=I CEO and v CE (t)=V CC
Instantaneous power loss during t o is
−3
P0 (t )=i C ⋅ v CE =I CEO ⋅V CC=2 ×10 × 220=0.44 W
Average power loss during t o is
 t0
1
P0 ¿ ∫ ❑ P0 (t)dt=f I CEO ⋅V CC ⋅t 0
T 0
¿ ¿
Total average power loss in power-transistor due to collector current over a period T is
PT =Pon + Pn + Poff + P 0=14.9339+ 40+46+ 0.088=101.022 W

Fig 2.9. Sketch of instantaneous power loss in a transistor for Examples 2.1 and 2.2.
From the data obtained in Examples 2.1 and 2.2, the power loss variation as a function of
time, over a period T , is sketched in Fig. 2.9.

Example 2.3.
A power transistor has its switching waveforms as shown in Fig. 2.10. If the average
power loss in the transistor is limited to 300 W , find the switching frequency at which
this transistor can be operated.
1. Solution.
¿ ∫ 0 ( 2× 106 t ) ( 200−5 ×106 t ) dt
t
Energy loss during turn-on ¿ ∫ t0 iC ⋅v CE dt
on on

t
¿ ∫0
an

(
I CS
50
6
)(
×10 t V CC −
V CC
40
6
×10 t dt ) ¿ 0.1067 watt-sec

Fig. 2.10. Switching waveform for Example 2.3

Energy loss during turn-off ¿ ∫ 0

t o ff
( 100− 100
60
×10 t )(
6 200
75
×10 t ) dt
6

¿ 0.1603 watt-sec
Total energy loss in one cycle
 ¿ 0.1067+ 0.1603=0.267 W −sec
Average power loss in transistor
= switching frequency × energy loss in one cycle
∴ Allowable switching frequency,
300
f= =1123.6 Hz
0.267
2.4. POWER MOSFETs
A metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is a recent device
developed by combining the areas of field-effect concept and MOS technology.
A power MOSFET has three terminals called drain, source and gate in place of the
corresponding three terminals collector, emitter and base for BJT. The circuit symbol of
power MOSFET is as shown in Fig. 2.11 (a). Here arrow indicates the direction of
electron flow. A BJT is a current controlled device whereas a power MOSFET is a
voltage-controlled device. As its operation depends upon the flow of majority carriers
only, MOSFET is a unipolar device. The control signal, or base current in BJT is much
larger than the control signal (or gate current) required in a MOSFET. This is because of
the fact that gate circuit impedance in MOSFET is extremely high, of the order of
9
10 ohm. This large impedance permits the MOSFET gate to be driven directly from
microelectronic circuits. BJT suffers from second breakdown voltage whereas MOSFET
is free from this problem. Power MOSFETs are now finding increasing applications in
low-power high frequency converters.

Fig.
2.11. N -channel enhancement power MOSFET (a) circuit symbol and (b) its basic
structure.
Power MOSFETs are of two types; n-channel enhancement MOSFET and p-channel
enhancement MOSFET. Out of these two types, n -channel enhancement MOSFET is
more common because of higher mobility of electrons. As such, only this type of
MOSFET is studied in what follows. A simplified structure of n-channel planar MOSFET
of low power rating is shown in Fig. 2.11 (b). On p-substrate (or body), two heavily
doped n+¿ ¿regions are diffused as shown. An insulating layer of silicon dioxide ( SiO2 ) is
grown on the surface. Now this insulating layer is etched in order to embed metallic
source and drain terminals. Note that n+¿ ¿regions make contact with source and drain
terminals as shown. A layer of metal is also deposited on SiO2 layer so as to form the gate
of MOSFET.
When gate circuit is open, no current flows from drain to source and load because of one
reverse-biased n+¿− p ¿ junction. When gate is made positive with respect to source, an
electric field is established as shown in Fig. 2.11(b). Eventually, induced negative
charges in the p-substrate below SiO2 layer are formed. These negative charges, called
electrons, form n-channel and current can flow from drain to source as shown by the
arrow. If V GS is made more positive, n -channel becomes more deep and therefore more
current flows from D to S. This shows that drain current I D is enhanced by the gradual
increase of gate voltage, hence the name enhancement MOSFET.
The main disadvantage of n -channel planar MOSFET of Fig. 2.11 (b) is that conducting
n-channel in between drain and source gives large on-state resistance. This leads to high
power dissipation in n -channel. This shows that planar MOSFET construction of Fig.
2.11 (b) is feasible only for low-power MOSFETs.
The constructional details of high power MOSFET are illustrated in Fig. 2.12.

Fig. 2.12. Basic structure of a n -channel DMOS power MOSFET.

In this figure is shown a planar diffused metal-oxide-semiconductor (DMOS) structure

for n -channel which is quite common for power MOSFETs. On n+¿ ¿substrate, high
resistivity n−¿¿layer is epitaxially grown. The thickness of n - layer determines the voltage
blocking capability of the device. On the other side of n+¿ ¿substrate, a metal layer is
deposited to form the drain terminal. Now p−¿ ¿regions are diffused in the epitaxially
grown n−¿¿layer. Further, n+¿ ¿regions are diffused in p regions as shown. As before, SiO2
layer is added, which is then etched so as
 A mixture of silicon atoms and pentavalent atoms, deposited on wafer, forms a
layer of n -type semiconductor on heated surface. This layer is called expitaxial
layer. to fit metallic source and gate terminals. A power MOSFET actually
consists of a parallel connection of thousands of basic MOSFET cells on the same
single chip of silicon.
 −¿ ¿

When gate circuit voltage is zero, and V DD is present, n−¿− p ¿junctions are reverse biased
and no current flows from drain to source. When gate terminal is made positive with
respect to source, an electric field is established and electrons form n -channel in the p−¿ ¿
regions as shown. So a current from drain to source is established as indicated by arrows.
With gate voltage increased current I D also increases as expected. Length of n -channel
can be controlled and therefore on-resistance can be made low if short length is used for
the channel.
Power MOSFET conduction is due to majority carriers, therefore, time delays caused by
removal or recombination of minority carriers are eliminated. Thus, power MOSFET can
work at switching frequencies in the megahertz range.
2.4.1. MOSFET Characteristics
The static characteristics of power MOSFET are now described briefly. The basic circuit
diagram for n -channel power MOSFET is shown in Fig. 2.13( a) where voltages and
currents are as indicated.
(a) Transfer characteristics. This characteristic shows the variation of drain current I D as
a function of gate-source voltage V GS. Fig. 2.13( b) shows typical transfer characteristic
for n -channel power MOSFET. It is seen that there is threshold voltage V GST below which
the device is off. The magnitude of V GST is of the order of 2 to 3 V .

Fig. 2.13. (a) N-channel power MOSFET circuit diagram and (b) its typical transfer
characteristic.
(b) Output characteristics. Power MOSFET output characteristics shown in Fig. 2.14
indicate the variation of drain current I D as a function of drain-source voltage V GS as a
parameter. For low values of V DS, the graph between I D −V DS is almost linear; this
indicates a constant value of on-resistance R DS=V DS / I D. For given V GS, if V DS is
increased, output characteristic is relatively flat indicating that drain current is nearly
constant. A load line intersects the output characteristics at A and B. Here A indicates
fully-on condition and B fully-off state. Power MOSFET operates as a switch either at A
or at B just like a BJT.
Fig. 2.14. Output characteristics of a
power MOSFET.
Fig. 2.15. Switching waveforms for
power MOSFET.
(c) Switching characteristics. The switching characteristics of a power MOSFET are
influenced to a large extent by the internal capacitance of the device and the internal
impedance of the gate drive circuit. At turn-on, there is an initial delay t dn during which input
capacitance charges to gate threshold voltage V GST . Here t dn is called turn-on delay time.
There is further delay t r called rise time, during which gate voltage rises to V GSP, a voltage
sufficient to drive the MOSFET into on state. During t r, drain current rises from zero to full
on current I D . Thus, the total turn-on time is t on=t dn+t r . The turn-on time can be reduced by
using low-impedance gate drive source.
As MOSFET is a majority carrier device, turn-off process is initiated soon after removal of
gate voltage at time t 1. The turn-off delay time, t df , is the time during which input capacitance
discharges from overdrive gate voltage V 1 to V GSP. The fall time, t f is the time during which
input capacitance discharges from V GSP to threshold voltage. During t f , drain current falls
from I D to zero. So when V GS ≤V GST , MOSFET turn-off is complete. Switching waveforms
for a power MOSFET are shown in Fig. 2.15.
Power MOSFETs are very popular in switched mode power supplies. They are, at present,
available with 500 V , 140 A ratings.

1.1.2. Comparison of MOSFET with BJT

Power MOSFET has several features different from those of BJT. These are outlined as
under:
(i) Power MOSFET has lower switching losses but its on-resistance and conduction losses are
more. A BJT has higher switching losses but lower conduction loss. So at high frequency
applications, power MOSFET is the obvious choice. But at lower operating frequencies (less
than about 10 to 30 kHz , BJT is superior.
(ii) MOSFET is voltage-controlled device whereas BJT is current controlled device.
(iii) MOSFET has positive temperature coefficient for resistance. This makes parallel
operation of MOSFET easy. If a MOSFET shares increased current initially, it heats up
faster, its resistance rises and this increased resistance causes this current to shift to other
devices in parallel. A BJT has negative temperature coefficient, so current-sharing resistors
are necessary during parallel operation of BJTs.

(iv) In MOSFET, secondary breakdown does not occur, because it has positive temperature
coefficient. As BJT has negative temperature coefficient, secondary breakdown occurs. In
BJT, with decrease in resistance, the current increases. This increased current over the same
area results in hot spots and breakdown of the BJTT.
(v) Power MOSFETs in higher voltage ratings have more conduction loss.
(vi) The state-of-the-art MOSFETs are available with ratings up to 500 V , 140 A whereas
BJTs are available with ratings up to 1200 V , 800 A .

5.2. INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR. (IGBT)

IGBT is a new development in the area of power MOSFET technology. This device
combines into it the advantages of both MOSFET and BJT. So, an IGBT has high input
impedance like a MOSFET and low-on-state power loss as in a BJT. Further, IGBT is free
from second breakdown problem present in BJT. IGBT is also known as metal-oxide
insulated gate transistor (MOSIGT), conductively-modulated field effect transistor
(COMFET) or gain-modulated FET (GEMFET). It was also initially called insulated gate
transistor (IGT).
5.2.1. Basic Structure and Working
Fig. 2.16 illustrates the basic structure of an IGBT. It is constructed virtually in the same
manner as a power MOSFET. There is, however; a major difference in the substrate. The n+¿ ¿
+¿¿
layer substrate at the drain in a power MOSFET is now substituted in the IGBT by a p
layer substrate called collector. Like a power MOSFET, an IGBT has also thousands of basic
structure cells connected appropriately on a single chip of silicon.

Fig. 2.16. Basic structure of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT).

When gate is positive with respect to emitter and with gate-emitter voltage more than the
threshold voltage of IGBT, an n-channel is formed in the p-regions as in a power MOSFET,
Fig. 2.16. This n -channel short circuits the n−¿¿region with n+¿ ¿emitter regions. An electron
+¿¿
movement in the n -channel, in turn, causes substantial hole injection from P substrate layer
−¿¿
into the epitaxial n layer. Eventually, a forward current is established as shown in Fig. 2.16.
−¿¿

The three layers p+¿ ,n ¿and p constitute a pnp transistor with p+¿¿ as emitter, n−¿¿as base and
p as collector. Also n−¿, p ¿ and n+¿ ¿layers constitute npn transistor as shown in Fig. 2.17 (a).
Fig. 2.17. IGBT (a) Basic structure, (b) its equivalent circuit and (c) its circuit symbol.
−¿¿
Here n serves as base for pnp transistor and also as collector for npn transistor. Further,
Here n−¿¿serves as base for pnp transistor and also as collector for npn transistor. Further, p
serves as collector for pnp device and also as base for npn transistor. The two pnp and npn
transistors can, therefore, be connected as shown in Fig. 2.17 (b) to give the equivalent circuit
of an IGBT. Fig. 2.17 (c) is the circuit symbol for IGBT with gate (G), emitter (E) and
collector (C) as its three terminals.

5.2.2. IGBT Characteristics

The circuit of Fig. 2.18(a) shows the various parameters pertaining to IGBT characteristics.

Fig. 2.18. IGBT (a) circuit diagram, (b) static V-I characteristics and (c) transfer
characteristics.
Static V −I or output characteristics of an IGBT (n-channel type) show the plot of collector
current I C versus collector-emitter voltage V CE for various values of gate-emitter voltages.
These characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.18( b). In the forward direction, the shape of the
output characteristics is similar to that of BJT. But here the controlling parameter is gate-
emitter voltage V ¿ because IGBT is a voltage-controlled device.
The transfer characteristic of an IGBT is a plot of collector current I C versus gate-emitter
voltage V ¿ as shown in Fig. 2.18 (c). This characteristic is identical to that of power
MOSFET. When V ¿ is less than the threshold voltage V GET , IGBT is in the off-state.
When the device is off, junction J 2 blocks forward voltage and in case reverse voltage
appears across collector and emitter, junction J 1 blocks it.
1.2.3. Switching Characteristics
Switching characteristics of an IGBT during turn-on and turn-off are sketched in Fig. 2.19.
The turn-on time is defined as the time between the instants of forward blocking to forward
on-state (7). Turn-on time is composed of delay time t dn and rise time t r, i .e . t on=t dn+t r . The
delay time is defined as the time for the collector-emitter voltage to fall from V CE to 0.9 V CE.
Here V CE is the initial collector-emitter voltage. Time t dn may also be defined as the time for
the collector current to rise from its initial leakage current I CE to 0.1 I C . Here I C is the final
value of collector current.

Fig. 2,19. IGBT turn-on and turn-off characteristics.

The rise time t r is the time during which collector-emitter voltage falls from 0.9 V CE to
0.1 V CE It is also defined as the time for the collector current to rise from 0.1 I C to its final
value I C. After time t on, the collector current is I C and the collector-emitter voltage falls to
small value called conduction drop ¿ V CES where subscript S denotes saturated value. The
turn-off time is somewhat complex. It consists of three intervals: (i) delay time, t df (ii) initial
fall time, t f 1 and (iii) final fall time, t f 2; i.e. t off =t df +t f 1 +t f 2. The delay time is the time
during which gate voltage falls from V ¿ to threshold voltage V GET . As V ¿ falls to V GET during
t dρ, the collector current falls from I C to 0.9 I C. At the end of t dρ collector-emitter voltage
begins to rise. The first fall time t f 1 is defined as the time during which collector current falls
from 90 to 20 % of its initial value I C, or the time during which collector-emitter voltage rises
from V CES to 0.1 V CE -
The final fall time t f 2 is the time during which collector current falls from 20 to 10 % of I C, or
the time during which collector-emitter voltage rises from 0.1 V CE to final value V CE , see Fig.
2.19.
1.2.4. Applications of IGBT
IGBTs are widely used in medium power applications such as dc and ac motor drives, UPS
systems, power supplies and drives for solenoids, relays and contactors. Though IGBTs are
somewhat more expensive than BJTs, yet they are becoming popular because of lower gate-
drive requirements, lower switching losses and smaller snubber circuit requirements. IGBT
converters are more efficient with less size as well as cost, as compared to converters based
on BJTs. Recently, IGBT inverter induction-motor drives using 15−20 kHz switching
frequency are finding favour where audio-noise is objectionable. In most applications, IGBTs
will eventually push out BJTs. At present, the state-of-the-art IGBTs are available up to 1200
V, 500 A .
1.3. MOS-CONTROLLED THYRISTOR (MCT)
An MCT is a new device in the field of semiconductor-controlled devices. It is basically a
thyristor with two MOSFETs built into the gate structure. One MOSFET is used for turning
on the MCT and the other for turning off the device. An MCT is a high-frequency, high-
power, low-conduction drop switching device.
An MCT combines into it the features of both conventional four-layer thyristor having
regenerative action and MOS-gate structure. However, in MCT, anode is the reference with
respect to which all gate signals are applied. In a conventional SCR, cathode is the reference
terminal for gate signals.

Fig. 2.20. Basic structure of an MCT.

The basic structure of an MCT is shown in Fig. 2.20. A practical MCT consists of thousands
of these basic cells connected in parallel, just like a power MOSFET (7 , 8). This is done in
order to achieve a high-current carrying capacity of the device.
The equivalent circuit of MCT is shown in Fig. 2.21 (a). It consists of one on-FET, one off-
FET and two transistors. The on-FET is a p-channel MOSFET and off-FET is an n -channel
MOSFET. An arrow towards the gate terminal indicates n-channel MOSFET and the arrow
away from the gate terminal as the p-channel MOSFET. The two transistors in the equivalent
circuit indicate that there is regenerative feedback in the MCT just as it is in an ordinary
thyristor. Fig. 2.21(b) gives the circuit symbol of an MCT.
An MCT is turned-on by a negative voltage pulse at the gate with respect to the anode and is
turned-off by a positive voltage pulse. Working of MCT can be understood better by referring
to Fig. 2.21( a) .
Turn-on process. As stated above, MCT is turned on by applying a negative voltage pulse at
the gate with respect to anode. In other words, for turning on MCT, gate is made negative
with respect to anode by the voltage pulse between gate and anode. With the application of
this negative voltage pulse, on-FET gets turned-on and off-FET is off.
Fig. 2.21. MCT (a) equivalent circuit and (b) circuit symbol.
With on-FET on, current begins to flow from anode A , through on-FET and then as the base
current and emitter current of npn transistor and then to cathode C . This turns on npn
transistor. As a result, collector current begins to flow in npn transistor. As off-FET is off,
this collector current of npn transistor acts as the base current of pnp transistor. Subsequently,
pnp transistor is also turned on. Once both the transistors are on, regenerative action of the
connection scheme takes place and the thyristor or MCT is turned on.
Note that on-FET and pnp transistor are in parallel when thyristor is in conduction state.
During the time MCT is on, base current of npn transistor flows mainly through pnp
trangistor because of its better conducting property.
Turn-off process. For turning-off the MCT, off-FET (or n -channel MOSFET) is energized by
positive voltage pulse at the gate. With the applicatidn of positive voltage pulse, off-FET is
turned on and on-FET is turned off. After off-FET is turned on, emitter-base terminals of p p p
transistor are short circuited by off-FIT. So now anode current begins to flow through off-
FET and therefore base current of pnp transistor begins to decrease. Further, collector current
of pnp transistor that forms the base current of npn transistor also begins to decrease. As a
consequence, base currents of both pnp and npn transistors, now devoid of stored charge in
their n and p bases respectively, begin to decay. This regenerative action eventually turns off
the MCT.
An MCT has the following merits:
(i) Low forward conduction drops,
(ii) fast turn-on and turn-off times,
(iii) low switching losses and
(iv) high gate input impedance, which allows simpler design of drive circuits.
An MCT is a brand-new device which is likely to be available commercially very soon. As it
possesses highly adaptable features for its use as a switching device, it seems to have
tremendous scope for its widespread applications. Its potential applications include dc and ac
motor drives, UPS systems, induction heating, dc-dc converters, power line conditioners etc.
It may, in the near future, challenge the existence of most of the available devices like
thyristors, GTOs, BJTs, IGBTs (7).
1.4. NEW SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS
At present, silicon enjoys monopoly as a semiconductor material for the commercial
production of power-control devices. This is because silicon is cheaply available and
semiconductor devices of any size can be easily fabricated on a single silicon chip. There are,
however, new types of materials like gallium arsenic (GaAs), silicon carbide and diamond
which possess the desirable properties required for switching devices. At present, state-of-
the-art technology for these materials is primitive compared with silicon, and many more
years of research investment are required before these materials become commercially viable
for the production of power-controlled devices. Superconductive materials may also be used
in the manufacture of such devices, but work in this direction has not yet been reported.
Germanium is not used in the fabrication of thyristors because of the following reasons:
(i) Germanium has much lower thermal conductivity; its thermal resistance is, therefore,
more. As a consequence, germanium thyristors suffer from more losses, more temperature
rise and therefore lower operating life.
(ii) Its breakdown voltage is much less than that of silicon. It means that germanium thyristor
can be built for small voltage ratings only.
(iii) Germanium is much costlier than silicon.

2. PROBLEMS
2.1. (a) What is a diode? Give the difference between power and signal diodes. (b) Discuss
the differences between p−n junction diodes and Schottky diodes.
(c) Describe reverse recovery characteristics of diodes. Show that reverse recovery time and
peak inverse current are dependent upon storage charge and rate of change of current.
2.2 (a) Describe the various types of power diodes indicating clearly the differences amongst
them.
(b) Discuss static V-I characteristic of a power diode.
2.3. (a) What is cut-in voltage in a diode? What are other terms used for cut-in voltage?
(b) Discuss the following terms for diodes:
Softness factor, PIV, reverse recovery time, reverse recovery current. (c) For a power diode,
the reverse recovery time is 3.9 μ and the rate of diode-current decay is 50 A /μ s. For a
softness factor of 0.3 , calculate the peak inverse current and storage charge.
¿ Ans. (c) 150 A , 292.5 μ c ¿
2.4. (a) Discuss the power loss in a diode during the reverse recovery transients.
(b) The forward characteristic of a power diode can be represented by v f =0.88+0.015 i f .
Determine the average power loss and rms current for a constant cuirrent of 50 A for 2/3 of
a cycle.
1 2 T /3
[Hint. (b) With T as the time of a cycle, average power loss ¿ ∫ 0 v f ⋅ I f dt etc ¿
T
[Ans. (b) 54.33 W , 40.825 A ]
2.5. (a) Enumerate the types of power transistors along with their circuit symbols.
(b) What is a bipolar junction transistor? Why is it so called?
Describe the types of BJTs with their circuit symbols
(c) Define α and β for BJT and develop a relation between the two. Why is α less than 1 and
β more than 1 ?
(d) Why is it preferrable to use hard drive for BJT?
2.6. (a) What is the difference between β and forced β f for BJTs?
(b) What are the conditions under which a transistor operates as a switch?
Discuss hard-drive and overdrive factor for BJTT.
(c) Show that collector current at saturation remains substantially constant even if base
current is increased.
2.7. (a) Explain the switching performance of BJT with relevant waveforms. Indicate clearly
turn-on and turn-off times and their components.
(b) Describe FBSOA and RBSOA for BJTs.

2.8. (a) Describe the input and output characteristic for a BJT. Show the region of the
transistor characteristic where it acts like a switch.

Fig. 2.22. Pertaining to Prob. 2.8(b)

(b) Typical switching waveforms for a power transistor are shown in Fig. 2.22. Show that
switch-on energy loss is given by
V CC ⋅ I CS
t on
6
Also obtain an expression for the average value of switch-on loss.
(c) Derive expressions for the switch-off energy loss and also for its average value for the
waveforms shown in Fig, 2.22.

[Ans (b)
V CC ⋅ I CS
6
f ⋅t on (c )
V CC ⋅ I CS
6
t off ,
V CC ⋅ I CS
6 ]
f ⋅t off
2.9. In case I CS=80 A , V CC=220 V ,t on=1.5 μ s and t off =4 μ s for the switching waveforms
shown in Fig. 2.22, find the energy loss during switch-on and switch-off intervals. Find also
the average power loss in the power transistor for a switching frequency of 2 kHz .
[Ans 4.4 mWs , 11.73mWs ,32.267 W ]
Derive the expressions used.
2.10. (a) For the typical switching waveforms shown in Fig. 2.22 for a power trangistor, find
expressions that give peak instantaneous power loss during t ¿ and t off intervals respectively.
(b) In case I CS=80 A , V CC=220 V ,t on=1.5 μ s and t off =4 μ s, find the peak value of
instantaneous power loss during t on and t off intervals respectively. power loss during t on and
t of intervals respectively.
I CS I CS ⋅V CC off
[Ans. (a) ⋅V CC , ¿ b) 4400 W , 4400 W ¿ power loss during t on and intervals
4 4
respectively (a)
I CS ⋅V CC I CS ⋅V CC
4
,
4
(b)4400 W , 4400 W ]
2.11. A power transistor is used as a switch and typical waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.6. The
parameters for the transistor circuit are as under:
V CC =200 V , V CES=2.5 V , I CS =60 A , t d=0.5 μ s , t r
t n=40 μ s , t s=4 μ s ,t f =3 μ s , t 0=30 μ s , f =10 kHz .
t n=40 μ s , t s =4 μ s , t f =3 μ s , t 0 =30
emitter leakage current =1.5 mA
Collector to emitter leakage current ¿ 1.5 mA . Determine average power loss due to collector
current during ton
instantaneous power loss due to collector current during turn-on time. [Ans.
20.5015 W , 60 W ,3037.97 W ] Sketch the instantaneous power loss during t on and t n.
ass during turn-off time and off-period, and 2.12. Repeat Prob. 2.11 for obtaining average
power loss during turn-off also peak instantaneous power loss during fall time due to
collector current.
Sketch the instantaneous P
2.13. Fig. 2.23 shows the switching characteristics for a power semiconductor device. Derive
the expressions for energy loss during turn-on and turn-of periods, and also for the average
switching loss. Sketch the variation of power loss during turn-on and turn-off periods.

Fig. 2.23. Pertaining to Prob. 2.13.

For V s =220 V , I a =10 A , t 1=1 μ l ,t 2=2 μ s, t 3=1.5 μ s and t 4=3 μ s, find the average value
of power-switching loss in the device for a switching frequency of 1 kHz .

[ 1
2
1
2
1
]
Ans, V s ⋅ I a ( t 1+ t 2 ) , V s I a ( t 3 +t 4 ) , V s I a f ( t on+ t off ) ;7.5 W
2
2.14. (a) Explain the constructional details an and bring out the differences between the two.
(b) Discuss transfer and output characteristics of power MOSFEIs.
2.15. (a) Describe the switching characteristics
(b) Compare power MOSFETs with BJTs.
2.16. (a) What is IGBT? What are its other names? Give its basic structural also describe
input and transfer (b) Derive the equivalent
characteristics of an IGBT.
2.17. (a) Explain switching characteristics of an IGBT. (b) Why are IGBTs become
some applications of IGBTs. 2.18. (a) Describe the basic structure of MO c and explain the
turn-on and turn-off processes
Give futuristic applications of MCTs