Chapter :1

Transformers types,
construction and
selection

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
The transformer forms the basis of all ac power-distribution systems. In the most basic
definition, a transformer is a device that magnetically links two or more circuits for
time-varying voltage and current. Magnetic coupling has a number of intrinsic
advantages, including:
• DC isolation between the circuits
• The ability to match the voltage and current capability of a source to a load
• The ability to change the magnitude of the voltage and current from one side of
the transformer to the other
• The ability to change the phases of voltage and current from one side of the
device to the other

INDUCTIVE PROPERTIES
Inductance is, primarily, a geometrical property of a current-carrying element in an
electrical circuit. A circuit element with this property may be termed an inductor. The
magnitude and, for that matter, the frequency dependence of inductance also depend
on the material environment of that element. Similar remarks to these could — of
course — be used to define capacitance; inductance and capacitance are invariably
intimately related in electronic circuits. One reason is that both are (electrical) energy
storage devices in time-varying electronic systems. Capacitance is, however, a measure
of the capability of a (potential) circuit element to store charge and, thereby, electric
field energy; inductance, by contrast, is a measure of a circuit element's ability to store
magnetic field energy. Because a magnetic field is derived from current flow,
inductance is always associated with current-carrying circuit elements. This dichotomy
extends also to the matter of frequency dependence. At zero signal frequency, for

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
example, an (ideal) capacitor has infinite impedance, whereas the inductor has zero
impedance; at infinite frequency, the opposite is true.
The concept of inductance or, more correctly, self-inductance is, perhaps, best
illustrated by the example of a current-carrying conducting coil of circular turns When a
current flows through this circuit, as described, a magnetic field is generated inside and
around the coil turns, in accordance with Ampere's law. Flux linkage Λ is defined by
how much of the total magnetic flux φ threads all of the turns of the coil, multiplied by
the total numbers of turns N. Thus, in simple algebraic terms:

where, because of incomplete linkage by the magnetic flux, in actuality will typically be
slightly less than the cross-sectional area of the coils. The inductance of this coil is
defined as the flux linkage per unit current and is defined as

A magnetic field produced by a current through a coil.

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The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H) if Iis in amperes, Λ in webers, Ain square
meters, and Bin teslas (webers/square meter). The inductance of some current-
carrying elements of comparatively simple geometry is described in approximate form
next.
Basic Principles of the Transformer
In 1831, English physicist Michael Faraday demonstrated the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction. The concept is best understood in terms of lines of force, a
convention Faraday introduced to describe the direction and strength of a magnetic
field. The lines of force for the field generated by a current in a loop of wire are shown
in the following Figure When a second, independent loop of wire is immersed in a
changing magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in the loop. The voltage will be
proportional to the time rate of change of the number of force lines enclosed by the
loop. If the loop has two turns, such induction occurs in each turn, and twice the
voltage results. If the loop has three turns, three times the voltage results, and so on.
The concurrent phenomena of mutual induction between the coils and self-induction in
each coil form the basis of transformer action.

The basic principles of electromagnetic induction.

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For a power transformer to do its job effectively, the coils must be coupled tightly and
must have high self-induction. That is, almost all the lines of force enclosed by the
primary also must be enclosed by the secondary, and the number of force lines
produced by a given rate of change of current must be high. Both conditions can be
met by wrapping the primary and secondary coils around an iron core, as Faraday did in
his early experiments. Iron increases the number of lines of force generated in the
transformer by a factor of about 10,000. This property of iron is referred to as
permeability. The iron core also contains the lines so that the primary and secondary
coils can be separated spatially and still closely coupled magnetically.

With the principles of the transformer firmly established, American industrialist George
Westinghouse and his associates made several key refinements that made practical
transformers possible. Their on core was constructed of thin sheets of iron cut in the
shape of the letter E. Coils of insulated copper wire were wound and placed over the
center element of the core. Straight pieces of iron were laid across the ends of the
arms to complete the magnetic circuit. This construction still is common today. The
following Figure shows a common E-type transformer. Note how the low-voltage and
high-voltage windings are stacked on top of each other. An alternative configuration, in
which the low-voltage and high-voltage windings are located on separate arms of a
core box, is shown in the Figure.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 Physical construction of an E-shaped core transformer. The low- and high-voltage
windings are stacked

Transformer construction using a box core with physical separation between the low-
and high-voltage windings.

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In an ideal transformer, all lines of force pass through all the turns in both coils.
Because a changing magnetic field produces the same voltage in each turn of the coil,
the total voltage induced in a coil is proportional to the total number of turns. If no
energy is lost in the transformer, the power available in the secondary is equal to the
power fed into the primary. In other words, the product of current and voltage in the
primary is equal to the product of current and voltage in the secondary. Thus, the two
currents are inversely proportional to the two voltages and therefore, inversely
proportional to the turns ratio between the coils. This expression of power and current
in a transformer is true only for an ideal transformer. Practical limitations prevent the
perfect transformer from being constructed.
The key properties of importance in transformer core design include:
• Permeability
• Saturation
• Resistivity
• Hysteresis loss
Permeability, as discussed previously, refers to the number of lines of force a material
produces in response to a given magnetizing influence. Saturation identifies the point
at which the ability of the core to carry a magnetic force reaches a limiting plateau.
These two properties define the power-handling capability of the core element.
Electrical resistivity is desirable in the core because it minimizes energy losses resulting
from eddy currents. In contrast, hysteresis undermines the efficiency of a transformer.
Because of the interactions among groups of magnetized atoms, losses are incurred as
the frequency of the changing magnetic field is increased. Throughout the history of
transformer development, the goal of the design engineer has been to increase

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permeability, saturation, and resistivity, while decreasing hysteresis losses. A variety of
core materials, including silicon iron in various forms, have been used.

Transformer efficiency is defined as

where:
E = Efficiency in percent
Pout = Transformer power output in watts
Pin = Transformer power input in watts

Losses in a transformer are the result of copper losses in the windings and core losses.
The copper losses vary with the square of the current; the core losses vary with the
input voltage magnitude and frequency. Because neither of these quantities depend on
the power being consumed by the load, power transformers are rated by the volt-
amperes (VA) that flow through them.
The regulation specification of a power transformer is a measure of the transformer’s
ability to maintain a constant output voltage under varying loads. The primary voltage
is held constant at the value required to produce the rated voltage on the secondary at
full load:

where
R = Regulation in percent
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
V s0 = Secondary voltage under no load
V sfl = Secondary voltage under full load

Also bearing on transformer performance are electrical insulation and the cooling
system used. These two elements are intimately related because the amount of heat
that the core and conductors generate determines the longevity of the insulation; the
insulation itself — whether solid, liquid, or gas —serves to carry off some portion of the
heat produced. Temperatures inside a commercial transformer may reach 100°C, the
boiling point of water. Under such conditions, deterioration of insulating materials can
limit the useful lifetime of the device. Although oils are inexpensive and effective as
insulators and coolants, some oils are flammable, making them unacceptable for units
placed inside buildings. Chlorinated hydrocarbon liquids (PCBs) were used extensively
from the 1930s to the late 1970s, but evidence of long-term toxic effects prompted a
ban on their use. Some transformers rely on air- or nitrogen-gas based insulators. Such
devices can be installed indoors. The breakdown strength of gas sometimes is
enhanced through the addition of small quantities of fluorocarbons. Other dry
transformers depend on cast-resin insulation made of polymerizing liquids that harden
into high-integrity solids. Progress in heat removal is largely responsible for reducing
the overall size of the transformer assembly.
Modern high-power commercial transformers may operate at voltages of 750 kV or
more and can handle more than 1000 kVA. The expected lifetime of a commercial
power transformer ranges from 24 to40 years.

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Construction of an oil-filled three-phase power transformer used for commercial power
distribution

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The Ideal Transformer
Although no transformer is ideal in its characteristics, transformers approach their ideal
characteristics in the operating range for which they were designed. The ideal
transformer has no coil resistance and no core losses, so that it has no power loss. It
also has no leakage inductance, because the permeability of the core is infinite, and the
core material is able to carry an infinite amount of flux without saturating.
Therefore, the mutual inductance is also infinite. The capacitance in an ideal
transformer is negligible. The equations for an ideal transformer are given as

where
v1 = Voltage in the primary

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v2 = Voltage in the secondary
i1 = Current in the primary
i2 = Current in the secondary
N1 = Turns in the primary
N2 = Turns in the secondary
Z1 = Impedance of the primary
Z2 = Impedance of the secondary

Application Considerations
Transformers are the most common pieces of equipment found in utility substations
and distribution systems. Different types of transformers are used for varied purposes,
from voltage level changes to phase angle regulation. Because the primary circuits of
distribution systems are designed for high voltages(in order to increase their load-
carrying capability), the voltage must be stepped down at the consumer service
entrance.
Transformers can be classified as distribution transformers and power transformers.
The former type normally steps down voltages from primary voltage levels, such as
2,400, 4,160, or 13,800 V, to 120 or 240V. These devices are almost always located
outdoors where they are hung from cross arms, mounted on poles directly, or placed
on platforms or in underground vaults. Power transformers are larger in size than
distribution transformers and usually have auxiliary means for cooling. These
transformers are typically installed at distribution substations for stepping down
voltages from the sub-transmission levels of34.5 and 69 kV to primary distribution
levels of up to 13.8 kV. Single-phase distribution transformers typically have one high-
voltage primary winding and two low-voltage secondary windings, which are rated at a
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nominal 120 V. The secondary coils may be connected in parallel to supply a two-wire
120 V circuit, or in series to supply a three-wire 120/240 V single circuit, shown in
Figure 4.17b. one leg of the 120 V two-wire system and the middle leg of the 120/240 V
three-wire system are grounded to limit the voltage to ground on the secondary side.
In general, the 120/240 V three-wire connection is preferred because it has twice the
load capacity of the 120 V system with only a 1.5 times increase in conductor size. Each
120V winding has one half the total kilovolt-ampere rating of the transformer. The
loads on the secondary side of the transformers are kept as balanced as possible, such
that maximum transformer capacity can be utilized, and the neutral current kept to a
minimum.

Connections for a single-phase distribution transformer (parallel connection)

Connections for a single-phase distribution transformer (Series connection)

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A three-phase transformer bank can be easily created by using three single-phase
transformers. The two sides of these three transformers can be either connected in a
wye or a delta configuration, thus allowing four possible types of connections. These
are
• Wye-wye. With the wye-wye (Y-Y) connection, the secondary side is in phase
with the primary circuit, and the ratio of primary to secondary voltage is the
same as the ratio of turns in each of the phases. A possible connection is shown
in the Figure. Power distribution circuits supplied from a wye-wye bank often
create series disturbances in communication circuits (e.g., telephone
interference) in their immediate vicinity. One of the advantages of this
connection is that when a system is changed from a delta to a four-wire wye to
increase system capacity, existing transformers can be used.

Y-Y transformer with 0° phase shift between the primary and the secondary sides.

• Wye-delta. In the Y-Δ connection, there is a 30° phase angle shift between the
primary and secondary sides. The phase angle difference can be made either
lagging or leading, depending on the external connections of the transformer
bank. The case with the primary side lagging is shown in the Figure.

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 Y-Δ transformer with the primary side lagging the secondary side by 30°

Y-Δ transformer with the primary side leading the secondary side by 30°.

• Delta-wye. With the Δ-Y connection, the neutral of the secondary wye can be
grounded and single-phase loads connected across the phase and the neutral
conductor. Three-phase loads are connected across the phases. The phasor
relationship between the primary and the secondary sides is shown in the Figure.
The transformation ratio is 1/ √3 times the ratio of turns in each of the phases.

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 Δ-Y transformer with the primary side leading the secondary side by 30°

• Delta-delta. The Δ-Δ connection does not cause a phase shift between the
primary and the secondary sides. The phasor relationship of this transformer is
shown in the Figure. The transformation ratio is equal to the ratio of the turns in
each of the phases. There is no problem from third-harmonic overvoltage or
telephone interference because such disturbances get trapped in the delta and
do not pass into the lines.

Δ-Δ transformer with 0° phase shift between the primary and the secondary sides.

Although these four configurations are the most common ones used, other
arrangements are possible, including:

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 • Open-delta. An advantage of the Δ-Δ connection is that if one of the single-phase
transformers becomes damaged or is removed for maintenance, the remaining
two can be operated in a so-called open-delta connection. Because the currents
in each of the two remaining transformers are the same as the line current, each
transformer carries √3 times the current it was carrying in the closed-delta
connection. The open-delta bank continues to deliver three-phase currents and
voltages in their correct phase relationship. To keep the transformers from being
overloaded, however, it is necessary to reduce the line currents by
approximately 1/√3 .

• Scott or T-connection. The Scott or T-connection is used when a two-phase (or a

transformed three-phase) supply is needed from a three-phase system. In
general, the T-connection is used for deriving a three-phase transformation, and
the Scott connection is mainly used for obtaining a two-phase output. The two
connections are similar in basic design. Either connection requires two specially
wound single-phase transformers. The main transformer has a 50% tap on the
primary winding, whereas the other transformer, called the teaser transformer,
has an 86.6% tap. The main transformer is connected between two primary lines,
whereas the teaser transformer is connected from the center tap of the main
transformer to the third primary line. The secondary sides of the transformers
provide two-phase service.

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 The T-connection for a three phase to two-phase transformation.

TRANSFORMER FAILURE MODES

The failure of a power transformer is almost always a catastrophic event that will cause
the system to fail.
The two primary enemies of power transformers are transient over-voltages and heat.
Power input to a transformer is not all delivered to the secondary load. Some is
expended as copper losses in the primary and secondary windings. These I2R losses are
practically independent of voltage; the controlling factor is current flow. To keep the
losses as small as possible, the coils of a power transformer are wound with wire of the
largest cross section that space will permit. A medium-power, three-phase power
transformer is shown in the following Figure.
A practical transformer also will experience core-related losses, also known as iron
losses. Repeated magnetizing and demagnetizing of the core (which occurs naturally in
an ac waveform) results in power loss because of the repeated realignment of the
magnetic domains. This factor (hysteresis loss) is proportional to frequency and flux
density. Silicon steel alloy is used for the magnetic circuit to minimize hysteresis loss.
The changing magnetic flux also induces circulating currents (eddy currents) in the core
material. Eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the frequency and the
square of the flux density. To minimize eddy currents, the core is constructed of
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laminations or layers of steel that are clamped or bonded together to form a single
magnetic mass.

medium-power, three-phase transformer.

1. THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS
Temperature rise inside a transformer is the result of power losses in the windings and
the core. The insulation within and between the windings tends to blanket these heat
sources and prevents efficient dissipation of the waste energy, as illustrated in the
Figure. Each successive layer of windings (shown as A, B, and C in the figure)acts to
prevent heat transfer from the hot core to the local environment (air).
The hot spot shown in the figure can be dangerously high even though the outside
transformer case and winding are relatively cool to the touch. Temperature rise is the
primary limiting factor in determining the power-handling capability of a transformer.
To ensure reliable operation, a large margin of safety must be designed into a

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transformer. Design criteria include winding wire size, insulation material, and core
size.

The dynamic forces of heat generation in a power transformer.

Life Expectancy and Temperature

The nameplate kVA rating of a transformer represents the kVA that will result in the
rated average winding temperature rise when the unit is operated at 100% of rated
kVA under normal service conditions. When operating under these conditions, the
result should be a normal life expectancy for the transformer.
A general rule of thumb says that a 30-year life can be expected for a transformer with
a 220°C insulating system that has a winding hot-spot temperature allowance of 30°C.
Operating such a transformer at rated kVA on a continuous basis with a 30°C, 24-hr
average ambient (40°C maximum ambient) should equate to a normal useful life.
It should be recognized that the life expectancy of transformers operating at varying
temperatures is not accurately known. Fluctuating load conditions and changes in
ambient temperatures make it difficult, if not impossible, to arrive at such definitive
information. However, if a transformer is operated under normal conditions, it could

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easily last longer. A 40-year life span is not unusual, and some transformers have
exceeded that.

2. Voltage Considerations
Transformer failures resulting from transient over-voltages typically occur between
layers of windings within a transformer. (See the following Figure) At the end of each
layer, where the wire rises from one layer to the next, zero potential voltage exists.
However, as the windings move toward the opposite end of the coil in atypical layer-
wound device, a potential difference of up to twice the voltage across one complete
layer exists. The greatest potential difference, therefore, is found at the far opposite
end of the layers.

Voltage distribution between the layers of a typical layer-wound power transformer.

This voltage distribution applies to continuous60 Hz signals. When the transformer is
first switched on or when a transient overvoltage is impressed upon the device, the
voltage distribution from one hot layer to the next can increase dramatically, raising
the possibility of arc-over.

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This effect is caused by the inductive nature of the transformer windings and the
inherent distributed capacitance of the coil. Insulation break down can result from one
or more of the following:
• Puncture through the insulating material of the device
• Tracking across the surface of the windings
• Flashing through the air
Any of these modes can result in catastrophic failure. The following Figure illustrates
the mechanisms involved. A transformer winding can be modeled as a series of
inductances and shunt capacitances. The interterm and turn-to-ground capacitances
are shown by Cs and Cg, respectively. During normal operation, the applied voltage is
distributed evenly across the full winding. However, if a steep front wave is impressed
upon the device, the voltage distribution radically changes. For the voltage wave to
start distributing itself along the winding, the line-to-ground capacitance (Cg) must be
charged. This charging is dependent upon the transformer winding-to-ground
capacitance and the impedance of the supply line.

Capacitive distribution along the windings of a power transformer.

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3. Mechanical Considerations
Current flow through the windings of a transformer applies stress to the coils. The
individual turns in anyone coil tend to be crushed together when current flows through
them. There also may be large repulsion forces between the primary and secondary
windings. These mechanical forces are proportional to the square of the instantaneous
current; they are, therefore, vibratory in nature under normal operating conditions.
These forces, if not controlled, can lead to failure of the transformer through insulation
breakdown. Vibration over a sufficient period of time can wear the insulation off
adjacent conductors and create a short circuit. To prevent this failure mode, power
transformers routinely are coated or dipped into an insulating varnish to solidify the
windings and the core into one element.
Dry-Type and Liquid-Filled Transformers
The advantages and disadvantages of dry-type transformers vs. liquid-filled units
depend upon the application. Dry-type transformers can usually be located closer to
the load, resulting in cost savings because of shorter cable runs and lower electrical
losses. A liquid-filled transformer, on the other hand, may require special construction
features for the room in which it will be placed because of fire-safety considerations.
This may dictate a location some distance from the load. In addition, periodic testing
must be conducted on the fluid to determine its dielectric strength, water content,
dissolved gases, and other parameters.
In some applications, there is no option to the use of liquid-filled transformers; dry-
types are limited in size and voltage handling capability. Liquid-filled types are available
in almost limitless kVA and voltage ratings. Also, if requirements call for a transformer
to be located outdoors, it may be less expensive to purchase a liquid-filled unit. With oil

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as the liquid, the cost would be lower than for a dry-type of equivalent rating; with low-
fire point fluids, the cost would probably be comparable to a dry-type.
For liquid-filled transformers, the main cooling/insulating mediums used today are
mineral oil, high-molecular-weight hydrocarbon, and silicone fluid. If a leak occurs in
the transformer tank, fire safety becomes an important issue. Because of hazards
associated with tank rupture and the possible ignition of the dielectric, a thorough
analysis covering fire safety and the possible effects on the environment should be
carried out well in advance of device installation.
Some materials are covered under the Federal Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act and the Clean Water Act, including requirements for
• Special handling
• Spill reporting
• Disposal procedures
• Record-keeping
These considerations can have an effect on installation costs, long-term operating
expenses, and maintenance procedures.
Insulation Materials
Liquid-filled transformers use an insulation system of kraft or aramid paper, pressboard
or aramid spacers, and a fluid that serves as both an insulating and cooling medium for
the transformer. Paper is commonly used for insulation between layers of winding
material. It typically has an diamond-patterned adhesive backing that, when cured,
solidly contains the winding. Spacers serve as a form (which can be rectangular or
cylindrical in shape) for the windings as well as a space between layers of the windings.
The spacing is necessary to allow the insulating fluid to flow through and cool the

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windings and the core. Spacers are also used to insulate the windings from the core as
well as to support the leads on their path to the bushings.
Any moisture that is present in the finished core and winding assembly is purged by
vacuum and oven drying processes. After removal from the oven and while still hot, all
connections are tightened and the entire assembly is immersed into its liquid-filled
tank. This ensures that moisture will not again penetrate into the windings and also
allows the insulation to absorb the maximum amount of dielectric fluid.
The particular type of insulation used is rarely specified by the customer for other than
large utility substation transformers or for unusual applications. More often, it is the
transformer manufacturer’s or rebuilder's choice based upon the operating conditions
the transformer must meet.
Insulating Liquids
Dielectric liquids of various types are used as an insulating medium as well as a means
of cooling liquid-filled transformers. Common insulating liquids include the following:
• Mineral oil. A mineral oil-filled transformer is generally the smallest, lightest, and
most economical transformer available. Mineral oil has excellent properties for
use in transformers, but it has the inherent weakness of being flammable. Its
use, therefore, is restricted to outdoor installations or when the transformer is
installed within a vault if used indoors.
• Silicone. A wide variety of synthetic polymer chemicals are referred to by the
generic term silicone. Silicone transformer liquids are actually known chemically
as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). PDMS is a water-clear, odorless, chemically
stable, nontoxic liquid.
• High-molecular-weight hydrocarbon (HMWH). HMWH is another high-fire point
dielectric that is widely used as a transformer liquid. It has similar values for
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 dielectric strength and dielectric constant, power factor, and thermal
conductivity as mineral oil.
Fire properties of dielectric fluids are typically classified by the following
characteristics:
• Flash point: The temperature at which vapors from a liquid surface will ignite in
the presence of a flame.
• Fire point: The temperature at the surface of a liquid that will sustain a fire.
• Flame spread: A series of consecutive ignitions.
• Ease of ignition: How readily the liquid will generate and maintain a flammable
fuel/vapor mixture at the surface.
• Heat release rate: The product of vaporization rate and the heat of combustion
of the fluid. The higher this rate in a large-scale fire, the higher the degree of fire
hazard.
Selection of the dielectric liquid depends on the transformer application. Normally, the
choice is mineral oil if the device is to be located outdoors. The National Electrical Code
(NEC) does, however, specify certain limitations regarding the use of oil-filled
transformers in particular outdoor locations.
The selection of less-flammable liquids (PDMS and HMWH) often depends upon
personal preference, the liquid used in other transformers on the site, or the
transformer manufacturer’s recommendation.
Cooling
In cooling a liquid-filled transformer, the insulating fluid flows in the transformer
through ducts and around the coil ends within a tank that contains the core and coils.
Removal of the heat from the fluid takes place in external tubes. These radiators

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consist of headers extending from the bottom and top of the transformer tank and
rows of tubes connected between the two headers. When operating within its self-
cooled(OA) rating, natural convection caused by temperature differences within the
tank carries the oil up through the windings, down through the cooling tubes, and back
into the tank. The transformer fluid, acting as a heat-transfer medium, picks up the
heat from the core and coils and dissipates it to the air via the tubes.
Auxiliary cooling fans can be provided if the transformer is to be operated above its
self-cooled ratings. This is advisable when the transformer is to operate under
occasional heavy overloads or high ambient temperatures, or to accommodate new
loads beyond its rating. Liquid-filled transformers, because of their double heat-
transfer requirement (core/coil-to-liquid and liquid-to-air), have a lower forced air(FA)
rating than dry-types. In liquid-filled types, the forced air rating of transformers up to
2500 kVA is raised to 115% of its self-cooled kVA rating, and those of larger units to
125% of their self-cooled VA rating.
Cooling fans can be controlled manually or automatically. Fans can be cycled on
automatically based on the top oil temperature, winding temperature, or ambient
temperature. Alarm contacts and remote indication are also available options.

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Chapter :2

Transformers
equations

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1. Types and Construction of Transformers

Types of cores for power transformer (both types are constructed from thin
laminations electrically isolated from each other – minimize eddy currents)

i) Core Form : a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer
windings wrapped around two sides of the rectangle.

ii) Shell Form: a three legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around
the centre leg.
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The primary and secondary windings are wrapped one on top of the other with the
low-voltage winding innermost, due to 2 purposes:

i) It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
ii) It results in much less leakage flux

Types of transformers:
i) Step up/Unit transformers – Usually located at the output of a generator. Its
function is to step up the voltage level so that transmission of power is possible.
ii) Step down/Substation transformers – Located at main distribution or secondary
level transmission substations. Its function is to lower the voltage levels for
distribution 1st level purposes.
iii) Distribution Transformers – located at small distribution substation. It lowers
the voltage levels for 2nd level distribution purposes.
iv) Special Purpose Transformers - E.g. Potential Transformer (PT) , Current
Transformer (CT)
2. The Ideal Transformer

1. Definition – a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding.

2. Figures below show an ideal transformer and schematic symbols of a transformer.

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3. The transformer has N p turns of wire on its primary side and N s turns of wire on its
secondary sides. The relationship between the primary and secondary voltage is
as follows:

v p (t ) Np
= =a
vs (t ) Ns

where a is the turns ratio of the transformer.

4. The relationship between primary and secondary current is:

N p i p (t) = N s i s (t)

i p (t ) 1
=
is (t ) a

5. Note that since both type of relations gives a constant ratio, hence the
transformer only changes ONLY the magnitude value of current and voltage. Phase
angles are not affected.
6. The dot convention in schematic diagram for transformers has the following
relationship:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 i) If the primary voltage is +ve at the dotted end of the winding wrt the
undotted end, then the secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted end
also. Voltage polarities are the same wrt the dots on each side of the core.
ii) If the primary current of the transformer flows into the dotted end of the
primary winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of the
secondary winding.
Power in an Ideal Transformer

1. How does power going into the primary circuit compare to the power coming out?
P out = V s I s cos θ

Also, V s = V p /a and I s = a I p

So,
Pout =
Vp
(aI )cosθ
p
a

2. The power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit:

P in = V p I p cos θ p

Where θ p = the angle between the primary voltage and the primary current. The
power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its loads is given by:

P out = V s I s cos θ s

Where θ s = the angle between the secondary voltage and the secondary current.

3. The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the SAME power
factor – because voltage and current angles are unaffected θ p - θ s = θ
P out = V p I p cos θ = P in

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 The same idea can be applied for reactive power Q and apparent power S.

Output power = Input power

Impedance Transformation through a Transformer

1. The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor

voltage across it to the phasor current flowing through it:

VL
ZL =
IL

2. Definition of impedance and impedance scaling through a transformer:

3. Hence, the impedance of the load is:

VS
ZL =
IS

4. The apparent impedance of the primary circuit of the transformer is:

VP
ZL '=
IP
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
5. Since primary voltage can be expressed as V P =aV S , and primary current as I P =I S /a,
thus the apparent impedance of the primary is

VP aVS V
ZL '= = = a2 S
IP IS / a IS

Z L ’ = a2 Z L

Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers

The easiest way for circuit analysis that has a transformer incorporated is by simplifying
the transformer into an equivalent circuit.
Example 1

A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is connected a transmission line with an impedance of

0.18+j0.24. At the end of the transmission line there is a load of 4+j3.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
(a) If the power system is exactly as described above in Figure (a), what will the
voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be?
(b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of
the line (Figure (b)). What will the load voltage be now? What will the
transmission line losses be now?
3. Theory of Operation of Real Single-Phase Transformers

Ideal transformers may never exist due to the fact that there are losses associated to
the operation of transformers. Hence there is a need to actually look into losses and
calculation of real single phase transformers.

Assume that there is a transformer with its primary windings connected to a varying
single phase voltage supply, and the output is open circuit.

Right after we activate the power supply, flux will be generated in the primary coils,
based upon Faraday’s law,

dλ
eind =
dt
where λ is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is being induced. The
flux linkage λ is the sum of the flux passing through each turn in the coil added over all
the turns of the coil.
N
λ = ∑ φi
i =1

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
This relation is true provided on the assumption that the flux induced at each turn is at
the same magnitude and direction. But in reality, the flux value at each turn may vary
due to the position of the coil it self, at certain positions, there may be a higher flux
level due to combination of other flux from other turns of the primary winding.

Hence the most suitable approach is to actually average the flux level as

λ
φ =
N
Hence Faraday’s law may be rewritten as:
dφ
eind = N
dt

The voltage ratio across a Transformer

If the voltage source is v p (t), how will the transformer react to this applied voltage?

Based upon Faraday’s Law, looking at the primary side of the transformer, we can
determine the average flux level based upon the number of turns; where,
1
φ =
NP ∫ vP (t ) dt

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
This relation means that the average flux at the primary winding is proportional to the
voltage level at the primary side divided by the number of turns at the primary winding.
This generated flux will travel to the secondary side hence inducing potential across the
secondary terminal.

For an ideal transformer, we assume that 100% of flux would travel to the secondary
windings. However, in reality, there are flux which does not reach the secondary coil, in
this case the flux leaks out of the transformer core into the surrounding. This leak is
termed as flux leakage.

Taking into account the leakage flux, the flux that reaches the secondary side is termed
as mutual flux.

Looking at the secondary side, there are similar division of flux; hence the overall
picture of flux flow may be seen as below:

Primary Side:

φP = φM + φLP

φP = total average primary flux

φM = flux component linking both primary and secondary coils

φLP = primary leakage flux
For the secondary side, similar division applies.

Hence, looking back at Faraday’s Law,

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 dφP dφ dφ
vP (t ) = N P = N P M + N P LP
dt dt dt
Or this equation may be rewritten into:

vP (t ) = eP (t ) + eLP (t )

The same may be written for the secondary voltage.

The primary voltage due to the mutual flux is given by

dφM
eP (t ) = N P
dt

And the same goes for the secondary (just replace ‘P’ with ‘S’)

From these two relationships (primary and secondary voltage), we have

eP (t ) dφM eS (t )
= =
NP dt NS

eP (t ) N P
= =a
Therefore, eS (t ) N S

Magnetization Current in a Real transformer

Although the output of the transformer is open circuit, there will still be current flow in
the primary windings. The current components may be divided into 2 components:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 1) Magnetization current, i M – current required to produce flux in the core.
2) Core-loss current, i h+e – current required to compensate hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
We know that the relation between current and flux is proportional since,

=
F Ni= φR
φR
∴i =
N
Therefore, in theory, if the flux produce in core is sinusoidal, therefore the current
should also be a perfect sinusoidal. Unfortunately, this is not true since the transformer
will reach to a state of near saturation at the top of the flux cycle. Hence at this point,
more current is required to produce a certain amount of flux.
If the values of current required to produce a given flux are compared to the flux in the
core at different times, it is possible to construct a sketch of the magnetization current
in the winding on the core. This is shown below:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Hence we can say that current in a transformer has the following characteristics:

1. It is not sinusoidal but a combination of high frequency oscillation on top of the

fundamental frequency due to magnetic saturation.
2. The current lags the voltage at 90o
3. At saturation, the high frequency components will be extreme as such that
harmonic problems will occur.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Looking at the core-loss current, it again is dependent upon hysteresis and eddy
current flow. Since Eddy current is dependent upon the rate of change of flux, hence
we can also say that the core-loss current is greater as the alternating flux goes past
the 0 Wb. Therefore the core-loss current has the following characteristics:

a) When flux is at 0Wb, core-loss current is at a maximum hence it is in phase with

the voltage applied at the primary windings.
b) Core-loss current is non-linear due to the non-linearity effects of hysteresis.

Now since that the transformer is not connected to any load, we can say that the total
current flow into the primary windings is known as the excitation current.

iex= im + ih + e
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Current Ratio on a Transformer and the Dot Convention.

Now, a load is connected to the secondary of the transformer.

The dots help determine the polarity of the voltages and currents in the core without
having to examine physically the windings.

A current flowing into the dotted end of a winding produces a positive

magnetomotive force, while a current flowing into the un-dotted end of a winding
produces a negative magnetomotive force.

In the figure above, the net magnetomotive force is F net = N P i P - N S i S

This net magnetomotive force must produce the net flux in the core, so

F net = N P i P - N S i S = φ R

Where R is the reluctance of the core. The relationship between primary and
secondary current is approx

F net = N P i P - N S i S ≈ 0 as long as the core is unsaturated.

Thus,

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 NPiP ≈ NSiS

iP N S 1
= =
iS N P a

In order for the magnetomotive force to be nearly zero, current must flow into one
dotted end and out of the other dotted end.

As a conclusion, the major differences between an ideal and real transformer are as
follows:

a) An ideal transformer’s core does not have any hysteresis and eddy current
losses.
b) The magnetization curve of an ideal transformer is similar to a step function and
the net mmf is zero.
c) Flux in an ideal transformer stays in the core and hence leakage flux is zero.
d) The resistance of windings in an ideal transformer is zero.
4. The equivalent circuit of a transformer

Taking into account real transformer, there are several losses that has to be taken into
account in order to accurately model the transformer, namely:

i) Copper (I2R)Losses – Resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary

windings of the transformer.
ii) Eddy current Losses – resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer.
They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.

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 iii) Hysteresis Losses – these are associated with the rearrangement of the
magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle. They are complex, non-
linear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
iv) Leakage flux – The fluxes φLP and φLS which escape the core and pass
through only one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. They then
produced self-inductance in the primary and secondary coils.
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer

The Exact equivalent circuit will take into account all the major imperfections in real
transformer.

i) Copper loss
They are modeled by placing a resistor R P in the primary circuit and a resistor R S in the
secondary circuit.

ii) Leakage flux

As explained before, the leakage flux in the primary and secondary windings produces a
voltage given by:

dφLP dφLS
eLP (t ) = N P eLS (t ) = N S
dt dt
Since flux is directly proportional to current flow, therefore we can assume that
leakage flux is also proportional to current flow in the primary and secondary windings.
The following may represent this proportionality:

φLP = ( PN P )iP

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 φ LS = ( PN S )iS

Where P = permeance of flux path

N P = number of turns on primary coils

N S = number of turns on secondary coils

Thus,

d diP
eLP (t ) = N P ( PN P )iP = N P P
2

dt dt

d di
eLS (t ) = N S ( PN S )iS = N S P S
2

dt dt

The constants in these equations can be lumped together. Then,

diP
eLP (t ) = LP
dt

diS
eLS (t ) = LS
dt

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Where L P = N P 2 P is the self-inductance of the primary coil and L S = N S 2 P is the self-
inductance of the secondary coil.

Therefore the leakage element may be modeled as an inductance connected together

in series with the primary and secondary circuit respectively.

iii) Core excitation effects – magnetization current and hysteresis & eddy current
losses

The magnetization current i m is a current proportional (in the unsaturated region) to

the voltage applied to the core and lagging the applied voltage by 90° - modeled as
reactance X m across the primary voltage source.

The core loss current i h+e is a current proportional to the voltage applied to the core
that is in phase with the applied voltage – modeled as a resistance R C across the
primary voltage source.

The resulting equivalent circuit:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Based upon the equivalent circuit, in order for mathematical calculation, this
transformer equivalent has to be simplified by referring the impedances in the
secondary back to the primary or vice versa.

(a) Equivalent transformer circuit referring to the primary

(b) Equivalent transformer circuit referring to the secondary
Approximate Equivalent circuits of a Transformer

The derived equivalent circuit is detailed but it is considered to be too complex for
practical engineering applications. The main problem in calculations will be the
excitation and the eddy current and hysteresis loss representation adds an extra
branch in the calculations.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
In practical situations, the excitation current will be relatively small as compared to the
load current, which makes the resultant voltage drop across Rp and Xp to be very small,
hence Rp and Xp may be lumped together with the secondary referred impedances to
form and equivalent impedance. In some cases, the excitation current is neglected
entirely due to its small magnitude.

(a) Referred to the primary side

(b) Referred to the secondary side

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 (c) With no excitation branch, referred to the primary side
(d) With no excitation branch, referred to the secondary side
Determining the values of Components in the Transformer Model

The values of the inductances and resistances in the transformer model can be
determined experimentally. An adequate approximation of these values can be
obtained with the open-circuit test, and the short-circuit test.

Open-circuit Test
The transformer’s secondary winding is open-circuited, and its primary winding is
connected to a full-rated line voltage.

All the input current will be flowing through the excitation branch of the transformer.
The series element R P and X P are too small in comparison to R C and X M to cause a
significant voltage drop. Essentially all input voltage is dropped across the excitation
branch.

Full line voltage is applied to the primary – input voltage, input current, input power
measured.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Then, power factor of the input current and magnitude and angle of the excitation
impedance can be calculated.

To obtain the values of R C and X M , the easiest way is to find the admittance of the
branch.

1
Conductance of the core loss resistor, G c =
RC

1
Susceptance of the magnetizing inductor, B M =
XM

These two elements are in parallel, thus their admittances add.

Total excitation admittance, Y E = G C - jB M

1 1
= −j
RC XM

The magnitude of the excitation admittance (referred to primary),

I OC
YE =
VOC

The angle of the admittance can be found from the circuit power factor.

POC
PF = cos θ =
VOC I OC

POC
θ = cos −1
VOC I OC
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer. Hence,

I OC
YE = ∠ −θ
VOC

This equation can be written in the complex number form and hence the values of R C
and X M can be determined from the open circuit test data.

Short-circuit Test
The secondary terminals are short circuited, and the primary terminals are connected
to a fairly low-voltage source.

The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short circuited windings is equal to
its rated value. The input voltage, current and power are measured.

The excitation branch is ignored, because negligible current flows through it due to low
input voltage during this test. Thus, the magnitude of the series impedances referred
to the primary is:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 VSC
Z SE =
I SC

Power factor, PF = cos θ = P SC / V SC I SC (lagging)

Therefore,

VSC ∠0° VSC

Z SE = = ∠θ °
I SC ∠ − θ I SC

The series impedance Z SE = R eq + jX eq

= (R P + a2 R S ) + j(X P + a2 X S )

Example 2

The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20kVA, 8000/240V, 60Hz transformer are to be

determined. The open circuit test and the short circuit test were performed on the
primary side of the transformer, and the following data were taken:

Open circuit test (primary) Short circuit test

V OC = 8000 V V SC = 489 V

I OC = 0.214 A I SC = 2.5 A

P OC = 400 W P SC = 240 W

Find the impedance of the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary side,
and sketch the circuit.
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
5. The Per-Unit System of Measurements

The process of solving circuits containing transformers using the referring method
where all the different voltage levels on different sides of the transformers are referred
to a common level, can be quite tedious.

The Per-unit System of measurements eliminates this problem. The required

conversions are handled automatically by the method.

In per-unit system, each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal fraction of some

base level. Any quantity can be expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation

actual value
Quantity per unit =
base value of quantity

Two base quantities are selected to define a given per-unit system. The ones usually
selected are voltage and power. In a single phase system, the relationship are:

P base , Q base or S base = V base I base

Vbase I base
Z base = I Y base = V
base base

And Z base = (Vbase )2

Sbase

All other values can be computed once the base values of S (or P) and V have been
selected.
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at a specified point
in the system. A transformer has no effect on the base apparent power of the system,
since the apparent power equals the apparent power out.

Voltage changes as it goes through a transformer, so V base changes at every

transformer in the system according to its turns ratio. Thus, the process of referring
quantities to a common level is automatically taken care of.

Example 3

A simple power system is shown below. This system contains a 480V generator
connected to an ideal 1:10 step-up transformer, a transmission line, an ideal 20:1 step-
down transformer, and a load. The impedance of the transmission line is 20 + j60Ω,
and the impedance of the load is 10∠30°Ω . The base values for this system are chosen
to be 480V and 10kVA at the generator.

(c) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every
point in the power system.
(d) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
(e) Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
(f) Find the power lost in the transmission line.
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
6. Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency

The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage
remains constant. This is because a real transformer has series impedance within it.
Full load Voltage Regulation is a quantity that compares the output voltage at no load
with the output voltage at full load, defined by this equation:

V S ,nl−VS , fl
VR = x 100%
VS , fl

At no load, V S = V P /a thus,

(VP / a ) − VS , fl
VR = x 100%
VS , fl

In per-unit system,

V P , pu−VS , fl , pu
VR = x 100%
VS , fl , pu

Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.

The transformer phasor diagram

To determine the voltage regulation of a transformer, we must understand the voltage

drops within it.

Consider the simplified equivalent circuit referred to the secondary side:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Ignoring the excitation of the branch (since the current flow through the branch is
considered to be small), more consideration is given to the series impedances
(Req +jXeq). Voltage Regulation depends on magnitude of the series impedance and
the phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer. Phasor diagrams will
determine the effects of these factors on the voltage regulation. A phasor diagram
consist of current and voltage vectors.

Assume that the reference phasor is the secondary voltage, V S . Therefore the reference
phasor will have 0 degrees in terms of angle.

Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply Kirchoff Voltage Law,

VP
= VS + Req I S + jX eq I S
a

From this equation, the phasor diagram can be visualized.

Figure below shows a phasor diagram of a transformer operating at a lagging power

factor. For lagging loads, V P / a > V S so the voltage regulation with lagging loads is > 0.
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
At lagging power factor

When the power factor is unity, V S is lower than V P so VR > 0. But, VR is smaller than
before (during lagging PF).

With a leading power factor, V S is higher than the referred V P so VR < 0.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
In summary:

Lagging PF VP / a > VS VR > 0

Unity PF VP / a > VS VR > 0 (smaller than VR lag)

Leading PF VS > VP / a VR < 0

Due to the fact that transformer is usually operated at lagging pf, hence there is an
approximate method to simplify calculations.

Simplified Voltage Regulation Calculation

For lagging loads, the vertical components of R eq and X eq will partially cancel each
other. Due to that, the angle of V P /a will be very small, hence we can assume that V P /a
is horizontal. Therefore the approximation will be as follows:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Transformer Efficiency

Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and transformers):

Pout
η= x100%
Pin

Pout
η= x100%
Pout + Ploss

Types of losses incurred in a transformer:

• Copper I2R losses

• Hysteresis losses
• Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:

VS I S cos θ
η= x100%
PCu + Pcore + VS I S cos θ

Example 4

A 15kVA, 2300/230 V transformer is to be tested to determine its excitation branch

components, its series impedances, and its voltage regulation. The following data have
been taken from the primary side of the transformer:

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 Open circuit test Short-circuit test

V OC = 2300V V SC = 47V

I OC = 0.21A I SC = 6A

P OC = 50W P SC = 160W

(a) Find the equivalent circuit referred to the high voltage side
(b) Find the equivalent circuit referred to the low voltage side
(c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging PF, 1.0 PF, and at 0.8
leading PF.
(d) Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging.
7. Three phase Transformers

Transformers for 3-phase circuits can be constructed in two ways:

- connect 3 single phase transformers

- Three sets of windings wrapped around a common core.
Three-Phase Transformer Connections

The primaries and secondaries of any three-phase transformer can be independently

connected in either a wye (Y) or a delta (∆).

The important point to note when analyzing any 3-phase transformer is to look at a
single transformer in the bank. Any single phase transformer in the bank behaves
exactly like the single-phase transformers already studied.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency, and similar calculations for three phase
transformers are done on a per-phase basis, using same techniques as single-phase
transformers.

A simple concept that all students must remember is that, for a Delta configuration,

IL S
VφP = VL IφP = SφP =
3 3

For Wye configuration,

VL S
VφP = I φP = I L SφP =
3 3

Calculating 3 phase transformer turns ratio

The basic concept of calculating the turns ratio for a single phase transformer is utilized
where,

VφP
a=
VφS
Therefore to cater for 3 phase transformer, suitable conversion into per phase is
needed to relate the turns ratio of the transformer with the line voltages.

The Per-unit System for 3-Phase Transformer

The per unit system of measurements application for 3-phase is the same as in single
phase transformers. The single-phase base equations apply to 3-phase on a per-phase
basis.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
Say the total base volt-ampere value of a transformer bank is called S base , then the base
volt-ampere value of one of the transformer is

Sbase
S1φ ,base =
3

And the base current and impedance are

I φ ,base =
S1φ ,base
Z base =
(Vφ , base )
2

Vφbase S1φ ,base

S base 3(Vφ ,base )
2
I φ ,base = Z base =
3Vφbase S base

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Chapter 3 :

MAINTENANCE DEFINITION

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
MAINTENANCE DEFINITION

British Standard Glossary of terms (3811:1993) defined maintenance as:

"The combination of all technical and administrative actions, including supervision

actions, intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform a
required function"

Maintenance is a set of organised activities that are carried out in order to keep an
item in its best operational condition with minimum cost acquired.

MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES

Activities of maintenance function could be either repair or replacement activities,

which are necessary for an item to reach its acceptable productivity condition or these
activities, should be carried out with a minimum possible cost.

MAINTENANCE HISTORY

1. In the period of pre-World War II, people thought of maintenance as an added

cost to the plant which did not increase the value of finished product. Therefore,
the maintenance at that era was restricted to fixing the unit when it breaks
because it was the cheapest alternative.
2. During and after World War II at the time when the advances of engineering and
scientific technology developed, people developed other types of maintenance,
which were much cheaper such as preventive maintenance. In addition, people
in this era classified maintenance as a function of the production system.

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
 Maintenance History (Adapted From Shenoy, Bhadury 1998)

3. Nowadays, increased awareness of such issues as environment safety, quality of

product and services makes maintenance one of the most important functions
that contribute to the success of the industry. World-class companies are in
continuous need of a very well organised maintenance programme to compete
world-wide

MAINTENANCE OBJECTIVES
U

Maintenance objectives should be consistent with and subordinate to production

goals.
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
The relation between maintenance objectives and production goals is reflected in the
action of keeping production machines and facilities in the best possible condition.

1. Maximising production or increasing facilities availability at the lowest cost and

at the highest quality and safety standards.
2. Reducing breakdowns and emergency shutdowns.
3. Optimising resources utilisation.
4. Reducing downtime.
5. Improving spares stock control.
6. Improving equipment efficiency and reducing scrap rate.
7. Minimising energy usage.
8. Optimising the useful life of equipment.
9. Providing reliable cost and budgetary control.
10.Identifying and implementing cost reductions.

Maintenance Objectives
U

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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
TYPES OF MAINTENANCE

1. Run to Failure Maintenance (RTF)

2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)
3. Corrective Maintenance (CM)
4. Improvement Maintenance (IM)
5. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
1. RUN TO FAILURE MAINTENANCE (RTF)
U

The required repair, replacement, or restore action performed on a machine or a

facility after the occurrence of a failure in order to bring this machine or facility to at
least its minimum acceptable condition. It is the oldest type of maintenance.

It is subdivided into two types:

Emergency maintenance: it is carried out as fast as possible in order to bring a failed

machine or facility to a safe and operationally efficient condition.

Breakdown maintenance: it is performed after the occurrence of an advanced

considered failure for which advanced provision has been made in the form of repair
method, spares, materials, labour and equipment.

Disadvantages:
U

a. Its activities are expensive in terms of both direct and indirect cost.
b. Using this type of maintenance, the occurrence of a failure in a component can
cause failures in other components in the same equipment, which leads to low
production availability.
c. Its activities are very difficult to plan and schedule in advance.
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Electrical Power Transformers, Testing , Maintenance and Protection course
This type of maintenance is useful in the following situations:

a. The failure of a component in a system is unpredictable.

b. The cost of performing run to failure maintenance activities is lower than
performing other activities of other types of maintenance.
c. The equipment failure priority is too low in order to include the activities of
preventing it within the planned maintenance budget.

2. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM)

U

It is a set of activities that are performed on plant equipment, machinery, and systems
before the occurrence of a failure in order to protect them and to prevent or eliminate
any degradation in their operating conditions.

British Standard 3811:1993 Glossary of terms defined preventive maintenance as: the
maintenance carried out at predetermined intervals or according to prescribed criteria
and intended to reduce the probability of failure or the degradation of the functioning
and the effects limited.

The advantage of applying preventive maintenance activities is to satisfy most of

maintenance objectives.

The factors that affect the efficiency of this type of maintenance:

a. The need for an adequate number of staff in the maintenance department in

order to perform this type of maintenance.

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 b. The right choice of production equipment and machinery that is suitable for the
working environment and that can tolerate the workload of this environment.
c. The required staff qualifications and skills, which can be gained through training.
d. The support and commitment from executive management to the PM
programme.
e. The proper planning and scheduling of PM programme.
f. The ability to properly apply the PM programme.

It is good for those machines and facilities which their failure would cause serious
production losses. Its aim is to maintain machines and facilities in such a condition that
breakdowns and emergency repairs are minimised. Its activities include replacements,
adjustments, major overhauls, inspections and lubrications.

Researchers subdivided preventive maintenance into different kinds according to the

nature of its activities:

a. Routine maintenance which includes those maintenance activities that is

repetitive and periodic in nature such as lubrication, cleaning, and small
adjustment.
b. Running maintenance which includes those maintenance activities that are
carried out while the machine or equipment is running and they represent those
activities that are performed before the actual preventive maintenance activities
take place.
c. Opportunity maintenance which is a set of maintenance activities that are
performed on a machine or a facility when an unplanned opportunity exists

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 during the period of performing planned maintenance activities to other
machines or facilities.
d. Window maintenance which is a set of activities that are carried out when a
machine or equipment is not required for a definite period of time.
e. Shutdown preventive maintenance, which is a set of preventive maintenance
activities that are carried out when the production line is in total stoppage
situation.

3. CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE (CM)

U

In this type, actions such as repair, replacement, or restore will be carried out after the
occurrence of a failure in order to eliminate the source of this failure or reduce the
frequency of its occurrence.

In the British Standard 3811:1993 Glossary of terms, corrective maintenance is

defined as: the maintenance carried out after recognition and intended to put an item
into a state in which it can perform a required function.

This type of maintenance is subdivided into three types:

a. Remedial maintenance, which is a set of activities that are performed to

eliminate the source of failure without interrupting the continuity of the
production process. The way to carry out this type of corrective maintenance is
by taking the item to be corrected out of the production line and replacing it
with reconditioned item or transferring its workload to its redundancy.

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 b. Deferred maintenance, which is a set of corrective maintenance activities that
are not immediately initiated after the occurrence of a failure but are delayed in
such a way that will not affect the production process.
c. Shutdown corrective maintenance, which is a set of corrective maintenance
activities that are performed when the production line is in total stoppage
situation.

The main objectives of corrective maintenance are the maximisation of the

effectiveness of all critical plant systems, the elimination of breakdowns, the
elimination of unnecessary repair, and the reduction of the deviations from optimum
operating conditions.

The difference between corrective maintenance and preventive maintenance is that for
the corrective maintenance, the failure should occur before any corrective action is
taken.

Corrective maintenance is different from run to failure maintenance in that its activities
are planned and regularly taken out to keep plant’s machines and equipment in
optimum operating condition.

The way to perform corrective maintenance activities is by conducting four important

steps:

a. Fault detection.
b. Fault isolation.
c. Fault elimination.
d. Verification of fault elimination.

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 In the fault elimination step several actions could be taken such as adjusting,
aligning, calibrating, reworking, removing, replacing or renovation.

Corrective maintenance has several prerequisites in order to be carried out effectively:

a. Accurate identification of incipient problems.

b. Effective planning which depends on the skills of the planners, the availability of
well-developed maintenance database about standard time to repair, a complete
repair procedures, and the required labour skills, specific tools, parts and
equipment.

c. Proper repair procedures.

d. Adequate time to repair.

e. Verification of repair.

4. IMPROVEMENT MAINTENANCE (IM)

U

It aims at reducing or eliminating entirely the need for maintenance. This type of
maintenance is subdivided into three types as follows:

a. Design-out maintenance which is a set of activities that are used to eliminate the
cause of maintenance, simplify maintenance tasks, or raise machine
performance from the maintenance point of view by redesigning those machines
and facilities which are vulnerable to frequent occurrence of failure and their
long term repair or replacement cost is very expensive.
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 b. Engineering services which include construction and construction modification,
removal and installation, and rearrangement of facilities.
c. Shutdown improvement maintenance, which is a set of improvement
maintenance activities that are performed while the production line is in a
complete stoppage situation.

5. PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE (PDM)

U

Predictive maintenance is a set of activities that detect changes in the physical

condition of equipment (signs of failure) in order to carry out the appropriate
maintenance work for maximising the service life of equipment without increasing the
risk of failure.

It is classified into two kinds according to the methods of detecting the signs of failure:

• Condition-based predictive maintenance

• Statistical-based predictive maintenance

a. Condition-based predictive maintenance depends on continuous or periodic

condition monitoring equipment to detect the signs of failure.
b. Statistical-based predictive maintenance depends on statistical data from the
meticulous recording of the stoppages of the in-plant items and components in
order to develop models for predicting failures.

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The drawback of predictive maintenance is that it depends heavily on information and
the correct interpretation of the information. Some researchers classified predictive
maintenance as a type of preventive maintenance.

The main difference between preventive maintenance and predictive maintenance is

that predictive maintenance uses monitoring the condition of machines or equipment
to determine the actual mean time to failure whereas preventive maintenance
depends on industrial average life statistics.

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 75
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Chapter :4

Transformers
Testing and
maintenance

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INTRODUCTION TO RECLAMATION TRANSFORMERS

Transformers rated 500 kilovolt-amperes (kVA) and above are considered power
transformers. Reclamation has hundreds of power transformers with voltages as low as
480 volts (V) and as high as 550 kilovolts (kV).

All generator step-up (GSU) transformers, and many station service, and excitation
transformers are considered power transformers because they are rated 500 kVA or
larger.

Standards organizations such as American National Standards Institute/Institute of

Electrical and Electronic Engineers (ANSI/IEEE) consider average GSU transformer life to
be 20 to 25 years. This estimate is based on continuous operation at rated load and
service conditions with an average ambient temperature of 40 °C (104 °F) and a
temperature rise of 65 °C. This estimate is also based on the assumption that
transformers receive adequate maintenance over their service life. Reclamation,
Bonneville Power Administration, and Western Area Power Administration conduct
regular studies to determine statistical equipment life. These studies show that average
life of a Reclamation transformer is 40 years. Reclamation gets longer service than IEEE
estimates because we operate at lower ambient temperatures and with lower loads. A
significant number of transformers were purchased in the 1940s, 1950s, and into the
1970s. Several have been replaced, but we have many that are nearing, or are already
well past, their anticipated service life. We should expect transformer replacement and
failures to increase due to this age factor.
Current minimum replacement time is around 14 months; a more realistic time may be
18 months to 2 years. In the future, lead times may extend well beyond what they are
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today. Therefore, high quality maintenance and accurate diagnostics are important for
all transformers, but absolutely essential for older ones—especially for critical
transformers that would cause loss of generation. It is also very important to consider
providing spares for critical transformers.

TRANSFORMER COOLING METHODS

Heat is one of the most common destroyers of transformers. Operation at only 10 °C

above the transformer rating will cut transformer life by 50%. Heat is caused by
internal losses due to loading, high ambient temperature, and solar radiation. It is
important to understand how your particular transformers are cooled and how to
detect problems in the cooling systems. ANSI and IEEE require the cooling class of each
transformer to appear on its nameplate. The letters of the class designate inside
atmosphere and type or types of cooling. In some transformers, more than one class of
cooling and load rating are indicated. At each step of additional cooling, the rating
increases to correspond with increased cooling. Note that the letter “A” indicates air,
“FA” indicates forced air (fans), “O” indicates oil, “FO” indicates forced oil (pumps), “G”
indicates some type of gas, and “W” indicates there is a water/oil heat exchanger.

1. Dry Type Transformers

Cooling classes of dry type transformers are covered by ANSI/IEEE standard C57.12.01
Section 5.1. A short explanation of each class is given below.

1. Class AA is ventilated, self-cooled transformers. This means that there is

ventilation ports located in outside walls of the transformer enclosure. There are
no fans to force air into and out of the enclosure with typically no external fins or

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 radiators. Cooler air enters the lower ports, is heated as it rises past windings,
and exits the upper ventilation ports. (It will not be repeated below; but it is
obvious that in every cooling class, some heat is also removed by natural
circulation of air around the outside of the enclosure.)
2. Class AFA transformers are self-cooled (A) and additionally cooled by forced
circulation of air (FA). This means that there are ventilation ports for fan inlets
and outlets only. (Inlets are usually filtered.) Normally, there are no additional
ventilation ports for natural air circulation.
3. Class AA/FA transformers are ventilated, self-cooled (same as Class AA in item
1). In addition, they have a fan or fans providing additional forced-air cooling.
Fans may be wired to start automatically when the temperature reaches a pre-
set value. These transformers generally have a dual load rating, one for AA (self-
cooling natural air flow) and a larger load rating for FA (forced air flow).
4. Class ANV transformers are self-cooled (A), non-ventilated (NV) units. The
enclosure has no ventilation ports or fans and is not sealed to exclude migration
of outside air, but there are no provisions to intentionally allow outside air to
enter and exit. Cooling is by natural circulation of air around the enclosure. This
transformer may have some type of fins attached outside the enclosure to
increase surface area for additional cooling.
5. Class GA transformers are sealed with a gas inside (G) and are self-cooled (A).
The enclosure is hermetically sealed to prevent leakage. These transformers
typically have a gas, such as nitrogen or Freon, to provide high dielectric and
good heat removal. Cooling occurs by natural circulation of air around the
outside of the enclosure. There are no fans to circulate cooling air; however,
there may be fins attached to the outside to aid in cooling.
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Potential Problems and Remedial Actions for Dry Type Transformer Cooling Systems

It is important to keep transformer enclosures reasonably clean. It is also important to

keep the area around them clear. Any items near or against the transformer impede
heat transfer to cooling air around the enclosure. As dirt accumulates on cooling
surfaces, it becomes more and more difficult for air around the transformer to remove
heat. As a result, over time, the transformer temperature slowly rises unnoticed,
reducing service life.

Transformer rooms and vaults should be ventilated. Portable fans (never water) may
be used for additional cooling if necessary. A fan rated at about 100 cubic feet per
minute (cfm) per kilowatt (kW) of transformer loss [5], located near the top of the
room to remove hot air, will suffice. These rooms/vaults should not be used as storage.

When the transformer is new, check the fans and all controls for proper operation.
After it has been energized and the loading and temperature are stable, check the
temperature with an infrared (IR) camera and compare loading with the nameplate.
Repeat the temperature checks after 1 week of operation.

Once each year under normal load, check transformer temperatures with an IR
camera. If the temperature rise (above ambient) is near or above nameplate rating,
check for overloading. Check the temperature alarm for proper operation. Check
enclosures and vaults/rooms for dirt accumulation on transformer surfaces and debris
near or against enclosures. Remove all items near enough to affect air circulation. To
avoid dust clouds, a vacuum should first be used to remove excess dirt. Low pressure
(20 to 25 pounds per square inch [psi]) dry compressed air may be used for cleaning
after most dirt has been removed by vacuum. The transformer must be de-energized

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before this procedure unless it is totally enclosed and there are no exposed energized
conductors. Portable generators may be used for lighting.

After de-energizing the transformer, remove access panels and inspect windings for
dirt- and heat-discolored insulation and structure problems. It is important that dirt not
be allowed to accumulate on windings because it impedes heat removal and reduces
winding life. A vacuum should be used for the initial winding cleaning, followed by
compressed air. Care must be taken to ensure the compressed air is dry to avoid
blowing moisture into windings. Air pressure should not be greater than 20 to 25 psi to
avoid imbedding small particles into insulation. After cleaning, look for discolored
copper and insulation, which indicates overheating. If discoloration is found, check for
loose connections. If there are no loose connections, check the cooling paths very
carefully and check for overloading after the transformer has been re-energized. Look
for carbon tracking and cracked, chipped, or loose insulators. Look for and repair loose
clamps, coil spacers, deteriorated barriers, and corroded or loose connections.

Check fans for proper operation including controls, temperature switches, and alarms.
Clean fan blades and filters if needed. A dirty fan blade or filter reduces cooling air flow
over the windings and reduces service life. If ventilation ports do not have filters, they
may be fabricated from home-furnace filter material. Adding filters is only necessary if
the windings are dirty upon yearly inspections.

Check pressure gages by looking at the weekly data sheets; if pressure never varies
with temperature changes, the gage is defective. Never allow the pressure to go below
about 1 psi during cold weather. Add nitrogen to bring the pressure up to 2½ to 3 psi to
insure that moist air will not be pulled in.

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 2. LIQUID-IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS

Cooling classes of liquid-immersed transformers are covered by IEEE C57.12.00. A short

explanation of each class follows:

A. Liquid-Immersed, Air-Cooled. There are three classes in this category.

1. Class OA: Oil-immersed, self-cooled. Transformer windings and core are

immersed in some type of oil and are self-cooled by natural circulation of air
around the outside enclosure. Fins or radiators may be attached to the enclosure
to aid in cooling.
2. Class OA/FA: Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced air-cooled. Same as OA above,
with the addition of fans. Fans are usually mounted on radiators. The
transformer typically has two load ratings, one with the fans off (OA) and a larger
rating with fans operating (FA). Fans may be wired to start automatically at a
pre-set temperature.
3. Class OA/FA/FA: Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced air-cooled/forced air-
cooled. Same as OA/FA above with an additional set of fans. There typically will
be three load ratings corresponding to each increment of cooling. Increased
ratings are obtained by increasing cooling air over portions of the cooling
surfaces. Typically, there are radiators attached to the tank to aid in cooling. The
two groups of fans maybe wired to start automatically at pre-set levels as
temperature increases. There are no oil pumps. Oil flow through the transformer
windings is by the natural principle of convection (heat rising).

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 Typical Oil Flow.

B. Liquid-Immersed, Air-Cooled/Forced Liquid-Cooled. There are two classes in this

group.

1. Class OA/FA/FOA: Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced air-cooled/forced liquid,

and forced air-cooled. Windings and core are immersed in some type of oil. This
transformer typically has radiators attached to the enclosure. The transformer
has self-cooling (OA) natural ventilation, forced air-cooling FA (fans), and forced
oil-cooling (pumps) with additional forced air-cooling (FOA) (more fans). The
transformer has three load ratings corresponding to each cooling step. Fans and

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 pumps may be wired to start automatically at pre-set levels as temperature
increases.
2. Class OA/FOA/FOA: Liquid-immersed, self-cooled/forced oil, and forced air-
cooled/forced oil, and forced air-cooled. Cooling controls are arranged to start
only part of the oil pumps and part of the fans for the first load
rating/temperature increase, and the remaining pumps and fans for the second
load rating increase. The nameplate will show at least three load ratings.

C. Liquid-Immersed, Water-Cooled. This category has two classes.

1. Class OW: Transformer coil and core are immersed in oil. Typically a oil/water
heat exchanger (radiator) is attached to the outside of the tank. Cooling water is
pumped through the heat exchanger, but the oil flows only by natural
circulation. As oil is heated by the windings, it rises to the top and exits through
piping to the radiator. As it is cooled, the oil descends through the radiator and
re-enters the transformer tank at the bottom.
2. Class OW/A: Transformer coil and core are immersed in oil. This transformer has
two ratings. Cooling for one rating (OW) is obtained as in 1 above. The self-
cooled rating (A) is obtained by natural circulation of air over the tank and
cooling surfaces.

D. Liquid-Immersed, Forced Liquid-Cooled. This category has two classes.

1. Class FOA: Liquid-immersed, forced liquid-cooled with forced air-cooled. This

transformer normally has only one rating. The transformer is cooled by pumping
oil (forced oil) through a radiator normally attached to the outside of the tank.
Also, air is forced by fans over the cooling surface.
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 2. Class FOW: Liquid-immersed, forced liquid-cooled, water cooled. This
transformer is cooled by an oil/water heat exchanger normally mounted
separately from the tank. Both the transformer oil and the cooling water are
pumped (forced) through the heat exchanger to accomplish cooling.

Potential Problems and Remedial Actions for Liquid Filled Transformer Cooling Systems.

Leaks. Tanks and radiators may develop oil leaks, especially at connections. To repair a
leak in a radiator core, you must remove the radiator. Small leaks may also develop in
headers or individual pipes. These small leaks possibly may be stopped by peening with
a ball peen hammer. Some manufacturer’s field personnel try to stop leaks by using a
two-part epoxy while the transformer is under vacuum. Do not try this unless the
transformer has been drained, because a vacuum may cause bubbles to form in the oil
that can lodge in the winding and because arcing. When all else fails, the leak may be
welded with oil still in the radiator, if proper precautions are carefully observed.
Welding with oil inside will cause gases to form in the oil. Take an oil sample for a
dissolved gas analysis (DGA) before welding and 24 hours after re-energizing to identify
gas increases due to welding. If the leak is bad enough, the tank may have to be
drained so the leak can be repaired. Treat leaks carefully; do not ignore them. Oil leaks
are serious maintenance and environmental issues and should be corrected. Radiators
may need to be cleaned in areas where deposits appear on pipes and headers. Dirt and
deposits hamper heat transfer to the cooling air. Finned radiators must be cleaned with
compressed air when they become dirty.

Plugs. After 1 month of service and yearly, perform an IR scan and physical inspection
of radiators and transformer tanks. Partially plugged radiators will be cooler than

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those performing normally. You may also feel the radiator pipes by hand. Plugged
radiator sections or individual pipes/plenums will be noticeably cooler; however, you
will not be able to reach all of them. Radiators may become plugged with sludge or
foreign debris; this usually occurs in water tubes on the oil/water heat exchanger. Do
not forget to check the bleed line for two-walled heat exchangers.

If plugged radiators are discovered, they need to be corrected as soon as possible.

Some radiators are attached to the main tank with flanges and have isolating valves.
These may be removed for cleaning and/or leak repair without draining oil from the
transformer. If radiators are attached directly to the main tank, oil must be drained
before cleaning them. If radiators are plugged with sludge, chances are the transformer
is sludge up also. In this case, the oil should be reprocessed and the transformer
cleaned internally. Competent contractors should be obtained if this is necessary.

Sludge. If temperature seems to be slowly increasing while the transformer is

operating under the same load, check the DGA for moisture, oxygen, and the interfacial
tension (IFT). The combination of oxygen and moisture causes sludging, which may be
revealed by a low IFT number. Sludge will slowly build up on windings and core, and
the temperature will increase over time.

Valve Problems. If your transformer has isolating valves for radiators, check to make
sure they are fully open on both top and bottom of the radiators. A broken valve stem
may cause the valve to be fully or partially closed, but it will appear that the valve is
open.

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Mineral Deposits. Don’t even think about spraying water on the radiators or tank to
increase cooling except in the direst emergency. Minerals in the water will deposit on
radiators as water evaporates and are almost impossible to remove. These minerals
will reduce the efficiency of cooling still further. Additional fans blowing on radiators
and/or transformer tank is a better alternative.

One IR scan performed on a transformer running at higher than normal temperature

revealed that the oil level was below the upper radiator inlet pipe, which prevented oil
circulation. The oil level indicator was defective and stuck on normal. These indicators
must be tested as mentioned below.

Cooling System Inspections. After 1 month of service and yearly, inspect and test the
fans. Look at the fans anytime you are around transformers in the switchyard or in the
power plant. If it is a hot day and transformers are loaded, all the fans should be
running. If a fan is stopped and the rest of the group is running, the inactive fan should
be repaired. During an inspection, the temperature controller should be adjusted to
start all the fans. Listen for unusual noises from fan bearings and loose blades and
repair or replace faulty fans. Bad bearings can also be detected with an IR scan if the
fans are running.

After 1 month of service and yearly, inspect and test the oil pumps.

Inspect piping and connections for leaks. Override the temperature controller so that
the pump starts. Check the oil pump motor current on all three phases with an
accurate ammeter; this will give an indication if oil flow is correct and if unusual wear is
causing additional motor loading. Record this information for later comparison,

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especially if there is no oil flow indicator. If the motor load current is low, something is
causing low oil flow. Carefully inspect all valves to make sure they are fully open. A
valve stem may break and leave the valve partially or fully closed, even though the
valve handle indicates the valve is fully open. Pump impellers have been found loose on
the shaft, reducing oil flow. Sludge buildup or debris in lines can also cause low oil flow.
If motor load current is high, this may indicate impeded pump rotation. Listen for
unusual noises. Thrust bearing wear results in the impeller advancing on the housing.
An impeller touching the housing makes a rubbing sound which is different from the
sound of a failing motor bearing. If this is heard, remove the pump motor from the
housing and check impeller clearance. Replace the thrust bearing if needed, and
replace the motor bearings if the shaft has too much play or if noise is unusual.

Three phase pumps will run and pump some oil even when they are running
backwards. Vane type oil-flow meters will indicate flow on this low amount. The best
indication of this is that sometimes the pump will be very noisy. The motor load current
may also be lower than for full load. If this is suspected due to the extra noise and
higher transformer temperature, the pump should be checked for proper rotation.
Reverse two phase leads if this is encountered.

After 1 month of service and yearly, check the oil flow indicator. It has a small paddle
which extends into the oil stream and may be either on the suction or discharge side of
the pump. A low flow of only about 5 feet per second velocity causes the flag to rotate.
Flow can be too low, and the indicator will still show flow. If there is no flow, a spring
returns the flag to the off position and a switch provides an alarm. With control power
on the switch, open the pump circuit at the motor starter and make sure the correct
alarm point activates when the pump stops. Check that the pointer is in the right
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position when the pump is off and when it is running. Pointers can stick and fail to
provide an alarm when needed. Oil flow may also be checked with an ultrasonic flow
meter. Ultrasonic listening devices can detect worn bearings, rubbing impellers, and
other unusual noises from oil pumps.

Pumps can pull air in through gaskets on the suction side of the pumps. The suction
(vacuum) on the intake side of the pump can pull air through gaskets that are not tight.
Pump suction has also been known to pull air through packing around valve stems, in
the suction side piping. This can result in dangerous bubbles in the transformer oil and
may cause the gas detector or Buchholz relay to operate. Dissolved gas analysis will
show a big increase in oxygen and nitrogen content. High oxygen and nitrogen content
can also be caused by gasket leaks elsewhere.

After 1 month of service and yearly, inspect water-oil heat exchangers.

Test and inspect the pumps as mentioned above. Look for and repair leaks in piping
and heat exchanger body. Examine the latest dissolved gas analysis results for dissolved
moisture and free water. If free water is present and there are no gasket leaks, the
water portion of the water-oil heat exchanger must be pressure tested. A leak may
have developed, allowing water to migrate into the transformer oil, which can destroy
the transformer. If the heat exchanges piping are double-walled, check the drain for
water or oil; check manufacturer’s instruction manual.

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OIL-FILLED TRANSFORMER INSPECTIONS
A transformer maintenance program must be based on thorough routine inspections.
These inspections must be in addition to normal daily/weekly data gathering trips to
check oil levels and temperatures. Some monitoring may be done remotely using
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, but this can never substitute
for thorough inspections by competent maintenance or operations people.

A) Oil-Filled Transformers
After 1 month of service and once each year, make an in-depth inspection of oil-filled
transformers. Before beginning, look carefully at temperature and oil level data sheets.
If temperature, pressure, or oil level gages never change, even with seasonal
temperature and loading changes, something is wrong. The gage may be stuck or data
sheets may have been filled in incorrectly. Examine the DGA’s for evidence of leaks,
etc.

Transformer Tank. Check for excessive corrosion and oil leaks. Pay special attention to
flanges and gaskets (bushings, valves, and radiators) and lower section of the main
tank. Report oil leaks to maintenance, and pay special attention to the oil level
indicator if leaks are found. Severely corroded spots should be wire brushed and
painted with a rust inhibitor.

Top Oil Thermometers. These are typically sealed spiral-bourdon-tube dial indicators
with liquid-filled bulb sensors. The bulb is normally inside a thermometer well, which
penetrates the tank wall into oil near the top of the tank. As oil temperature increases
in the bulb, liquid expands, which expands the spiral tube. The tube is attached to a

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pointer that indicates temperature. These pointers may also have electrical contacts to
trigger alarms and start cooling fans as temperature increases. An extra pointer,
normally red, indicates maximum temperature since the last time the indicator was
reset. This red pointer rises with the main pointer but will not decrease unless
manually reset; thus, it always indicates the highest temperature reached since being
set. See the instruction manual on your specific transformer for details.

Winding Temperature Thermometers. These devices are supposed to indicate hottest

spot in the winding based on the manufacturer's heat run tests. At best, this device is
only accurate at top nameplate rated load and then only if it is not out of calibration.
They are not what their name implies and can be misleading. They are only winding
hottest-spot simulators and not very accurate. There is no temperature sensor
imbedded in the winding hot spot. At best, they provide only a rough approximation of
hot spot winding temperature and should not be relied on for accuracy. They can be
used to turn on additional cooling or activate alarms as the top oil thermometers do.

Winding temperature thermometers work the same as the top oil thermometer,
except that the bulb is in a separate thermometer well near the top of the tank. A wire-
type heater coil is either inserted into or wrapped around the thermometer well which
surrounds the temperature sensitive bulb. In some transformers, a current transformer
(CT) is around one of the three winding leads and provides current directly to the
heater coil in proportion to winding current. In other transformers, the CT supplies
current to an auto-transformer that supplies current to the heater coil. The heater
warms the bulb and the dial indicates a temperature, but it is not the true hottest-spot
temperature.

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These devices are calibrated at the factory by changing taps either on the CT or on the
autotransformer, or by adjusting the calibration resistors in the control cabinet. They
normally cannot be field calibrated or tested, other than testing the thermometer, as
mentioned. The calibration resistors can be adjusted in the field if the manufacturer
provides calibration curves for the transformer. In practice, most winding temperature
indicators are out of calibration, and their readings are meaningless. These
temperature indications should not be relied upon for loading operations or
maintenance decisions.

Fiber optic temperature sensors can be imbedded directly into the winding as the
transformer is being built and are much more accurate. This system is available as an
option on new transformers at an increased cost, which may be worth it since the true
winding “hottest-spot” temperature is critical when higher loading is required.

Thermometers can be removed without lowering the transformer oil if they are in a
thermometer well. Check your transformer instruction manual. Look carefully at the
capillary tubing between the thermometers well and dial indicator. If the tubing has
been pinched or accidently struck, it may be restricted. This is not an obvious defect,
and it can cause the dial pointer to lock in one position. If this defect is found, the
whole gage must be returned to the factory for repair or replacement; it cannot be
repaired in the field. Look for a leak in the tubing system; the gage will be reading very
low and must be replaced if a leak is discovered. Thermometers should be removed
and tested every 3 to 5 years as described below.

Thermometer Testing. Every 3 to 5 years, and if trouble is suspected, do a

thermometer testing. Suspend the indicator bulb and an accurate mercury
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thermometer in an oil bath. Do not allow either to touch the side or bottom of the
container. Heat the oil on a hotplate while stirring and compare the two thermometers
while the temperature increases. If a magnetic stirring/heating plate is available, it is
more effective than hand stirring. Pay particular attention to the upper temperature
range at which your transformers normally operate (50 °C to 80 °C). An ohmmeter
should also be used to check switch operations. If either dial indicator is more than 5 °C
different than the mercury thermometer, it should be replaced with a spare. A number
of spares should be kept, based on the quantity of transformers at the plant. Oil bath
test kits are available from the Qualitrol Company. After calling for Qualitrol
authorization at 716-586-1515, you can ship defective dial thermometers for repair and
calibration to: Qualitrol Co., 1387 Fairport Rd., Fairport, NY 14450. The alarms and
other functions should also be tested to see if the correct annunciator points activate,
pumps/fans operate, etc. If it is not possible to replace the temperature gage or send it
to the factory for repair, place a temperature correction factor on your data form to
add to the dial reading so the correct temperature will be recorded. Also lower the
alarm and pump-turn-on settings by this same correction factor. Since these are
pressure-filled systems, the indicator will typically read low if it is out of calibration.
Field testing has shown some of these gages reading 15 °C to 20 °C lower than actual
temperature. This is hazardous for transformers because it will allow them to
continuously run hotter than intended, due to delayed alarms and cooling activation. If
thermometers are not tested and errors corrected, transformer service life may be
shortened or premature failure may occur.

Oil Level Indicators. After 1 month of service, inspect and every 3 to 5 years, check the
tank oil level indicators. These are float operated, with the float mechanism

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magnetically coupled through the tank wall to the dial indicator. As level increases, the
float rotates a magnet inside the tank. Outside the tank, another magnet follows
(rotates), which moves the pointer. The center of the dial is normally marked with a
temperature 25 °C (77 °F). High and low level points are also marked to follow level
changes as the oil expands and contracts with temperature changes. The proper way to
determine accurate oil level is to first look at the top oil temperature indicator. After
determining the temperature, look at the level gage. The pointer should be at a
reasonable level corresponding to the top oil temperature. If the transformer is fully
loaded, the top oil temperature will be high, and the level indicator should be near the
high mark. If the transformer is de-energized and the top oil temperature is near 25 °C,
the oil level pointer should be at or near 25 °C.

To check the level indicator, you can remove the outside mechanism for testing
without lowering transformer oil. After removing the gage, hold a magnet on the back
of the dial and rotate the magnet; the dial indicator should also rotate. If it fails to
respond or if it drags or sticks, replace it. As mentioned above, defective units can be
sent to the factory for repair.

There may also be electrical switches for alarms and possibly tripping off the
transformer on falling tank level. These should be checked with an ohmmeter for
proper operation. The alarm/tripping circuits should also be tested to see if the correct
annunciator points and relays respond. See the transformer instruction book for
information on your specific indicator.

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 Oil Level Indicator

If oil has had to be lowered in the transformer or conservator for other reasons(e.g.,
inspections), check the oil level float mechanism. Rotate the float mechanism by hand
to check for free movement. Check the float visually to make sure it is secure to the
arm and that the arm is in the proper shape. Some arms are formed (not straight).

Pressure Relief Devices. These devices are the transformers’ last line of defense
against excessive internal pressure. In case of a fault or short circuit, the resultant arc
instantly vaporizes surrounding oil, causing a rapid buildup of gaseous pressure. If the
pressure relief device does not operate properly and pressure is not sufficiently
relieved within a few milliseconds, a catastrophic tank rupture can result, spreading
flaming oil over a wide area. Two types of these devices are discussed below. The
instruction manual for your transformer must be consulted for specifics.

Caution: Never paint pressure-relief devices because paint can cause the plunger or
rotating shaft to stick. Then the device might not relieve pressure, which could lead to
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catastrophic tank failure during a fault. Look at the top of the device; on newer units, a
yellow or blue button should be visible. If these have been painted, the button will be
the same color as the tank. On older units, a red flag should be visible; if it has been
painted, it will be the same color as the tank.

If they have been painted, they should be replaced. It is virtually impossible to remove
all paint from the mechanism and be certain the device will work when needed

Newer Pressure Relief Devices. Newer pressure relief devices are spring-loaded valves
that automatically reclose following a pressure release. The springs are held in
compression by the cover and press on a disc which seals an opening in the tank top. If
pressure in the tank exceeds operating pressure, the disk moves upward and relieves
pressure. As pressure decreases, the springs reclose the valve. After operating, this
device leaves a brightly colored rod (bright yellow for oil, blue for silicone) exposed
approximately 2 inches above the top. This rod is easily seen upon inspection, although
it is not always visible from floor level. The rod may be reset by pressing on the top
until it is again recessed into the device. The switch must also be manually reset. A
relief device is shown in the open position in the figure above.

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 Pressure Relief valve

Caution: Bolts that hold the device to the tank may be loosened safely, but never
loosen screws which hold the cover to the flange without referring to the instruction
manual and using great care. Springs that oppose tank pressure are held in
compression by these screws, and their stored energy could be hazardous.

Once each year, and as soon as possible after a known through-fault or internal fault,
inspect pressure devices to see if they have operated. This must be done from a high-
lift bucket if the transformer is energized. Look at each pressure relief device to see if
the yellow (or blue) button is visible. If the device has operated, about 2 inches of the
colored rod will be visible. Each year, test the alarm circuits by operating the switch by
hand and making sure the correct annunciator point is activated. If the relief device
operates during operation, do not re-energize the transformer; Double and other

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testing may be required before re-energizing, and an oil sample should be sent for
analysis

Every 3 to 5 years, when doing other maintenance or testing, if the transformer has a
conservator, examines the top of the transformer tank around the pressure relief
device. If oil is visible, the device is leaking, either around the tank gasket or relief
diaphragm. If the device is 30 years old, replace the whole unit. A nitrogen blanketed
transformer will use a lot more nitrogen if the relief device is leaking; they should be
tested as described below.

A test stand with a pressure gage may be fabricated to test the pressure relief function.
Current cost of a pressure relief device is about $600, so testing instead of replacement
may be prudent. Have a spare on hand so that the tank will not have to be left open. If
the tank top or pressure relief device has gasket limiting grooves, always use a nitrile
replacement gasket; if there are no grooves, use a cork-nitrile gasket. Relief devices
themselves do not leak often; the gasket usually leaks.

Older Pressure Relief Devices. Older pressure relief devices have a diaphragm and a
relief pin that is destroyed each time the device operates and must be replaced.

Caution: These parts must be replaced with exact replacement parts, or the operating
relief-pressure of the device will be wrong.

The relief pin determines operating pressure; a number, which is the operating
pressure, normally appears on top of the pin. Check your specific transformer
instruction manual for proper catalog numbers. Do not assume you have the right parts

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or that correct parts have been previously installed—look it up. If the operating
pressure is too high, a catastrophic tank failure could result.

On older units, a shaft rotates, operates alarm/trip switches, and raises a small red flag
when the unit releases pressure. If units have been painted or are more than 30 years
old, they should be replaced with the new model as soon as it is possible to have a
transformer outage.

Once each year and as soon as possible after a thorough-fault or internal fault, examine
the indicator flag to see if the device has operated. They must be examined from a
high-lift bucket if the transformer is energized. A clearance must be obtained to test,
repair, or reset the device. See the instruction manual for your specific transformer.
Test alarm/trip circuits by operating the switch by hand. Check to make sure the
correct annunciator point activates.

Every 3 to 5 years, when doing other maintenance or testing, examine the top of the
transformer tank around the pressure relief device. If the transformer has a
conservator and oil is visible, the device is leaking, either around the tank gasket or
relief diaphragm. The gasket and/or device must be replaced. Take care that the new
device will fit the same tank opening prior to ordering. Most of them are made by the
Qualitrol Company; contact the manufacturer to obtain a correct replacement.

Sudden Pressure Relay. Internal arcing in an oil-filled power transformer can instantly
vaporize surrounding oil, generating gas pressures that can cause catastrophic failure,
rupture the tank, and spread flaming oil over a large area. This can damage or destroy

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other equipment in addition to the transformer and presents extreme hazards to
workers.

The relay is designed to detect a sudden pressure increase caused by arcing. It is set to
operate before the pressure relief device. The control circuit should de- energize the
transformer and provide an alarm. The relay will ignore normal pressure changes such
as oil-pump surges, temperature changes, etc.

Modern sudden pressure relays consist of three bellows (see following figure) with
silicone sealed inside. Changes in pressure in the transformer deflect the main sensing
bellows. Silicone inside acts on two control bellows arranged like a balance beam, one
on each side. One bellows senses pressure changes through a small orifice. The
opening is automatically changed by a bimetallic strip to adjust for normal temperature
changes of the oil. The orifice delays pressure changes in this bellows. The other
bellows responds to immediate pressure changes and is affected much more quickly.
Pressure difference tilts the balance beam and activates the switch. This type relay
automatically resets when the two bellows again reach pressure equilibrium. If this
relay operates, do not re-energize the transformer until you have determined the exact
cause and corrected the problem.

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 Sudden Pressure relay

Old style sudden pressure relays have only one bellows. A sudden excessive pressure
within the transformer tank exerts pressure directly on the bellows, which moves a
spring-loaded operating pin. The pin operates a switch which provides alarm and
breaker trip. After the relay has operated, the cap must be removed and the switch
reset to normal by depressing the reset button.

Once every 3 to 5 years, the sudden pressure relay should be tested according to
manufacturer’s instructions. Generally, only a squeeze-bulb and pressure gage (5 psi) is
required. Disconnect the tripping circuit and use an ohmmeter to test for relay
operation. Test the alarm circuit and verify that the correct alarm point is activated.
Use an ohmmeter to verify the trip signal is activated or, if possible, apply only control

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voltage to the breaker and make sure the tripping function operates. Consult the
manufacturer’s manual for your specific transformer for detailed instructions.

Buchholz Relay (found only on transformers with conservators).

The Buchholz relay has two oil-filled chambers with floats and relays arranged vertically
one over the other. If high eddy currents, local overheating, or partial discharges occur
within the tank, bubbles of resultant gas rise to the top of the tank. These rise through
the pipe between the tank and the conservator. As gas bubbles migrate along the pipe,
they enter the Buchholz relay and rise into the top chamber. As gas builds up inside the
chamber, it displaces the oil, decreasing the level. The top float descends with oil level
until it passes a magnetic switch which activates an alarm. The bottom float and relay
cannot be activated by additional gas buildup. The float is located slightly below the
top of the pipe so that once the top chamber is filled; additional gas goes into the pipe
and on up to the conservator. Typically, inspection windows are provided so that the
amount of gas and relay operation may be viewed during testing. If the oil level falls
low enough (conservator empty), switch contacts in the bottom chamber are activated
by the bottom float. These contacts are typically connected to cause the transformer to
trip. This relay also serves a third function, similar to the sudden pressure relay. A
magnetically held paddle attached to the bottom float is positioned in the oil-flow
stream between the conservator and transformer tank. Normal flows resulting from
temperature changes are small and bypass below the paddle. If a fault occurs in the
transformer, a pressure wave (surge) is created in the oil. This surge travels through the
pipe and displaces the paddle. The paddle activates the same magnetic switch as the
bottom float mentioned above, tripping the transformer. The flow rate at which the

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paddle activates the relay is normally adjustable. See your specific transformer
instruction manual for details.

Buchholz Relay

Once every 3 to 5 years while the transformer is de-energized, functionally test the
Buchhholz relay by pumping a small amount of air into the top chamber with a squeeze
bulb hand pump. Watch the float operation through the window. Check to make sure
the correct alarm point has been activated. Open the bleed valve and vent air from the
chamber. The bottom float and switching cannot be tested with air pressure. On some
relays, a rod is provided so that you can test both bottom and top sections by pushing
the floats down until the trip points are activated. If possible, verify that the breaker
will trip with this operation. A volt-ohmmeter may also be used to check the switches.
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If these contacts activate during operation, it means that the oil level is very low, or a
pressure wave has activated (bottom contacts), or the transformer is gassing (top
contacts). If this relay operates, do not re-energize the transformer until you have
determined the exact cause.

Transformer Bushings: Testing and Maintenance of High-Voltage Bushings. When

bushings are new, they should be double tested as an acceptance test. Refer to the
M4000 Double test set instructions, the Double Bushing Field Test Guide, and the
manufacturer’s data for guidance on acceptable results.

Caution: Do not test a bushing while it’s in its wood shipping crate, or while it is lying
on wood. Wood is not as good an insulator as porcelain and will cause the readings to
be inaccurate. Keep the test results as a baseline record to compare with future tests.

After 1 month of service and yearly, check the external porcelain for cracks and/or
contamination (requires binoculars). There is no “perfect insulator”; a small amount of
leakage current always exists. This current “leaks” through and along the bushing
surface from the high-voltage conductor to ground. If the bushing is damaged or
heavily contaminated, leakage current becomes excessive, and visible evidence may
appear as carbon tracking (treeing) on the bushing surface. Flashovers may occur if the
bushings are not cleaned periodically.

Look carefully for oil leaks. Check the bushing oil level by viewing the oil-sight glass or
the oil level gage. When the bushing has a gage with a pointer, look carefully, because
the oil level should vary a little with temperature changes. If the pointer never changes,
even with wide ambient temperature and load changes, the gage should be checked at

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the next outage. A stuck gage pointer coupled with a small oil leak can cause explosive
failure of a bushing, damaging the transformer and other switchyard equipment. A
costly extended outage is the result.

If the oil level is low and there is an external oil leak, check the bolts for proper torque
and the gasket for proper compression. If torque and compression are correct, the
bushing must be replaced with a spare. Follow instructions in the transformer manual
carefully. It is very important that the correct type gasket be installed and the correct
compression be applied. A leaky gasket is probably also leaking water and air into the
transformer, so check the most recent transformer DGA for high moisture and oxygen.

If the oil level is low and there is no visible external leak, there may be an internal leak
around the lower seal into the transformer tank. If possible, re-fill the bushing with the
same oil and carefully monitor the level and the volume it takes to fill the bushing to
the proper level. If it takes more than one quart, make plans to replace the bushing.
The bushing must be sent to the factory for repair or it must be junked; it cannot be
repaired in the field.

Caution: Never open the fill plug of any bushing if it is at an elevated temperature.
Some bushings have a nitrogen blanket on top of the oil, which pressurizes as the oil
expands. Always consult the manufacturer’s instruction manual which will give the
temperature range at which the bushing may be safely opened. Generally, this will be
between 15 °C (59 °F) and 35 °C (95 °F). Pressurized hot oil may suddenly gush from the
fill plug if it is removed while at elevated temperature, causing burn hazards. Generally,
the bushing will be a little cooler than the top oil temperature.

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About 90% of all preventable bushing failures are caused by moisture entering through
leaky gaskets, cracks, or seals. Internal moisture can be detected by Doble testing. See
FIST 3-2 and Doble Bushing Field Test Guide [8] for troubles and corrective actions.
Internal moisture causes deterioration of the insulation of the bushing and can result in
explosive failure, causing extensive transformer and other equipment damage, as well
as hazards to workers.

After 1 month of service and yearly, examine the bushings with an IR camera; if one
phase shows a markedly higher temperature, there is probably a bad connection. The
connection at the top is usually the poor one; however, a bad connection inside the
transformer tank will usually show a higher temperature at the top as well. In addition,
a bad connection inside the transformer will usually show hot metal gases (ethane and
ethylene) in the DGA.

Once every 3 to 5 years, a close physical inspection and cleaning should be done.
Check carefully for leaks, cracks, and carbon tracking. This inspection will be required
more often in atmospheres where salts and dust deposits appear on the

bushings. In conditions that produce deposits, a light application of Dow Corning grease
DC-5 or GE Insulgel will help reduce risk of external flashover. The downside of this
treatment is that a grease buildup may occur. In high humidity and wet areas, a better
choice may be a high quality silicone paste wax applied to the porcelain, which will
reduce the risk of flashover. A spray-on wax containing silicone, such as Turtle Wax
brand, has been found to be very useful for cleaning and waxing in one operation,
providing the deposits are not too hard. Wax will cause water to form beads rather
than a continuous sheet, which reduces flashover risk. Cleaning may involve just
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spraying with Turtle Wax and wiping with a soft cloth. A lime removal product, such as
“Lime Away,” also may be useful. More stubborn contaminates may require solvents,
steel wool, and brushes. A high pressure water stream may be required to remove salt
and other water soluble deposits. Limestone powder blasting with dry air will safely
remove metallic oxides, chemicals, salt-cake, and almost any hard contaminate. Other
materials, such as potters clay, walnut or pecan shells, or crushed coconut shells, are
also used for hard contaminates. Carbon dioxide (CO2) pellet blasting is more
expensive but virtually eliminates cleanup because it evaporates. Ground up corn-cob
blasting will remove soft pollutants such as old coatings of built-up grease. A
competent experienced contractor should be employed and a thorough written job
hazard analysis (JHA) performed when any of these treatments are used.

Corona (air ionization) may be visible at tops of bushings at twilight or night, especially
during periods of rain, mist, fog, or high humidity. At the top, corona is considered
normal; however, as a bushing becomes more and more contaminated, corona will
creep lower and lower. If the bushing is not cleaned, flashover will occur when corona
nears the grounded transformer top. If corona seems to be lower than the top of the
bushing, inspect, Doble test, and clean the bushing as quickly as possible. If flashover
occurs (phase to ground fault), it could destroy the bushing and cause an extended
outage. Line-to-line faults also can occur if all the bushings are contaminated and
flashover occurs. A corona scope may be used to view and photograph low levels of
corona indoors under normal illumination and outdoors at twilight or night. High levels
of corona may possibly be viewed outdoors in the daytime if a dark background is
available, such as trees, canyon walls, buildings, etc. The corona scope design is

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primarily for indoor and night time use; it cannot be used with blue or cloudy sky
background. This technology is available at the Technical Service Center (TSC), D-8450.

Caution: See the transformer manual for detailed instructions on cleaning and repairing
your specific bushing surfaces. Different solvents, wiping materials, and cleaning
methods may be required for different bushings. Different repair techniques may also
be required for small cracks and chips. Generally, glyptal or insulating varnish will
repair small scratches, hairline cracks, and chips. Sharp edges of a chip should be honed
smooth, and the defective area painted with insulating varnish to provide a glossy
finish. Hairline cracks in the surface of the porcelain must be sealed because
accumulated dirt and moisture in the crack may result in flashover. Epoxy should be
used to repair larger chips. If a bushing insulator has a large chip that reduces the
flashover distance or has a large crack totally through the insulator, the bushing must
be replaced. Some manufacturers offer repair service to damaged bushings that cannot
be repaired in the field.

Contact the manufacturer for your particular bushings if you have repair questions.
Once every 3 to 5 years, depending on the atmosphere and service conditions, the
bushings should be Doble tested. Refer to Doble M-4000 test set instructions, Doble
Bushing Field Test Guide and the manufacturer’s instructions for proper values and test
procedures. Bushings should be cleaned prior to Doble testing. Contamination on the
insulating surface will cause the results to be inaccurate. Testing may also be done
before and after cleaning to check methods of cleaning. As the bushings age and begin
to deteriorate, reduce the testing interval to 1 year. Keep accurate records of results so
that replacements can be ordered in advance, before you have to remove bushings
from service.
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Oil Preservation Sealing Systems
The purpose of sealing systems is to prevent air and moisture from contaminating oil
and cellulose insulation. Sealing systems are designed to prevent oil inside the
transformer from coming into contact with air. Air contains moisture, which causes
sledging and an abundant supply of oxygen. Oxygen in combination with moisture
causes greatly accelerated deterioration of the cellulose. This oxygen-moisture
combination will greatly reduce service life of the transformer.

Sealing systems on many existing Reclamation power transformers are of the inert gas
(nitrogen) pressure design; however, we have many other designs. Current practice is
to buy only conservator designs with bladders for transformer voltages 115 kV and
above and capacities above 10 mega-volt-amps (mva). Below these values, we buy only
inert gas pressure system transformers, as depicted in the figure. Some of the sealing
systems are explained below. There may be variations of each design, and not every
design is covered. The order below is roughly from earlier to more modern.

SEALING SYSTEMS TYPES.

1. Free Breathing.

Sealing systems have progressed from early designs of “free breathing” tanks, in which
an air space on top of the oil is vented to atmosphere through a breather pipe. The
pipe typically is screened to keep out insects and rodents and turned down to prevent
rain from entering. Breathing is caused by expansion and contraction of the oil as
temperature changes. These earlier designs did not use an air dryer, and condensation
from moisture formed on inside walls and tank top. Moisture, oxygen, and nitrogen

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would also dissolve directly into oil from the air. This was not the best design. As
mentioned before, a combination of oxygen and moisture accelerates deterioration of
cellulose insulation. Moisture also decreases dielectric strength, destroying insulating
quality of the oil, and causes formation of sludge. If you have one or more of these
earlier design transformers, it is recommended that a desiccant type air dryer be added
to the breather pipe.

Free Breathing Transformer.

2. Sealed or Pressurized Breathing.

This design is similar to the free breathing one with addition of a pressure/vacuum
bleeder valve. When the transformer was installed, pressurized dry air or nitrogen was
placed on top of the oil. The bleeder valve is designed to hold pressure inside to
approximately plus or minus 5 psi. The same problems with moisture and oxygen occur

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as previously described. Problems are not as severe because “breathing” is limited by
the bleeder valve. Air or N2 is exhausted to the outside atmosphere when a positive
pressure more than 5 psi occurs inside the tank. This process does not add moisture
and oxygen to the tank. However, when cooling, the oil contracts and, if pressure falls 5
psi below the outside atmosphere, the valve allows outside air into the tank, which
pulls in moisture and oxygen.

Pressurized Breathing Transformer.

Once each year, check the pressure gage against the weekly data sheets; if the
pressure never varies with seasonal temperature changes, the gage is defective. Add
nitrogen if the pressure falls below 1 psi to keep moisture laden air from being pulled
in. Add enough N2 to bring the pressure to 2 to 3 psi.

Pressurized Inert Gas Sealed System. This system keeps space above the oil
pressurized with a dry inert gas, normally nitrogen. This design prevents air and
moisture from coming into contact with insulating oil. Pressure is maintained by a
nitrogen gas bottle with the pressure regulated normally between 0.5 and 5 psi.
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Pressure gages are provided in the nitrogen cubicle for both high and low pressures. A
pressure/ vacuum gage is normally connected to read low pressure gas inside the tank.
This gage may be located on the transformer and normally has high and low pressure
alarm contacts.

Caution: When replacing nitrogen cylinders, do not just order a “nitrogen cylinder”
from the local welding supplier. Nitrogen for transformers should meet ASTMD-1933
Type III with - 59 °C dew point as specified in IEEEC-57.12.00-1993, paragraph 6.6.3

Pressurized inert Gas Transformer

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Gas Pressure Control Components. After 1 month of service and yearly, inspect the gas
pressure control components. There is normally an adjustable, three-element pressure
control system for inert gas, which maintains a pressure range of 0.5 to 5 psi in the
transformer tank. There is also a bleeder valve that exhausts gas to atmosphere when
pressure exceeds relief pressure of the valve, normally 5 to 8 psi.

Gas pressure Control components

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Caution: The component part descriptions below are for the typical three- stage
pressure regulating equipment supplying inert gas to the transformer. Your particular
unit may be different, so check your transformer instruction manual.

HIGH PRESSURE GAGE.

The high pressure gage is attached between the nitrogen cylinder and high pressure
regulator that indicates cylinder pressure. When the cylinder is full, the gage will read
approximately2,400 psi. Normally, the gage will be equipped with a low pressure alarm
that activates when the cylinder is getting low (around 500 psi). However, gas will still
be supplied, and the regulating equipment will continue to function until the cylinder is
empty. Refer to figure 9 for the following descriptions.

High Pressure Regulator. The high pressure regulator has two stages. The input of the
first stage is connected to the cylinder, and the output of the first stage is connected
internally to the input of the second stage. This holds output pressure of the second
stage constant. The first stage output is adjustable by a hand-operated lever and can
deliver a maximum of whatever pressure is in the cylinder (2,400 psi when full) down
to zero. The second stage output is varied by turning the adjusting screw, normally
adjusted to supply approximately 10 psi to the input of the low pressure regulator.

Low Pressure Regulator. The low pressure regulator is the third stage and controls
pressure and flow to the gas space of the transformer. The input of this regulator is
connected to the output of the second stage (approximately 10 psi). This regulator is
typically set at the factory to supply gas to the transformer at a pressure of
approximately 0.5 psi and needs no adjustment. If a different pressure is required, the

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regulator can be adjusted by varying spring tension on the valve diaphragm. Pressure is
set at this low value because major pressure changes inside the transformer come from
expansion and contraction of oil. The purpose of this gas feed is to make up for small
leaks in the tank gaskets and elsewhere so that air cannot enter. Typically, a spring-
loaded bleeder for high pressure relief is built into the regulator and is set at the
factory to relieve pressures in excess of 8 psi. The valve will close when pressure drops
below the setting, preventing further loss of gas.

Bypass Valve Assembly. The bypass valve assembly opens a bypass line around the low
pressure regulator and allows the second stage of the high pressure regulator to
furnish gas directly to the transformer. The purpose of this assembly is to allow much
faster filling/purging of the gas space during initial installation or if the transformer
tank has to be refilled after being opened for inspection.

Caution: During normal operation, the bypass valve must be closed, or pressure in the
tank will be too high.

Oil Sump. The oil sump is located at the bottom of the pressure regulating system
between the low pressure regulator and shutoff valve C. The sump collects oil and/or
moisture that may have condensed in the low pressure fill line. The drain plug at the
bottom of the sump should be removed before the system is put into operation and
also removed once each year during operation to drain any residual oil in the line. This
sump and line will be at the same pressure as the gas space in the top of the
transformer. The sump should always be at a safe pressure (less than 10 psi) so the
plug can be removed to allow the line to purge a few seconds and blow out the oil.

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However, always look at the gas space pressure be sure, before removing the drain
plug.

Shutoff Valves. The shutoff valves are located near the top of the cabinet for the
purpose of isolating the transformer tank for shipping or maintenance. These valves
are normally of double-seat construction and should be fully opened against the stop
to prevent gas leakage around the stem. A shutoff valve is also provided for the
purpose of shutting off the nitrogen flow to the transformer tank. This shutoff valve
must be closed prior to changing cylinders to keep the gas in the transformer tank from
bleeding off.

Sampling and Purge Valve. The sampling and purge valve is normally located in the
upper right of the nitrogen cabinet. This valve is typically equipped with a hose fitting;
the other side is connected directly to the transformer gas space by copper tubing. This
valve is opened while purging the gas space during a new installation or maintenance
refill and provides a path to exhaust air as the gas space is filled with nitrogen. This
valve is also opened when a gas sample is taken from the gas space for analysis. When
taking gas samples, the line must be sufficiently purged so that the sample will be from
gas above the transformer oil and not just gas in the line. This valve must be tightly
closed during normal operation to prevent gas leakage.

Free Breathing Conservator. This design adds an expansion tank (conservator) above
the transformer so that the main tank may be completely filled with oil. Oil expansion
and air exchange with the atmosphere (breathing) occurs away from the oil in the
transformer. This design reduces oxygen and moisture contamination because only a
small portion of oil is exchanged between the main tank and conservator. An oil/air
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interface still exists in the conservator, exposing the oil to air. Eventually, oil inthe
conservator is exchanged with oil in the main tank, and oxygen and other contaminates
gain access to the insulation.

If you have transformers of this design, it is recommended that a bladder or

diaphragm-type conservator be installed (described below) or retrofitted to the original
conservator. In addition, a desiccant-type air dryer should also be installed.

Free Breathing Conservator.

Conservator with Bladder or Diaphragm Design. A conservator with bladder or

diaphragm is similar to the design above with an added air bladder (balloon) or flat
diaphragm in the conservator. The bladder or diaphragm expands and contracts with
the oil and isolates it from the atmosphere. The inside of the bladder or top of the
diaphragm is open to atmospheric pressure through a desiccant air dryer. As oil
expands and contracts and as atmospheric pressure changes, the bladder or diaphragm

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“breathes” air in and out. This keeps air and transformer oil essentially at atmospheric
pressure. The oil level gage on the conservator typically is magnetic, like those
mentioned earlier, except the float is positioned near the center of the underside of
the bladder. With a diaphragm, the level indicator arm rides on top of the diaphragm.
Examine the air dryer periodically and change the desiccant when approximately one-
third of the material changes color.

Conservator with Bladder

Note: A vacuum will appear in the transformer if piping between the air dryer and
conservator is too small, if the air intake to the dryer is too small, or if the piping is
partially blocked. The bladder cannot take in air fast enough when the oil level is
decreasing due to rapidly falling temperature. Minimum ¾- to 1-inch piping is
recommended. This problem is especially prevalent with transformers that are
frequently in and out of service and located in geographic areas of large temperature
variations. This situation may allow bubbles to form in the oil and may even activate
gas detector relays such as the Buchholz and/or bladder failure relay. The vacuum may
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also pull in air around gaskets that are not tight enough or that have deteriorated
(which may also cause bubbles)

Bladder Failure (Gas Accumulator) Relay. The bladder failure relay (not on diaphragm-
type conservators) is mounted on top the conservator for the purpose of detecting air
bubbles in the oil. Shown at right is a modern relay. Check your transformer instruction
manual for specifics because designs vary with manufacturers. No bladder is totally
impermeable, and a little air will migrate into the oil. In addition, if a hole forms in the
bladder, allowing air to migrate into the oil, the relay will detect it. As air rises and
enters the relay, oil is displaced and the float drops, activating the alarm. It is similar to
the top chamber of a Buchholz relay, since it is filled with oil and contains a float
switch.

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 Bladder Failure Relay

Caution: Never open the vent of the bladder failure relay unless you have vacuum or
pressure equipment available. The oil will fall inside the relay and conservator and pull
in air from the outside. You will have to recommission the relay by valving off the
conservator and pressurizing the bladder or by placing a vacuum on the relay. See your
specific transformer instruction manual for details.

Caution: When the transformer, relay, and bladder are new, some air or gas is normally
entrapped in the transformer and piping and takes a while to rise and activate the
relay. Do not assume the bladder has failed if the alarm activates within 2 to 3 months
after it is put into operation. If this occurs, you will have to recommision the relay with
pressure or vacuum. See your specific transformer instruction manual for details. If no
more alarms occur, the bladder is intact. If alarms continue, look carefully for oil leaks
in the conservator and transformer. An oil leak is usually also an air leak. This may be
checked by looking at the nitrogen and oxygen in the dissolved gas analysis. If these
gases are increasing, there is probably a leak; with a sealed conservator, there should
be little of these gasses in the oil. Nitrogen may be high if the transformer was shipped
new filled with nitrogen.

Every 3 to 5 years, (if the conservator has a diaphragm) remove the conservator
inspection flange and look inside with a flashlight. If there is a leak, oil will be on top of
the diaphragm, and it must be replaced. The new diaphragm material should be nitrile.
If the conservator has a bladder and a bladder failure relay, the relay will alarm if the
bladder develops a leak. If the conservator has a bladder and does not have a bladder
failure relay, inspect the bladder by removing the mounting flange and look inside with
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a flashlight. If there is oil in the bottom of the bladder, a failure has definitely occurred,
and the bladder must be replaced. Follow procedures in the specific transformer
instruction manual for draining the conservator and replacement; designs and
procedures vary and will not be covered here.

Auxiliary Tank Sealing System. The auxiliary tank sealing system incorporates an extra
tank between the main transformer tank and the conservator tank. Inert gas (normally
nitrogen) is placed above oil in both the main and middle tanks. Only oil in the top
conservator tank is exposed to air. A desiccant air dryer may or may not be included on
the breather. As oil in the main tank expands and contracts with temperature, gas
pressure varies above the oil in both

Auxiliary Sealing System

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Changes in gas pressure causes oil to go back and forth between the middle tank and
the conservator. Air containing oxygen and moisture is not in contact with oil in the
main transformer tank. Oxygen and moisture are absorbed by oil in the conservator
tank and interchanged with oil in the middle one. However, since gas in the middle
tank interchanges with gas in the main tank, small amounts of oxygen and moisture
carried by gas still make their way into the transformer. With this arrangement, the
conservator does not have to be located above the main tank, which reduces the
overall height. If you have one or more of these type transformers without desiccant
air dryers, they should be installed.

GASKETS

Gaskets have several important jobs in sealing systems [6]. A gasket must create a seal
and hold it over a long period of time. It must be impervious and not contaminate the
insulating fluid or gas above the fluid. It should be easily removed and replaced. It must
be elastic enough to flow into imperfections on the sealing surfaces. It must withstand
high and low temperatures and remain resilient enough to hold the seal even with joint
movement from expansion, contraction, and vibration. It must be resilient enough to
not take a “set” even though exposed for a long time to pressure applied with bolt
torque and temperature changes. It must have sufficient strength to resist crushing
under applied load and resist blowout under system pressure or vacuum. It must
maintain its integrity while being handled or installed. If a gasket fails to meet any of
these criteria, a leak will result. Gasket leaks result from improper torque, choosing the
wrong type gasket material, or the wrong size gasket. Improper sealing surface
preparation or the gasket taking a “set” (becoming hard and losing its resilience and

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elasticity) will also cause a leak. Usually, gaskets take a set as a result of temperature
extremes and age.

Sealing (mating) surface preparation: Clean the metal surface thoroughly. Remove all
moisture, oil and grease, rust, etc. A wire brush and/or solvent may be required.

Caution: Take extra care that rust and dirt particles never fall into the transformer.
The results could be catastrophic, when the transformer is energized.

After rust and scale have been removed, metal surfaces should be coated with Loctite
Master gasket No. 518. This material will cure after you bolt up the gasket, so
additional glue is not necessary. If the temperature is 50 °F or more, you can bolt up
the gasket immediately. This material comes in a kit (part No. 22424) with primer, a
tube of material, and instructions. If these instructions are followed, the seal will last
many years, and the gasket will be easy to remove later if necessary. If the temperature
is under 50 °F, wait about ½ to 1 hour after applying the material to surfaces before
bolting. If you are using cork-nitrile or cork-neoprene, you can also seal gasket surfaces
(including the edge of the gasket) with this same material.

Loctite makes other sealers that can be used to seal gaskets such as “Hi-tack.”

GE glyptol No. 1201B-red can also be used to paint gasket and metal surfaces, but it
takes more time and you must be more cautious about temperature. If possible, this
work should be done in temperatures above 70 °F to speed paint curing. Allow the
paint to completely dry before applying glue or the new gasket. It is not necessary to
remove old glyptol or other primer or old glue if the surface is fairly smooth and
uniform.
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Caution: Most synthetic rubber compounds, including nitrile (Buna N), contain some
carbon, which makes it semi-conductive. Take extra care and never drop a gasket or
pieces of gasket into a transformer tank. The results could be catastrophic when the
transformer is energized.

Choose the correct replacement gasket. The main influences on gasket material
selection are design of the gasket joint, maximum and minimum operating
temperature, type of fluid contained, and internal pressure of the transformer.

Cork-nitrile should be used if the joint does not have grooves or limits. This material
performs better than cork-neoprene because it does not take a set as easily and
conforms better to mating surfaces. It also performs better at higher temperatures. Be
extra careful when you store this material because it looks like cork-neoprene
(described below), and they easily are mistaken for each other. Compression is the
same as for cork-neoprene, about 45%. Cork-nitrile should recover 80% of its thickness
with compression of 400 psi in accordance with ASTM F36. Hardness should be 60 to 75
durometer in accordance with ASTM D2240. (See published specifications for E-98 by
manufacturer Dodge-Regupol Inc., Lancaster, PA.)

Caution: Cork-nitrile has a shelf life of only about 2 years, so do not order and stock
more than can be used during this time.

Cork-Neoprene mixture (called coroprene) can also be used; however, it does not
perform as well as cork-nitrile. This material takes a set when it is compressed and
should only be used when there are no expansion limiting grooves. Using cork-
neoprene in grooves can result in leaks from expansion and contraction of mating

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surfaces. The material is very porous and should be sealed on both sides and edges
with a thin coat of Glyptol No. 1201B red or similar sealer before installing. Glyptol No.
1201B is a slow drying paint used to seal metal flanges and gaskets, and the paint
should be allowed to dry totally before installation. Once compressed, this gasket
should never be reused. These gaskets should be kept above 35 °F before installation
to prevent them from becoming hard. Gaskets should be cut and sealed (painted)
indoors at temperatures above 70 °F for ease of handling and to reduce paint curing
time. Installing neoprene-cork gaskets when temperatures are at or near freezing
should be avoided because the gasket could be damaged and leak. Cork-neoprene
gaskets must be evenly compressed about 43 to 45%. For example, if the gasket is ¼-
inch thick, 0.43 x 0.25 = 0.10. When the gasket is torqued down, it should be
compressed about 0.10 inch. Or you may subtract 0.1 from ¼ inch to calculate the
thickness of the gasket after it is compressed. In this case, ¼ = 0.25 so 0.25 minus 0.10
= 0.15 inch would be the final distance between the mating surfaces after thegasket is
compressed. In an emergency, if compression limits are required on this gasket, split
lock washers may be used. Bend the washers until they are flat and install enough of
them (minium of three), evenly spaced, in the center of the gasket cross section to
prevent excessive compression. The thickness of the washers should be such that the
gasket compression is limited to approximately 43%, as explained above.

Nitrile “NBR” (Buna N) with 50 to 60 Duro (hardness) is generally the material that
should be chosen for most transformer applications.

Caution: Do not confuse this material with Butyl Rubber. Butyl is not a satisfactory
material for transformer gaskets. The terms Butyl and Buna are easily confused, and
care must be taken to make sure Nitrile (Buna N) is always used and never Butyl.
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Replace all cork neoprene gaskets with Nitrile if the joint has recesses or expansion
limiting grooves. Be careful to protect Nitrile from sunlight; it is not sunlight resistant
and will deteriorate, even if only the edges are exposed. It should not be greased when
it is used in a no movable (static) seal. When joints have to slide during installation or
are used as a moveable seal (such as bushing caps, oil cooler isolation valves, and tap
changer drive shafts), the gasket or O-ring should be lubricated with a thin coating of
DOW No. 111 or No. 714 or equivalent grease. These are very thin and provide a good
seal. Nitrile performs better than cork-neoprene; when exposed to higher
temperatures; it will perform well up to 65 °C (150 °F).

Viton should be used only for gaskets and O-rings in temperatures higher than 65 °C or
for applications requiring motion (shaft seals, etc.). Viton is very tough and wear
resistant; however, it is very expensive ($1,000+ per sheet) and should not be used
unless it is needed for high wear or high temperature applications. Viton should only be
used with compression limiter grooves and recesses. Care should be taken to store
Nitrile and Viton separately, or order them in different colors; the materials look alike
and can be easily confused, and a much more expensive gasket can be installed
unnecessarily. Compression and fill requirements for Viton are the as same as those for
nitrile, outlined above and shown in table 1.

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Gasket sizing for standard groove depths. Nitrile is chosen as the example because it is
the most commonly used material for transformer gasketing. As shown in table 1,
nitrile compression should be 25 to 50%. Nitrile sheets are available in 1/16-inch-thick
increments.

Gasket thickness is determined by groove depth and standard gasket thickness. Choose
the sheet thickness so that one-fourth to one-third of the gasket will protrude above
the groove; this is the amount available to be compressed. (See table 2.) Gasket sheets
come in standard thicknesses in 1/16-inch increments. Choose one that allows one-
third of the gasket to stick out above the groove if you can, but never choose a

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thickness that allows less than one-fourth or as much as one-half to protrude above the
groove. Do not try to remove old primer from the groove.

TRANSFORMER OILS

Transformer Oil Functions. Transformer oils perform at least four functions for the
transformer. Oil provides insulation, provides cooling, and helps extinguish arcs. Oil
also dissolves gases generated by oil degradation, moisture and gas from cellulose
insulation, deterioration, and gases and moisture from whatever atmosphere the oil is
exposed to. Close observation of dissolved gases in the oil, and other oil properties,
provides the most valuable information about transformer health. Looking for trends
by comparing information provided in several DGAs, and understanding its meaning, is
the most important transformer diagnostic tool.

Dissolved Gas Analysis. After 1 month of service and once each year, and more often if
a problem is encountered, do a DGA. This is by far the most important tool for
determining the health of a transformer.

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 Bolt Tightening Sequences

Caution: DGA is unreliable if the transformer is de-energized and has cooled, if the
transformer is new, or if it has had less than 1 to 2 weeks of continuous service after oil
processing.

The purpose of this section is to provide guidance in interpreting DGA and to suggest
actions based on the analysis. There are no “quick and sure” easy answers when
dealing with transformers. Transformers are very complex, very expensive, and very
important to Reclamation; and each one is different. Decisions must be based on
experienced judgment founded on all available data and consultation with experienced
people. Along with thorough periodic inspections covered earlier, the most important
key to transformer life is periodic DGA and proper interpretation. Each DGA must be
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compared to prior DGAs so that trends can be recognized and rates of gas generation
established.

Although examples will be presented later, there is no universally accepted means for
interpreting DGA. Transformers are very complex. Aging, chemical actions and
reactions, electric fields, magnetic fields, thermal contraction and expansion, load
variations, gravity, and other forces all interact inside the tank. Externally, through-
faults, voltage surges, wide ambient temperature changes, and other forces such as the
earth’s magnetic field and gravity affect the transformer. There are few if any “cut and
dried” DGA interpretations; even experts disagree. Consultation with others,
experience, study, comparing earlier DGA’s, keeping accurate records of a
transformer’s history, and noting information found when a transformer is
disassembled will increase expertise and provide life extension to this critical
equipment.

Keeping accurate records of each individual transformer is paramount. If a prior

through-fault, overload, cooling problem, or nearby lightning strike has occurred, this
information is extremely valuable when trying to determine what is going on inside the
transformer. Baseline transformer test information should be established when the
transformer is new or as soon as possible thereafter.

Key Gas Method of interpreting DGA is set forth in IEEE. Key gases formed by
degradation of oil and paper insulation are hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), ethane (C2
H6), ethylene (C2 H4), acetylene (C2 H2), carbon monoxide (CO), and oxygen (O2).
Except for carbon monoxide and oxygen, all these gases are formed from the

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degradation of the oil itself. Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide (CO2), and oxygen are
formed from degradation of cellulose (paper) insulation. Carbon dioxide, oxygen,
nitrogen (N2), and moisture can also be absorbed from the air if there is a oil/air
interface, or if there is a leak in the tank. Some of our transformers have a pressurized
nitrogen blanket above the oil and, in these cases, nitrogen may be near saturation.
(See following table.) Gas type and amounts are determined by where the fault occurs
in the transformer and the severity and energy of the event. Events range from low
energy events such as partial discharge, which produces hydrogen and trace amounts
of methane and ethane, to very high energy sustained arcing, capable of generating all
the gases including acetylene, which requires the most energy.

Transformer Diagnosis Using Individual and Total Dissolved Key Gas Concentrations. A
four-condition, DGA guide to classify risks to transformers with no previous problems
has been developed by the IEEE. The guide uses combinations of individual gases and
total combustible gas concentration. This guide is not universally accepted and is only
one of the tools used to evaluate transformers. The four conditions are defined below:

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Condition 1: Total dissolved combustible gas (TDCG) below this level indicates the
transformer is operating satisfactorily. Any individual combustible gas exceeding
specified levels in table should have additional investigation.

Condition 2: TDCG within this range indicates greater than normal combustible gas
level. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels in table 4 should have
additional investigation. A fault may be present. Take DGA samples at least often
enough to calculate the amount of gas generation per day for each gas.

Condition 3: TDCG within this range indicates a high level of decomposition of cellulose
insulation and/or oil. Any individual combustible gas exceeding specified levels in table
4 should have additional investigation. A fault or faults are probably present. Take DGA
samples at least often enough to calculate the amount of gas generation per day for
each gas.

Condition 4: TDCG within this range indicates excessive decomposition of cellulose

insulation and/or oil. Continued operation could result in failure of the transformer.

Condition numbers for dissolved gases given in IEEE C-57-104-1991 are extremely
conservative. We have transformers that have operated safely with individual gases in
Condition 4 with no problems; however, they are stable and gases are not increasing,
or are increasing very slowly. If TDCG and individual gases are increasing significantly
(more than 30 ppm/day), the fault is active and the transformer should be de-
energized when Condition 4 levels are reached.

A sudden increase in key gases and the rate of gas production is more important in
evaluating a transformer than the amount of gas. One exception is acetylene (C2H2).
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The generation of any amount of this gas above a few ppm indicates high energy
arcing. Trace amounts (a few ppm) can be generated by a very hot thermal fault (500
°C). A one-time arc caused by a nearby lightning strike or a high-voltage surge can
generate acetylene. If C2H2 is found in the DGA, oil samples should be taken weekly to
determine if additional acetylene is being generated. If no additional acetylene is found
and the level is below the IEEE Condition 4, the transformer may continue in service.
However, if acetylene continues to increase, the transformer has an active high energy
internal arc and should be taken out of service. Further operation is extremely
hazardous and may result in catastrophic failure. Operating a transformer with an
active high energy arc is extremely hazardous.

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NOTES:

1. Either the Highest Condition Based on Individual Gas or Total Dissolved Combustible Gas can
determine the condition (1,2,3, or 4) of the transformer. For example, if the TDCG is between 1,941
ppm and 2,630 ppm, this indicates Condition 3. However, if hydrogen is greater than 1,800 ppm,

2. When the table says “determine load dependence,” this means, if possible, find out if the gas
generation rate in ppm/day goes up and down with load. Perhaps the transformer is overloaded. Take
oil samples every time the load changes; if load changes are too frequent, this may not be possible.

3. To get TDCG generation rate, divide the change in TDCG by the number of days between samples
that the transformer has been loaded. Down-days should not be included. The individual gas
generation rate ppm/day is determined by the same method.

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In the gas generation chart and discussion below, please note that temperatures at
which gases form are only approximate. The figure is not drawn to scale and is only for
purposes of illustrating temperature relationships, gas types, and quantities. These
relationships represent what generally has been proven in controlled laboratory
conditions using a mass spectrometer. This chart was used by R.R. Rogers of the
Central Electric Generating Board (CEGB) of England to develop the “Rogers Ratio
Method” of analyzing transformers

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 Combustible Gas Generation Versus Temperature

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Vertical band at left shows what gases and approximate relative quantities are
produced under partial discharge conditions. Note that all the gases are given off, but
in much less quantity than hydrogen. It takes only a very low energy event (partial
discharge/corona) to cause hydrogen molecules to form from the oil.

Gases are formed inside an oil-filled transformer similar to a petroleum refinery still, in
that various gases begin forming at specific temperatures. From the Gas Generation
Chart, we can see relative amounts of gas as well as approximate temperatures.
Hydrogen and methane begin to form in small amounts around 150 °C. Notice from the
chart that beyond maximum points, methane (CH4), ethane and ethylene production
goes down as temperature increases. At about 250°C, production of ethane (C2H6)
starts. At about 350 °C, production of ethylene (C2H4) begins. Acetylene (C2H2) starts
between 500 °C and 700 °C. In the past, the presence of only trace amounts of
acetylene (C2H2) was considered to indicate a temperature of at least 700 °C had
occurred; however, recent discoveries have led to the conclusion that a thermal fault
(hot spot) of 500 °C can produce trace amounts (a few ppm). Larger amounts of
acetylene can only be produced above 700 °C by internal arcing. Notice that between
200 °C and 300 °C, the production of methane exceeds hydrogen. Starting about 275 °C
and on up, the production of ethane exceeds methane. At about 450°C, hydrogen
production exceeds all others until about 750 °C to 800 °C; then more acetylene is
produced.

It should be noted that small amounts of H2, CH4, and CO are produced by normal
aging. Thermal decomposition of oil-impregnated cellulose produces CO, CO2 , H2,
CH4, and O2. Decomposition of cellulose insulation begins at only about 100 °C or less.
Therefore, operation of transformers at no more than 90 °C is imperative. Faults will
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produce internal “hot spots” of far higher temperatures than these, and the resultant
gases show up in the DGA.

Table 6 is a chart of “fault types,” parts of which are paraphrased from the
International Electro-technical Commission (IEC 60599) [12]. This chart is not complete.
It is impossible to chart every cause and effect due to the extreme complexity of
transformers. DGA must be carefully examined with the idea of determining possible
faults and possible courses of action. These decisions are based on judgment and
experience and are seldom “cut and dried.” Most professional associations agree that
there are two basic fault types, thermal and electrical. The first three on the chart are
electrical discharges, and the last three are thermal faults.

Ethane and ethylene are sometimes called “hot metal gases.” When these gases are
being generated and acetylene is not, the problem found inside the transformer
normally involves hot metal. This may include bad contacts on the tap changer or a bad
connection somewhere in the circuit, such as a main transformer lead. Stray flux
impinging on the tank (such as in Westinghouse 7M series transformers) can cause
these “hot metal gases.” A shield has been known to become loose and fall and
become ungrounded. Static can then build up and discharge to a grounded surface and
produce “hot metal” gases. An unintentional core ground with circulating currents can
also produce these gases. There are many other examples.

Notice that both type faults (thermal and electrical) may be occurring at once, and one
may cause the other. The associations do not mention magnetic faults; however,
magnetic faults (such as stray magnetic flux impinging the steel tank or other magnetic
structures) also cause hot spots.
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Atmospheric gasses (N2, CO2, and O2) can be very valuable in a DGA in revealing a
possible leak. However, as mentioned elsewhere, there are other reasons these gases
are found in DGA. Nitrogen may have come from shipping the transformer with N2
inside or from a nitrogen blanket. CO2 and O2 are formed by degradation of cellulose.
Be very careful; look at several DGAs, and see if atmospheric gases and possibly
moisture levels are increasing. Also look at the transformer carefully if you can find an
oil leak. Moisture and atmospheric gases will leak inside when the transformer is off
and ambient temperature drops. Dissolved gas software. Several companies offer DGA
computer software that diagnoses transformer problems. These diagnoses must be
used with engineering judgment and should never be taken at face value. The software
is constantly changing. The Technical Service Center uses “Transformer Oil Analyst”
(TOA) by Delta x Research. This software uses a composite of several current DGA
methods. Dissolved gas analysis help is available from the TSC at D-8440 and D8450.
Both groups have the above software and experience in diagnosing transformer
problems.

One set of rules that TOA uses to generate alarms is based loosely on IEC 60599. These
rules are also very useful in daily dissolved gas analysis. They are based on L1 limits of
IEC 60599 except for acetylene. IEC 60599 gives a range for L1 limits instead of a
specific value. TOA uses the average in this range and then gives the user a “heads up”
if a generation rate exceeds 10% of L1 limits per month. Acetylene is the exception;
IEEE sets an L1 limit of 35 ppm (too high), and IEC sets acetylene range at 3 to 50. TOA
picks the lowest number (3 ppm) and sets the generation rate alarm value at 3 ppm per
month.

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Notes: If one or more gas generation rates are equal to or exceed G1 limits (10% of L1
limits per month), you should begin to pay more attention to this transformer. Reduce
the DGA sample interval, reduce loading, plan for future outage, contact the
manufacturer etc. If one or more combustible gas generation rates are equal to or
exceed G2 limits (50% of L1 limits per month), this transformer should be considered in
critical condition. You may want to reduce sample intervals to monthly or weekly, plan
an outage, plan to rebuild or replace the transformer, etc. If an active arc is present
(C2H2 generation), or if other heat gases are high, and G2 limits are exceeded, the
transformer should be removed from service.

The following Table 7 is taken from IEC 60599 of key gases, possible faults, and possible
findings. This chart is not all inclusive and should be used with other information.
Additional possible faults are listed on following and preceding pages.

Transformers are so complex that it is impossible to put all symptoms and causes into a
chart. Several additional transformer problems are listed below; there are many others.

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 1. Gases are generated by normal operation and aging, mostly H2 and CO with
some CH4.
2. Operating transformers at sustained overload will generate combustible gases.
3. Problems with cooling systems, discussed in an earlier section, can cause
overheating.
4. A blocked oil duct inside the transformer can cause local overheating, generating
gases.
5. An oil directing baffle loose inside the transformer causes mis-direction of
cooling oil.
6. Oil circulating pump problems (bearing wear, impeller loose or worn) can cause
transformer cooling problems.
7. Oil level is too low; this will not be obvious if the level indicator is inoperative.
8. Sludge in the transformer and cooling system. (See “3. Transformer Cooling
Methods.”)
9. Circulating stray currents may occur in the core, structure, and/or tank.
10.An unintentional core ground may cause heating by providing a path for stray
currents.
11.A hot-spot can be caused by a bad connection in the leads or by a poor contact in
the tap changer.
12.A hot-spot may also be caused by discharges of static electrical charges that build
up on shields or core and structures which are not properly grounded.
13.Hot-spots may be caused by electrical arcing between windings and ground,
between windings of different potential, or in areas of different potential on the
same winding, due to deteriorated or damaged insulation.

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 14.Windings and insulation can be damaged by faults downstream (through faults),
causing large current surges through the windings. Through faults because
extreme magnetic and physical forces that can distort and loosen windings and
wedges. The result may be arcing in the transformer, beginning at the time of
the fault, or the insulation may be weakened and arcing develops later.
15.Insulation can also be damaged by a voltage surge such as a nearby lightning
strike or switching surge or closing out of step, which may result in immediate
arcing or arcing that develops later.
16.Insulation may be deteriorated from age and simply worn out. Clearances and
dielectric strength are reduced, allowing partial discharges and arcing to develop.
This can also reduce physical strength allowing wedging and windings to move
extensively during a through-fault, causing total mechanical and electrical failure.
17.High noise level (hum due to loose windings) can generate gas due to heat from
friction. Compare the noise to sister transformers, if possible. Sound level meters
are available at the TSC for diagnostic comparison and to establish baseline noise
levels for future comparison.

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MOISTURE PROBLEMS

Moisture, especially in the presence of oxygen, is extremely hazardous to transformer

insulation. Each DGA and Doble test result should be examined carefully to see if water
is increasing and to determine the moisture by dry weight (M/DW) or percent
saturation that is in the paper insulation. When 2% M/DW is reached, plans should be
made for a dry out. Never allow the M/DW to go above 2.5% in the paper or 30% oil
saturation without drying out the transformer. Each time the moisture is doubled in a
transformer, the life of the insulation is cut by one-half. Keep in mind that the life of
the transformer is the life of the paper, and the purpose of the paper is to keep out
moisture and oxygen. For service-aged transformers rated less than 69 kV, results of up
to 35 ppm are considered acceptable. For 69 kV through 288 kV, the DGA test result of
25 ppm is considered acceptable. For greater than 288 kV, moisture should not exceed
20 ppm. However, the use of absolute values for water does not always guarantee safe
conditions, and the percent by dry weight should be determined. See

“Doble Limits for In-Service Oils,” If values are higher, the oil should be processed. If
the transformer is kept as dry and free of oxygen as possible, transformer life will be
extended.

Reclamation specifies that manufacturers dry new transformers to no more than 0.5%
M/DW during commissioning. In a transformer having 10,000 pounds of paper
insulation, this means that 10,000 x 0.005 = 50 pounds of water (about 6 gallons) is in
the paper. This is not enough moisture to be detrimental to electrical integrity. When
the transformer is new, this water is distributed equally through the transformer. It is
extremely important to remove as much water as possible.
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Notes:

1. X wax formation comes from Paraffinic oils (paraffin based). These are not used in
transformers at present in the United States but are predominate in Europe.
2. The last overheating problem in the table says over 700 °C.” Recent laboratory discoveries
have found that acetylene can be produced in trace amounts at 500 °C, which is not reflected
in this table. We have several transformers that show trace amounts of acetylene that are
probably not active arcing but are the result of high-temperature thermal faults as in the
example. It may also be the result of one arc, due to a nearby lightning strike or voltage surge.
3. A bad connection at the bottom of a bushing can be confirmed by comparing infrared scans of
the top of the bushing with a sister bushing. When loaded, heat from a poor connection at the
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 bottom will migrate to the top of the bushing, which will display a markedly higher
temperature. If the top connection is checked and found tight, the problem is probably a bad
connection at the bottom of the bushing.

When the transformer is energized, water begins to migrate to the coolest part of the
transformer and the site of the greatest electrical stress. This location is normally the
insulation in the lower one-third of the winding. Paper insulation has a much greater
affinity for water than does the oil. The water will distribute itself unequally, with much
more water being in the paper than in the oil. The paper will partially dry the oil by
absorbing water out of the oil. Temperature is also a big factor in how the water
distributes itself between the oil and paper.

The table above shows the tremendous attraction that paper insulation has for water.
The ppm of water in oil shown in the DGA is only a small part of the water in the
transformer. It is important that, when an oil sample is taken, you record the oil
temperature from the top oil temperature gage.

Some laboratories give percent M/DW of the insulation in the DGA. Others give
percent oil saturation, and some give only the ppm of water in the oil. If you have an
accurate temperature of the oil and the ppm of water, the Nomograph will give
percent M/DW of the insulation and the percent oil saturation.

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TRANSFORMER TESTING

When the transformer is new before energizing and every 3 to 5 years, the transformer
and bushings should be Doble tested. Transformer testing falls into three broad
categories: Factory testing when the transformer is new or has been refurbished,
acceptance testing upon delivery, and field testing for maintenance and diagnostic
purposes. Some tests at the factory are common to most power transformers, but
many of the factory tests are transformer- specific. Table 17 lists several tests. This test
chart has been adapted from IEEE 62-1995 reference. Not all of the listed tests are
done at the factory, and not all of them are done in the field. Each transformer and
each situation is different, requiring its own unique approach and tests.

Details of how to run specific tests will not be addressed in this FIST. It would be
impractical to repeat how to do Doble testing of a transformer when the information is
readily available in Doble publications. With some exceptions, this is true for most of
the tests. Specific information is readily available within the test instrument
manufacturer's literature. Another example is the transformer turns ratio test (TTR);
specific test information is available with the instrument. However, information on
some tests may not be available and will be covered briefly.

A) Winding Resistances.

Winding resistances are tested in the field to check for loose connections, broken
strands, and high contact resistance in tap changers. Key gases increasing in the DGA
will be ethane and/or ethylene and possibly methane. Results are compared to other
phases in wye connected transformers or between pairs of terminals on a delta-

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connected winding to determine if a resistance is too high. Resistances can also be
compared to the original factory measurements. Agreement within 5% for any of the
above comparisons is considered satisfactory. You may have to convert resistance
measurements to the reference temperature used at the factory (usually 75 °C) to
compare your resistance measurements to the factory results. To do this uses the
following formula:

Rs = Resistance at the factory reference temperature (found in the transformer manual)

Rm = Resistance you actually measured

Ts = Factory reference temperature (usually 75 °C)

Tm = Temperature at which you took the measurements

Tk = a constant for the particular metal the winding is made from: 234.5 °C for copper 225 °C for
aluminum

It is very difficult to determine actual winding temperature in the field, and,

normally, this is not needed. You only need to do the above temperature corrections if
you are going to compare resistances to factory values. Normally, only the phase
resistances are compared to each other, and you do not need the winding temperature
to compare individual windings.

You can compare winding resistances to factory values; change in these values can
reveal serious problems. A suggested method to obtain an accurate temperature is
outlined below. If a transformer has just been de-energized for testing, the winding will

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be cooler on the bottom than the top, and the winding hot spot will be hotter than the
top oil temperature. What is needed is the average winding temperature, and it is
important to get the temperature as accurate as possible for comparisons.

The most accurate method is to allow the transformer sit de-energized until
temperatures are equalized. This test can reveal serious problems, so it’s worth the
effort.

Winding resistances are measured using a Wheatstone Bridge for values 1 ohm or
above and using a micro-ohmmeter or Kelvin Bridge for values under 1 ohm. Multi-
Amp (now AVO) makes a good instrument for these measurements which is quick and
easy to use. Take readings from the top of each bushing to neutral for wye connected
windings and across each pair of bushings for delta connected windings. If the neutral
bushing is not available on wye connected windings, you can take each one to ground
(if the neutral is grounded), or take readings between pairs of bushings as if it were a
delta winding. Be consistent each time so that a proper comparison can be made. The
tap changer can also be changed from contact to contact, and the contact resistance
can be checked. Keep accurate records and connection diagrams so that later
measurements can be compared.

B) Core Insulation Resistance and Inadvertent Core Ground Test.

Core insulation resistance and inadvertent core ground test is used if an additional core
ground is suspected; this may be indicated by the DGA. Key gases to look for are
ethane and/or ethylene and possibly methane. These gases may also be present if
there is a poor connection at the bottom of a bushing or a bad tap changer contact.

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Therefore, this test is only necessary if the winding resistances test above shows all the
connections and if tap changer contacts are in good condition.

The intentional core ground must be disconnected. This may be difficult, and some oil
may have to be drained to accomplish this. On some transformers, core grounds are
brought outside through insulated bushings and are easily accessed. A standard dc
megohmmeter is then attached between the core ground lead (or the top of the core
itself) and the tank (ground). The megohmmeter is used to place a dc voltage between
these points, and the resistance measured. A new transformer should read greater
than 1,000 megohms. A service-aged transformer should read greater than 100
megohms. Ten to one-hundred megohms is indicative of deteriorating insulation
between the core and ground. Less than 10 megohms is sufficient to cause destructive
circulating currents and must be further investigated. A solid core ground may read
zero ohms; this, of course, causes destructive circulating currents also.

Some limited success has been obtained in “burning off” unintentional core grounds
using a dc or ac current source. This is a risky operation, and the current may cause
additional damage. The current source is normally limited to 40 to 50 amps maximum
and should be increased slowly so as to use as little current as possible to accomplish
the task. This should only be used as a last resort and then only with consultation from
the manufacturer, if possible and with others experienced in this task.

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Chapter :5

Transformers
Protection

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The development of modern power systems has been reflected in the advances in
transformer design. This has resulted in a wide range of transformers with sizes ranging
from a few kVA to several hundred MVA being available for use in a wide variety of
applications.

The considerations for a transformer protection package vary with the application and
importance of the transformer. To reduce the effects of thermal stress and
electrodynamics forces, it is advisable to ensure that the protection package used
minimizes the time for disconnection in the event of a fault occurring within the
transformer. Small distribution transformers can be protected satisfactorily, from both
technical and economic considerations, by the use of fuses or over-current relays. This
results in time-delayed protection due to downstream co-ordination requirements.
However, time delayed fault clearance is unacceptable on larger power transformers
used in distribution, transmission and generator applications, due to system operation/
stability and cost of repair/length of outage considerations.

Transformer faults are generally classified into five categories:

a. winding and terminal faults

b. core faults

c. tank and transformer accessory faults

d. on-load tap changer faults

e. abnormal operating conditions

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 f. sustained or un-cleared external faults

For faults originating in the transformer itself, the approximate proportion of faults due
to each of the causes listed above is shown in the following Figure.

a. WINDING FAULTS

A fault on a transformer winding is controlled in magnitude by the following factors:

1. source impedance

2. neutral earthing impedance

3. transformer leakage reactance

4. fault Voltage

5. winding connection

Several distinct cases arise and are examined below.

Star-Connected Winding with Neutral Point Earthed through Impedance

The winding earth fault current depends on the earthing impedance Value and is also

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proportional to the distance of the fault from the neutral point, since the fault Voltage
will be directly proportional to this distance. For a fault on a transformer secondary
winding, the corresponding primary current will depend on the transformation ratio
between the primary winding and the short-circuited secondary turns. This also varies
with the position of the fault, so that the fault current in the transformer primary
winding is proportional to the square of the fraction of the winding that is short
circuited. The effect is shown in the following Figure. Faults in the lower third of the
winding produce Very little current in the primary winding, making fault detection by
primary current measurement difficult.

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Star-connected winding with Neutral Point Solidly Earthed

The fault current is controlled mainly by the leakage reactance of the winding, which
Varies in a complex manner with the position of the fault. The Variable fault point
Voltage is also an important factor, as in the case of impedance earthing. For faults
close to the neutral end of the winding, the reactance is Very low, and results in the
highest fault currents. The Variation of current with fault position is shown in the
following Figure.

For secondary winding faults, the primary winding fault current is determined by the
Variable transformation ratio; as the secondary fault current magnitude stays high
throughout the winding, the primary fault current is large for most points along the
winding.

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Delta-connected Winding

No part of a delta-connected winding operates with a Voltage to earth of less than 50%
of the phase Voltage. The range of fault current magnitude is therefore less than for a
star winding. The actual value of fault current will still depend on the method of system
earthing; it should also be remembered that the impedance of a delta winding is
particularly high to fault currents flowing to a centrally placed fault on one leg. The
impedance can be expected to be between 25% and 50%, based on the transformer
rating, regardless of the normal balanced through-current impedance. As the pre-fault
voltage to earth at this point is half the normal phase voltage, the earth fault current
may be no more than the rated current, or even less than this value if the source or
system earthing impedance is appreciable. The current will flow to the fault from each
side through the two half windings, and will be divided between two phases of the
system. The individual phase currents may therefore be relatively low, resulting in
difficulties in providing protection.

Phase to Phase Faults

Faults between phases within a transformer are relatively rare; if such a fault does
occur it will give rise to a substantial current comparable to the earth fault currents.

Interturn Faults

In low voltage transformers, intertum insulation breakdown is unlikely to occur unless

the mechanical force on the winding due to external short circuits has caused
insulation degradation, or insulating oil (if used) has become contaminated by
moisture. A high voltage transformer connected to an overhead transmission system
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will be subjected to steep fronted impulse voltages, arising from lightning strikes, faults
and switching operations. A line surge, which may be of several times the rated system
voltage, will concentrate on the end turns of the winding because of the high
equivalent frequency of the surge front. Part-winding resonance, involving voltages up
to 20 times rated voltage may occur. The interturn insulation of the end turns is
reinforced, but cannot be increased in proportion to the insulation to earth, which is
relatively great. Partial winding flashover is therefore more likely.

The subsequent progress of the fault, if not detected in the earliest stage, may well
destroy the evidence of the true cause. A short circuit of a few turns of the winding will
give rise to a heavy fault current in the short- circuited loop, but the terminal currents
will be very small, because of the high ratio of transformation between the whole
winding and the short- circuited turns.

The graph in the following Figure shows the corresponding data for a typical
transformer of 3.25% impedance with the short-circuited turns symmetrically located
in the center of the winding.

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Core Faults

A conducting bridge across the laminated structures of the core can permit sufficient
eddy-current to flow to cause serious overheating. The bolts that clamp the core
together are always insulated to avoid this trouble. If any portion of the core insulation
becomes defective, the resultant heating may reach a magnitude sufficient to damage
the winding.

The additional core loss although causing severe local heating, will not produce a
noticeable change in input current and could not be detected by the normal electrical
protection; it is nevertheless highly desirable that the condition should be detected
before a major fault has been created. In an oil- immersed transformer, core heating
sufficient to cause winding insulation damage will also cause breakdown of some of the
oil with an accompanying evolution of gas. This gas will escape to the conservator, and
is used to operate a mechanical relay.

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Tank Faults

Loss of oil through tank leaks will ultimately produce a dangerous condition, either
because of a reduction in winding insulation or because of overheating on load due to
the loss of cooling. Overheating may also occur due to prolonged overloading, blocked
cooling ducts due to oil slugging or failure of the forced cooling system, if fitted.

Externally Applied Conditions

Sources of abnormal stress in a transformer are:

a. overload

b. system faults

c. overvoltage

d. reduced system frequency

Overload

Overload causes increased ‘copper loss’ and a consequent temperature rise. Overloads
can be carried for limited periods and recommendations for oil- immersed
transformers are given in IEC 60354. The thermal time constant of naturally cooled
transformers lies between 2.5-5 hours. Shorter time constants apply in the case of
force-cooled transformers.

System faults

System short circuits produce a relatively intense rate of heating of the feeding
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transformers, the copper loss increasing in proportion to the square of the per unit
fault current. The typical duration of external short circuits that a transformer can
sustain without damage if the current is limited only by the self-reactance is shown in
the following Table. IEC 60076 provides further guidance on short-circuit withstand
levels.

Maximum mechanical stress on windings occurs during the first cycle of the fault.
Avoidance of damage is a matter of transformer design.

Overvoltage

Overvoltage conditions are of two kinds:

i. transient surge voltages

ii. power frequency overvoltage

Transient overvoltage arise from faults, switching, and lightning disturbances and are
liable to cause intertum faults,. These overvoltage are usually limited by shunting the
high voltage terminals to earth either with a plain rod gap or by surge diverters, which
comprise a stack of short gaps in series with a non-linear resistor. The surge diverter, in
contrast to the rod gap, has the advantage of extinguishing the flow of power current
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after discharging a surge, in this way avoiding subsequent isolation of the transformer.

Power frequency overvoltage causes both an increase in stress on the insulation and a
proportionate increase in the working flux. The latter effect causes an increase in the
iron loss and a disproportionately large increase in magnetizing current. In addition,
flux is diverted from the laminated core into structural steel parts. The core bolts,
which normally carry little flux, may be subjected to a large flux diverted from the
highly saturated region of core alongside. This leads to a rapid temperature rise in the
bolts, destroying their insulation and damaging coil insulation if the condition
continues.

Reduced system frequency

Reduction of system frequency has an effect with regard to flux density, similar to that
of overvoltage. It follows that a transformer can operate with some degree of
overvoltage with a corresponding increase in frequency, but operation must not be
continued with a high voltage input at a low frequency. Operation cannot be sustained
when the ratio of voltage to frequency, with these quantities given values in per unit of
their rated values, exceeds unity by more than a small amount, for instance if V/f > 1.1
. If a substantial rise in system voltage has been catered for in the design, the base of
‘unit voltage’ should be taken as the highest voltage for which the transformer is
designed

MAGNETISIN G INRUSH

The phenomenon of magnetizing inrush is a transient condition that occurs primarily

when a transformer is energized. It is not a fault condition, and therefore transformer
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protection must remain stable during the inrush transient.

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The following Figure (a) shows a transformer magnetizing characteristic. To minimize
material costs, weight and size, transformers are generally operated near to the ‘knee
point’ of the magnetizing characteristic. Consequently, only a small increase in core flux
above normal operating levels will result in a high magnetizing current.

Under normal steady-state conditions, the magnetizing current associated with the
operating flux level is relatively small (Figure (b)). However, if a transformer winding is
energized at a voltage zero, with no remnant flux, the flux level during the first voltage
cycle (2 x normal flux) will result in core saturation and a high non-sinusoidal
magnetizing current waveform see Figure (c). This current is referred to as magnetizing
inrush current and may persist for several cycles.

A number of factors affect the magnitude and duration of the magnetizing current
inrush:

a. residual flux - worst-case conditions result in the flux peak value attaining 280%
of normal value

b. point on wave switching

c. number of banked transformers

d. transformer design and rating

e. system fault level

The very high flux densities quoted above are so far beyond the normal working range
that the incremental relative permeability of the core approximates to unity and the

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inductance of the winding falls to a value near that of the 'air-cored' inductance. The
current wave, starting from zero, increases slowly at first, the flux having a value just
above the residual value and the permeability of the core being moderately high. As
the flux passes the normal working value and enters the highly saturated portion of the
magnetizing characteristic, the inductance falls and the current rises rapidly to a peak
that may be 500% of the steady state magnetizing current. When the peak is passed at
the next voltage zero, the following negative half cycle of the voltage wave reduces the
flux to the starting value, the current falling symmetrically to zero. The current wave is
therefore fully offset and is only restored to the steady state condition by the circuit
losses. The time constant of the transient has a range between 0.1 second (for a
l00kVA transformer) to 1.0 second (for a large unit). As the magnetizing characteristic is
nonlinear, the envelope of the transient current is not strictly of exponential form; the
magnetizing current can be observed to be still changing up to 30minutes after
switching on.

Although correct choice of the point on the wave for a single-phase transformer will
result in no transient inrush, mutual effects ensure that a transient inrush occurs in all
phases for three-phase transformers.

Harmonic Content of Inrush Waveform

The waveform of transformer magnetizing current contains a proportion of harmonics

that increases as the peak flux density is raised to the saturating condition. The
magnetizing current of a transformer contains a third harmonic and progressively
smaller amounts of fifth and higher harmonics. If the degree of saturation is
progressively increased, not only will the harmonic content increase as a whole, but
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the relative proportion of fifth harmonic will increase and eventually exceed the third
harmonic. At a still higher level the seventh would overtake the fifth harmonic but this
involves a degree of saturation that will not be experienced with power Transformers.
The energizing conditions that result in an offset inrush current produce a waveform
that is asymmetrical. Such a wave typically contains both even and odd harmonics.

Typical inrush currents contain substantial amounts of second and third harmonics and
diminishing amounts of higher orders. As with the steady state wave, the proportion of
harmonics varies with the degree of saturation, so that as a severe inrush transient
decays, the harmonic makeup of the current passes through a range of conditions.

TRANSFORMER OVERHEATING

The rating of a transformer is based on the temperature rise above an assumed

maximum ambient temperature; under this condition no sustained overload is usually
permissible. At a lower ambient temperature some degree of sustained overload can
be safely applied. Short-term overloads are also permissible to an extent dependent on
the previous loading conditions. IEC 60354 provides guidance in this respect. The only
certain statement is that the winding must not overheat; a temperature of about 95 C
is considered to be the normal maximum working value beyond which a further rise of
SOC-100C, if sustained, will halve the insulation life of the unit. Protection against
overload is therefore based on winding temperature, which is usually measured by a
thermal image technique. Protection is arranged to trip the transformer if excessive
temperature is reached. The trip signal is usually routed via a digital input of a
protection relay on one side of the transformer, with both alarm and trip facilities
made available through programmable logic in the relay. Inter tripping between the
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relays on the two sides of the transformer is usually applied to ensure total
disconnection of the transformer. Winding temperature protection may be included as
a part of a complete monitoring package.

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION - OVERVIEW

The problems relating to transformers require some means of protection. The

following table summarizes the problems and the possible forms of protection that
may be used. The following sections provide more detail on the individual protection
methods. It is normal for a modern relay to provide all of the required protection
functions in a single package, in contrast to electromechanical types that would require
several relays complete with interconnections and higher overall CT burdens.

TRANSFORMER OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

Fuses may adequately protect small transformers, but larger ones require overcurrent
protection using a relay and CB, as fuses do not have the required fault breaking
capacity.

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Fuses

Fuses commonly protect small distribution transformers typically up to ratings of IMVA

at distribution voltages. In many cases no circuit breaker is provided, making fuse
protection the only available means of automatic isolation. The fuse must have a rating
well above the maximum transformer load current in order to withstand the short
duration overloads that may occur. Also, the fuses must withstand the magnetizing
inrush currents drawn when power transformers are energized. High Rupturing
Capacity (HRC)fuses, although Very fast in operation with large fault currents, are
extremely slow with currents of less than three times their rated Value.

It follows that such fuses will do little to protect the transformer, serving only to
protect the system by disconnecting a faulty transformer after the fault has reached an
advanced stage. The following Table shows typical ratings of fuses for use with 11kV
transformers.

This table should be taken only as a typical example; considerable differences exist in
the time characteristic of different types of HRC fuses. Furthermore grading with
protection on the secondary side has not been considered.

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Overcurrent relays

With the advent of ring main units incorporating SF 6 circuit breakers and isolators,
protection of distribution transformers can now be provided by overcurrent trips (e. g.
tripping controlled by time limit fuses connected across the secondary windings of in-
built current transformers) or by relays connected to current transformers located on
the transformer primary side.

Overcurrent relays are also used on larger transformers provided with standard circuit
breaker control. Improvement in protection is obtained in two ways; the excessive
delays of the HRC fuse for lower fault currents are avoided and an earth-fault tripping
element is provided in addition to the overcurrent feature. The time delay
characteristic should be chosen to discriminate with circuit protection on the
secondary side. A high-set instantaneous relay element is often provided, the current
setting being chosen to avoid operation for a secondary short circuit. This enables high-
speed clearance of primary terminal short circuits.

RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION

Conventional earth fault protection using overcurrent elements fails to provide

adequate protection for transformer windings. This is particularly the case for a star-
connected winding with an impedance-earthed neutral.

The degree of protection is very much improved by the application of restricted earth
fault protection (or REF protection). This is a unit protection scheme for one winding of
the transformer. It can be of the high impedance type as shown in the following Figure,
or of the biased low impedance type. For the high-impedance type, the residual
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current of three line current transformers is balanced against the output of a current
transformer in the neutral conductor. In the biased low-impedance version, the three
phase currents and the neutral current become the bias inputs to a differential
element. The system is operative for faults within the region between current
transformers that is, for faults on the star winding in question. The system will remains
table for all faults outside this zone.

The gain in protection performance comes not only from using an instantaneous relay
with a low setting, but also because the whole fault current is measured, not merely
the transformed component in the HV primary winding (if the star winding is a
secondary winding). Hence, although the prospective current level decreases as fault
positions progressively nearer the neutral end of the winding are considered, the
square law which controls the primary line current is not applicable, and with a low
effective setting, a large percentage of the winding can be covered.

Restricted earth fault protection is often applied even when the neutral is solidly
earthed. Since fault current then remains at a high value even to the last turn of the
winding, virtually complete cover for earth faults is obtained. This is an improvement
compared with the performance of systems that do not measure the neutral conductor

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current.

Earth fault protection applied to a delta-connected or unearthed star winding is

inherently restricted, since no zero sequence components can be transmitted through
the transformer to the other windings. Both windings of a transformer can be
protected separately with restricted earth fault protection, thereby providing high-
speed protection against earth faults for the whole transformer with relatively simple
equipment. A high impedance relay is used, giving fast operation and phase fault
stability.

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

The restricted earth fault schemes depend entirely on the Kirchhoff principle that the
sum of the currents flowing into a conducting network is zero. A differential system can
be arranged to cover the complete transformer; this is possible because of the high
efficiency of transformer operation, and the close equivalence of ampere-turns
developed on the primary and secondary windings. Figure illustrates the principle.

Current transformers on the primary and secondary sides are connected to form a
circulating current system.

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Basic Considerations for Transformer Differential Protection

In applying the principles of differential protection to transformers, a variety of

considerations have to be taken into account. These include:

a. correction for possible phase shift across the transformer windings (phase
correction)

b. the effects of the variety of earthing and winding arrangements (filtering of zero
sequence currents)

c. correction for possible unbalance of signals from current transformers on either

side of the windings (ratio correction)

d. the effect of magnetizing inrush during initial energization

e. the possible occurrence of over fluxing

In traditional transformer differential schemes, the requirements for phase and ratio
correction were met by the application of external interposing current transformers
(ICT’s), as a secondary replica of the main winding connections, or by a delta
connection of the main CT’s to provide phase correction only. Digital/numerical relays

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implement ratio and phase correction in the relay software instead, thus enabling most
combinations of transformer winding arrangements to be catered for, irrespective of
the winding connections of the primary CT’s. This avoids the additional space and cost
requirements of hardware interposing CT’s.

Line Current Transformer Primary Ratings

Line current transformers have primary ratings selected to be approximately equal to

the rated currents of the transformer windings to which they are applied. Primary
ratings will usually be limited to those of available standard ratio CT’s.

Phase Correction

Correct operation of transformer differential protection requires that the transformer

primary and secondary currents, as measured by the relay, are in phase. If the
transformer is connected delta/star, as shown in the following Figure, balanced three-
phase through current suffers a phase change of 300. If left uncorrected, this phase
difference would lead to the relay seeing through current as an unbalanced fault
current, and result in relay operation. Phase correction must be implemented.

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Electromechanical and static relays use appropriate CT/ICT connections to ensure that
the primary and secondary currents applied to the relay are in phase. For digital and
numerical relays, it is common to use star connected line CT’s on all windings of the
transformer and compensate for the winding phase shift in software. Depending on
relay design, the only data required in such circumstances may be the transformer
vector group designation. Phase compensation is then performed automatically.
Caution is required if such a relay is used to replace an existing electromechanical or
static relay, as the primary and secondary line CT’s may not have the same winding
configuration. Phase compensation and associated relay data entry requires more
detailed consideration in such circumstances. Rarely, the available phase compensation
facilities cannot accommodate the transformer winding connection, and in such cases
interposing CT’s must be used.

Filtering of Zero Sequence Currents

It is essential to provide some form of zero sequence filtering where a transformer

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winding can pass zero sequence current to an external earth fault. This is to ensure
that out-of-zone earth faults are not seen by the transformer protection as an in-zone
fault. This is achieved by use of delta- connected line CT’s or interposing CT’s for older
relays, and hence the winding connection of the line and/or interposing CT’s must take
this into account, in addition to any phase compensation necessary. For
digital/numerical relays, the required filtering is applied in the relay software. The
following Table summarizes the phase compensation and zero sequence filtering
requirements.

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Ratio Correction

Correct operation of the differential element requires that currents in the differential
element balance under load and through fault conditions. As the primary and
secondary line CT ratios may not exactly match the transformer rated winding currents,
digital/numerical relays are provided with ratio correction factors for each of the CT
inputs. The correction factors may be calculated automatically by the relay from
knowledge of the line CT ratios and the transformer MVA rating. However, if
interposing CT’s are used, ratio correction may not be such an easy task and may need
to take into account a factor of \/3 if delta-connected CT’s or ICT’s are involved. If the
transformer is fitted with a tap changer, line CT ratios and correction factors are
normally chosen to achieve current balance at the mid tap of thetransformer. It is
necessary to ensure that current mismatch due to off-nominal tap operation will not
cause spurious operation.

Bias Setting

Bias is applied to transformer differential protection for the same reasons as any unit
protection scheme - to ensure stability for external faults while allowing sensitive
settings to pick up internal faults. The situation is slightly complicated if a tap changer
is present. With line CT/ICT ratios and correction factors set to achieve current balance
at nominal tap, an off- nominal tap may be seen by the differential protection as an
internal fault.

By selecting the minimum bias to be greater than sum of the maximum tap of the
transformer and possible CT errors, mal-operation due to this cause is avoided. Some

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relays use a bias characteristic with three sections, as shown in the following Figure.
The first section is set higher than the transformer magnetizing current. The second
section is set to allow for off-nominal tap settings, while the third has a larger bias
slope beginning well above rated current to cater for heavy through-fault conditions.

Transformers with Multiple Windings

The unit protection principle remains Valid for a system having more than two
connections, so a transformer with three or more windings can still be protected by the
application of the above principles. When the power transformer has only one of its
three windings connected to a source of supply, with the other two windings feeding
loads, a relay with only two sets of CT inputs can be used, connected as shown in
Figure l0(a). The separate load currents are summated in the CT secondary circuits, and
will balance with the in feed current on the supply side.

When more than one source of fault current in feed exists, there is a danger in the
scheme of Figure (a) of current circulating between the two paralleled sets of current

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transformers without producing any bias. It is therefore important a relay is used with
separate CT inputs for the two secondary Figure (b). When the third winding consists of
a delta-connected tertiary with no connections brought out, the transformer may be
regarded as a two winding transformer for protection purposes and protected as
shown in Figure (c).

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION STABILISATION DURING MAGNETISING INRUSH CONDITIONS

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The magnetizing inrush phenomenon described in Section 3 produces current input to
the energized winding which has no equivalent on the other windings. The whole of
the inrush current appears, therefore, as unbalance and the differential protection is
unable to distinguish it from current due to an internal fault. The bias setting is not
effective and an increase in the protection setting to a value that would avoid
operation would make the protection of little value. Methods of delaying, restraining
or blocking of the differential element must therefore be used to prevent mal-
operation of the protection.

Time Delay

Since the phenomenon is transient, stability can be maintained by providing a small

time delay. However, because this time delay also delays operation of the relay in the
event of a fault occurring at switch-on, the method is no longer used.

Harmonic Restraint

The inrush current, although generally resembling an in zone fault current, differs
greatly when the waveforms are compared. The difference in the waveforms can be
used to distinguish between the conditions. As stated before, the inrush current
contains all harmonic orders, but these are not all equally suitable for providing bias. In
practice, only the second harmonic is used. This component is present in all inrush
waveforms. It is typical of waveforms in which successive half period portions do not
repeat with reversal of polarity but in which mirror image symmetry can be found
about certain ordinates.

The proportion of second harmonic varies somewhat with the degree of saturation of
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the core, but is always present as long as the uni-directional component of flux exists.
The amount varies according to factors in the transformer design. Normal fault
currents do not contain second or other even harmonics, nor do distorted currents
flowing in saturated iron cored coils under steady state conditions.

The output current of a current transformer that is energized into steady state
saturation will contain odd harmonics but not even harmonics. However, should the
current transformer be saturated by the transient component of the fault current, the
resulting saturation is not symmetrical and even harmonics are introduced into the
output current. This can have the advantage of improving the through fault stability
performance of a differential relay. faults. The second harmonic is therefore an
attractive basis for a stabilizing bias against inrush effects, but care must be taken to
ensure that the current transformers are sufficiently large so that the harmonics
produced by transient saturation do not delay normal operation of the relay. The
differential current is passed through a filter that extracts the second harmonic; this
component is then applied to produce a restraining quantity sufficient to overcome the
operating tendency due to the whole of the inrush current that flows in the operating
circuit. By this means a sensitive and high-speed system can be obtained.

Inrush Detection Blocking - Gap Detection Technique

The minimum duration of this zero period is theoretically one quarter of the cycle and
is easily detected by a simple timer tl that is set to 1/4f seconds. The following Figure
shows the circuit in block diagram form. Timert1 produces an output only if the current
is zero for a time exceeding 1/4fseconds. It is reset when the instantaneous value of
the differential current exceeds the setting reference.
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As the zero in the inrush current occurs towards the end of the cycle, it is necessary to
delay operation of the differential relay by 1/4f seconds to ensure that the zero
condition can be detected if present. This is achieved by using a second timer t2 that is
held reset by an output from timer t1. When no current is flowing for a time exceeding
1/4f seconds, timer t2 is held reset and the differential relay that may be controlled by
these timers is blocked. When a differential current exceeding the setting of the relay
flows, timer t1is reset and timer t2 times out to give a trip signal in 1/f seconds. If the
differential current is characteristic of transformer inrush then timer t2 will be reset on
each cycle and the trip signal is blocked. Some numerical relays may use a combination
of the harmonic restraint and gap detection techniques for magnetizing inrush
detection.

COMBINED DIFFERENTIAL AND RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT SCHEMES

The advantages to be obtained by the use of restricted earth fault protection, lead to
the system being frequently used in conjunction with an overall differential system.
The importance of this is shown in the following Figure from which it will be seen that
if the neutral of a star-connected winding is earthed through a resistance of one per
unit, an overall differential system having an effective setting of 20% will detect faults
in only 42% of the winding from the line end.

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Implementation of a combined differential/REF protection scheme is made easy if a
numerical relay with software ratio/phase compensation is used. All compensation is
made internally in the relay. Where software ratio/phase correction is not available,
either a summation transformer or auxiliary CT’s can be used. The connections are
shown in the following Figures.

Care must be taken in calculating the settings, but the only significant disadvantage of
the Combined Differential/REF scheme is that the REF element is likely to operate for
heavy internal faults as well as the differential elements, thus making subsequent fault
analysis somewhat confusing. However, the saving in CT’s outweighs this disadvantage.

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Application when an Earthing Transformer is connected within the Protected Zone

A delta-connected winding cannot deliver any zero sequence current to an earth fault
on the connected system; any current that does flow is in consequence of an earthed
neutral elsewhere on the system. When the transformer in question represents a
major power feed, the system may be earthed at that point by an earthing transformer
or earthing reactor. They are frequently connected to the system, close to the main
supply transformer and within the transformer protection zone. Zero sequence current
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that flows through the earthing transformer during system earth faults will flow
through the line current transformers on this side, and, without an equivalent current
in the balancing current transformers, will cause unwanted operation of the relays.

The problem can be overcome by subtracting the appropriate component of current

from the main CT output. The earthing transformer neutral current is used for this
purpose. As this represents three times the zero sequence current flowing, ratio
correction is required. This can take the form of interposing CT’s of ratio 1/0.333,
arranged to subtract their output from that

of the line current transformers in each phase, as shown in the following Figure. The
zero sequence components are cancelled, restoring balance to the differential system.

Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer, with restricted earth fault
relay

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Alternatively, numerical relays may use software to perform the subtraction, having
calculated the zero sequence components internally.

A high impedance relay element can be connected in the neutral lead between current
transformers and differential relays to provide restricted earth fault protection to the
winding.

As an alternative to the above scheme, the circulating current system can be

completed via a three-phase group of interposing transformers that are provided with
tertiary windings connected in delta. This winding effectively short-circuits the zero
sequence components and thereby removes it from the balancing quantities in the
relay circuit. Provided restricted earth fault protection is not required, the scheme
shown in following Figure has the advantage of not requiring a current transformer,
with its associated mounting and cabling requirements, in the neutral-earth conductor.

Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer; no earth fault relay

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The scheme can also be connected as shown in the following Figure when restricted
earth fault protection is needed.

Differential protection with in-zone earthing transformer, with alternative arrangement

of restricted earth fault relay

EARTHING TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

Earthing transformers not protected by other means can use the scheme shown in the
following Figure. The delta connected current transformers are connected to an
overcurrent relay having three phase-fault elements. The normal action of the earthing
transformer is to pass zero sequence current. The transformer equivalent current
circulates in the delta formed by the CT secondary's without energizing the relay. The
latter may therefore be set to give fast and sensitive protection against faults in the
earthing transformer itself.

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 Earthing transformer protection

OVERFLUXING PROTECTION

Over fluxing arises principally from the following system conditions:

a. high system Voltage

b. low system frequency

c. geomagnetic disturbances

The latter results in low frequency earth currents circulating through a transmission
system. Since momentary system disturbances can cause transient overfluxing that is
not dangerous, time delayed tripping is required.

The normal protection is an IDMT or definite time characteristic, initiated if a defined

V/f threshold is exceeded. Often separate alarm and trip elements are provided. The

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alarm function would be definite time-delayed and the trip function would be an IDMT
characteristic. A typical characteristic is shown in following Figure.

Geomagnetic disturbances may result in over-fluxing without the V/f threshold being
exceeded. Some relays provide a 5th harmonic detection feature, which can be used to
detect such a condition, as levels of this harmonic rise under over-fluxing conditions.

Typical IDMT characteristics for over-fluxing protection

TANK-EARTH PROTECTION

This is also known as Howard protection. If the transformer tank is nominally insulated
from earth (an insulation resistance of 10 ohms being sufficient) earth fault protection
can be provided by connecting a relay to the secondary of a current transformer the
primary of which is connected between the tank and earth. This scheme is similar to
the frame-earth fault busbar protection.

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OIL AND GAS DEVICES

All faults below oil in an oil-immersed transformer result in localized heating and
breakdown of the oil; some degree of arcing will always take place in a winding fault
and the resulting decomposition of the oil will release gases. When the fault is of a very
minor type, such as a hot joint, gas is released slowly, but a major fault involving severe
arcing causes a very rapid release of large volumes of gas as well as oil vapor. The
action is so violent that the gas and vapor do not have time to escape but instead build
up pressure and bodily displace the oil. When such faults occur in transformers having
oil conservators, the fault causes a blast of oil to pass up the relief pipe to the
conservator. A Buchholz relay is used to protect against such conditions. Devices
responding to abnormally high oil pressure or rate- of-rise of oil pressure are also
available and may be used in conjunction with a Buchholz relay.

Oil Pressure Relief Devices

The simplest form of pressure relief device is the widely used ‘frangible disc’ that is
normally located at the end of an oil relief pipe protruding from the top of the
transformer tank. The surge of oil caused by a serious fault bursts the disc, so allowing
the oil to discharge rapidly. Relieving and limiting the pressure rise avoids explosive
rupture of the tank and consequent fire risk. Outdoor oil-immersed transformers are
usually mounted in a catchment pit to collect and contain spilt oil (from whatever
cause), thereby minimizing the possibility of pollution. A drawback of the frangible disc
is that the oil remaining in the tank is left exposed to the atmosphere after rupture.
This is avoided in a more effective device, the sudden pressure relief valve, which
opens to allow discharge of oil if the pressure exceeds a set level, but closes
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automatically as soon as the internal pressure falls below this level. If the abnormal
pressure is relatively high, the valve can operate within a few milliseconds, and provide
fast tripping when suitable contacts are fitted.

The device is commonly fitted to power transformers rated at ZMVA or higher, but may
be applied to distribution transformers rated as low as 200kVA, particularly those in
hazardous areas.

Rapid Pressure Rise Relay

This device detects rapid rise of pressure rather than absolute pressure and thereby
can respond even quicker than the pressure relief valve to sudden abnormally high
pressures. Sensitivities as low as 0.07bar/s are attainable, but when fitted to forced-
cooled transformers the operating speed of the device may have to be slowed
deliberately to avoid spurious tripping during circulation pump starts.

Buchholz Protection

Buchholz protection is normally provided on all transformers fitted with a conservator.

The Buchholz relay is contained in a cast housing which is connected in the pipe to the
conservator, as in following Figure.

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 Buchholz relay mounting arrangement

A typical Buchholz relay will have two sets of contacts. One is arranged to operate for
slow accumulations of gas, the other for bulk displacement of oil in the event of a
heavy internal fault. An alarm is generated for the former, but the latter is usually
direct-wired to the CB trip relay. The device will therefore give an alarm for the
following fault conditions, all of which are of

a. Low order of urgency.

b. hot spots on the core due to short circuit of lamination insulation

c. core bolt insulation failure

d. faulty joints

e. intertum faults or other winding faults involving only lower power in feeds

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 f. Loss of oil due to leakage

When a major winding fault occurs, this causes a surge of oil, which displaces the lower
float and thus causes isolation of the transformer. This action will take place for:

i. all severe winding faults, either to earth or interphase

ii. loss of oil if allowed to continue to a dangerous degree

An inspection window is usually provided on either side of the gas collection space.
Visible white or yellow gas indicates that insulation has been burnt, while black or grey
gas indicates the presence of, dissociated oil.

In these cases the gas will probably be inflammable, whereas released air will not. A
vent valve is provided on the top of the housing for the gas to be released or collected
for analysis. Transformers with forced oil circulation may experience oil flow to/from
the conservator on starting/stopping of the pumps. The Buchholz relay must not
operate in this circumstance. Cleaning operations may cause aeration of the oil. Under
such conditions, tripping of the transformer due to Buchholz operation should be
inhibited for a suitable period. Because of its universal response to faults within the
transformer, some of which are difficult to detect by other means, the Buchholz relay is
invaluable, whether regarded as a main protection or as a supplement to other
protection schemes. Tests carried out by striking a high voltage arc in a transformer
tank filled with oil, have shown that operation times of 0.05s- O.1s are possible.
Electrical protection is generally used as well, either to obtain faster operation for
heavy faults, or because Buchholz relays have to be prevented from tripping during oil
maintenance periods. Conservators are fitted to oil-cooled transformers above
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1000kVA rating, except those to North American design practice that use a different
technique.

CONDITION MONITORING OF TRANSFORMERS

It is possible to provide transformers with measuring devices to detect early signs of

degradation in various components and provide warning to the operator in order to
avoid a lengthy and expensive outage due to failure. The technique, which can be
applied to other plant as well as transformers, is called condition monitoring, as the
intent is to provide the operator with regular information on the condition of the
transformer. By reviewing the trends in the information provided, the operator can
make a better judgment as to the frequency of maintenance, and detect early signs of
deterioration that, if ignored, would lead to an internal fault occurring. Such
techniques are an enhancement to, but are not a replacement for, the protection
applied to a transformer.

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 Methods of protection for transformer-feeders using electromechanical static
technology
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 Neutral displacement detection using voltage transformer.

The extent to which condition monitoring is applied to transformers on a system will

depend on many factors, amongst which will be the policy of the asset owner, the
suitability of the design (existing transformers may require modifications involving a
period out of service - this may be costly and not justified), the importance of the asset
to system operation, and the general record of reliability. Therefore, it should not be
expected that all transformers would be, or need to be, so fitted. A typical condition
monitoring system for an oil immersed transformer is capable of monitoring the
condition of various transformer components as shown in Table 5. There can be some
overlap with the measurements available from a digital/numerical relay.

By the use of software to store and perform trend analysis of the measured data, the
operator can be presented with information on the state of health of the transformer,
and alarms raised when measured values exceed appropriate limits. This will normally
provide the operator with early warning of degradation within one or more
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components of the transformer, enabling maintenance to be scheduled to correct the
problem prior to failure occurring. The maintenance can obviously be planned to suit
system conditions, provided the rate of degradation is not excessive. As asset owners
become more conscious of the costs of an unplanned outage, and electric supply
networks are utilized closer to capacity for long periods of time, the usefulness of this
technique can be expected to grow.

EXAMPLES OF TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

This section provides three examples of the application of modern relays to

transformer protection. The latest MiCOM P630 series relay provides advanced
software to simplify the calculations, so an earlier ALSTOM type KBCH relay is used to
illustrate the complexity of the required calculations.

Provision of Zero-Sequence Filtering

The following Figure shows a delta-star transformer to be protected using a unit

protection scheme. With a main winding connection of Dynll, suitable choices of
primary and secondary CT winding arrangements and software phase compensation
are to be made. With the KBCH relay, phase compensation is selected by the user in
the form of software-implemented ICT’s.

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 Transformer zero sequence filtering example

With the Dynll connection, the secondary voltages and currents are displaced by +300
from the primary. Therefore, the combination of primary, secondary and phase
correction must provide a phase shift of -300 of the secondary quantities relative to
the primary. For simplicity, the CT’s on the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer are connected in star.

The required phase shift can be achieved either by use of ICT connections on the
primary side having a phase shift of +30 or on the secondary side having a phase shift
of -30. There is a wide combination of primary and secondary ICT winding
arrangements that can provide this, such as Yd1O (+60) on the primary and Yd3 (-90)
on the secondary. Another possibility is Yd11 (+30) on the primary and YyO (0) on the
secondary. It is usual to choose the simplest arrangements possible, and therefore the
latter of the above two possibilities might be selected.

However, the distribution of current in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer due to an external earth fault on the secondary side of the transformer
must now be considered. The transformer has an earth connection on the secondary

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winding, so it can deliver zero sequence current to the fault. Use of star connected
main CT’s and YyO connected ICT’s provides a path for the zero sequence current to
reach the protection relay.

On the primary side of the transformer, the delta connected main primary winding
causes zero-sequence current to circulate round the delta and hence will not be seen
by the primary side main CT’s. The protection relay will therefore not see any zero-
sequence current on the primary side, and hence detects the secondary side zero
sequence current incorrectly as an in-zone fault. The solution is to provide the ICT’s on
the secondary side of the transformer with a delta winding, so that the zero-sequence
current circulates round the delta and is not seen by the relay. Therefore, a rule can be
developed that a transformer winding with a connection to earth must have a delta-
connected main or ICT for unit protection to operate correctly.

Selection of YyO connection for the primary side ICT’s and Ydl (-30) for the secondary
side ICT’s provides the required phase shift and the zero- sequence trap on the
secondary side.

Unit Protection of a Delta-Star Transformer

The following Figure shows a delta-star transformer to which unit protection is to be

applied, including restricted earth fault protection to the star winding. Referring to the
figure, the ICT’s have already been correctly selected, and are conveniently applied in
software. It therefore remains to calculate suitable ratio compensation (it is assumed
that the transformer has no taps), transformer differential protection settings and
restricted earth fault settings.

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 Transformer unit protection example

Ratio compensation

Transformer unit protection settings

A current setting of 20% of the rated relay current is recommended. This equates to
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35A primary current. The KBCH relay has a dual slope bias characteristic with fixed bias
slope settings of 20% up to rated current and 80% above that level. The corresponding
characteristic is shown in following Figure.

Transformer unit protection characteristic

Restricted earth fault protection

The KBCH relay implements high-impedance Restricted Earth Fault (REF) protection.
Operation is required for a primary earth fault current of 25%rated earth fault current
(i.e. 25 0A). The prime task in calculating settings is to calculate the Value of the
stabilizing resistor Rstab and stability factor K.

A stabilizing resistor is required to ensure through fault stability when one of the
secondary CT’s saturates while the others do not. The requirements can be expressed
as:

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Unit Protection for On-Load Tap Changing Transformer

The previous example deals with a transformer having no taps. In practice, most
transformers have a range of taps to cater for different loading conditions. While most
transformers have an off-load tap-changer, transformers used for voltage control in a
network are fitted with an on-load tap-changer. The protection settings must then take
the variation of tap- change position into account to avoid the possibility of spurious
trips at extreme tap positions. For this example, the same transformer will be used, but
with an on-load tapping range of +5% to -15%. The tap-changer is located on the
primary winding, while the tap-step usually does not matter.

The stages involved in the calculation are as follows:

a. determine ratio correction at mid-tap and resulting secondary currents

b. determine HV currents at tap extremities with ratio correction

c. determine the differential current at the tap extremities

d. determine bias current at tap extremities

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 e. check for sufficient margin between differential and operating currents

Ratio correction

In accordance with Section 8.4, the mid-tap position is used to calculate the ratio
correction factors. The mid tap position is -5%, and at this taps position:

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Chapter 6:

Instrument
transformers

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A current transformer can take one of two forms. One type is wound like an ordinary
transformer, with primary and secondary windings round a common core. As a CT steps
current down, it steps voltage up. The primary winding, though connected in the
system's high-voltage system, is in fact the LV (high current) winding as far as the
transformer is concerned, and the secondary is the HV (low current) winding. Wound-
primary CTs are used where the primary current is low and where it is necessary to
have several primary turns to achieve enough ampere-turns in the CT. The examples
shown in following Figure (a) and (b) are typical; burdens are in the range 5 to 30VA per
phase. Wound-primary CTs must be able to withstand the full voltage and fault current
of the main system on their primary' windings.

Typical Current Transformers

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An alternative form of CT is known as the 'bar' or 'ring' type. It has no primary winding
as such but uses the main conductor itself as a 'one-turn' primary. The flux surrounding
the conductor, due to the current it is carrying, links the closed iron core of the CT and
induces voltage in the secondary winding, which is wound as a torrid around the
circular core. The secondary circuit is closed through its burden, and the current which
flows in it is an exact scaled-down replica of the primary current in the conductor.

Bar-type CTs are generally used whenever the current ratio (e.g. 1500/1 A) is large
enough. They are also convenient in that several can easily be stacked over a single
existing conductor. It is very important that they be placed the right way up, otherwise
the secondary terminal voltages and current flow will be reversed. By convention the
secondary terminal is always has the same polarity as primary terminal PI, or as that of
the end of the bar emerging from the face marked PI. This type of CT is shown in Figure
(c). Its construction is not limited by the fault current of the main system.

Another important difference between a CT and other types of transformer lies in its
magnetization. The magnetizing current, and therefore the flux, of a power
transformer or a VT is constant and depends only on the applied voltage. However a CT
when it has no burden is effectively short-circuited, and no voltage is present,
whatever the primary current; therefore there is no core flux. If the burden is
increased, so also is the voltage for a given current, as explained below, and this causes
the magnetization to increase. Thus with a current transformer the magnetization is
variable not only with the current, but it also is increased depending on the burden
connected.

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In the limit, if the burden is increased beyond the rating of the CT, the core will
saturate, and the current ratio of the CT will no longer hold; it will become inaccurate.
Moreover the iron losses will rise sharply and may cause severe overheating of the CT
and possibly damage to it.

Terminal Markings
The terminals of a CT should be marked as indicated in Figure below. The primary
current flows from PI to P2 and it is standard to put PI nearer to the circuit breaker. The
secondary current flows from-Sl to S2 through the burden.

CT Terminal Markings

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Magnetization curve
This curve is the best method of determining a CTs performance. It is a graph of the
amount of magnetizing current required to generate an open-circuit voltage at the
terminals of the unit. Due to the non-linearity of the core iron, it follows the B-H loop
characteristic and comprises three regions, namely the initial region, unsaturated
region and saturated region (see following figure).

Knee-point voltage

The transition from the unsaturated to the saturated region of the open-circuit
excitation characteristic is a rather gradual process in most core materials. This
transition characteristic makes a CT not to produce equivalent primary current beyond
certain point. This transition is defined by ‘knee-point’ voltage in a CT, which decides its
accurate working range.

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It is generally defined as the voltage at which a further 10% increase in volts at the
secondary side of the CT requires more than 50% increase in excitation current. For
most applications, it means that current transformers can be considered as
approximately linear up to this point.

Metering CTs

Instruments and meters are required to work accurately up to full-load current, but
above this, it is advantageous to saturate and protect the instruments under fault
conditions. Hence, it is common to have metering CTs with a very sharp knee-point
voltage. A special nickel-alloy metal having a very low magnetizing current is used in
order to achieve the accuracy.

Following curve shows the magnetization curve of metering CT (see the following
figure).

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Protection CTs

Protective relays are not normally expected to give tripping instructions under normal
conditions. On the other hand these are concerned with a wide range of currents from
acceptable fault settings to maximum fault currents many times normal rating. Larger
errors may be permitted and it is important that saturation is avoided wherever
possible to ensure positive operation of the relays mainly when the currents are many
times the normal current (see the following figure).

Voltage Transformer Design

A voltage transformer is made basically like an ordinary open-type power transformer,

with separate HV and LV windings. K is, of course, much smaller, having ratings in the
range 15 to 200 VA per phase. The loading on a VT (or CT) is termed 'burden', not
'load'; an instrument transformer burden is always measured in volt-amperes, never in
watts. At voltages up to those found on offshore installations most VTs are dry-type,
often embedded in synthetic resin. They are usually located inside the switchboards.
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On shore equipment, especially when associated with high-voltage oil circuit-breakers,
VTs are often in oil-filled tanks.

The high-voltage VT primary fuses are of the HRC type. They have a low current rating
but are capable of breaking the full busbar fault current of the HV system. They are
located in the VT compartment and with some types are embodied in the VT itself.

Access to the high-voltage VT and its fuses is through the VT compartment door. This
cannot be opened until the VT has been isolated. The manner of isolation varies with
different manufacturers,

Instrument Accuracy

Since the purpose of instruments and relays is to monitor the actual conditions in the
main power line, it is necessary that VTs and CTs reproduce those conditions, to a
stepped-down scale, as accurately as possible. That is to say their voltage ratio or
current ratio must be correct and constant over their whole range of operation; they
must not introduce undue phase shift while doing so (important for wattmeters); and
they must reproduce unbalance conditions exactly.

The extent to which these conditions are met determines the accuracy class of the
instrument transformer. A distinction is drawn between 'measuring' and 'protective'
types. For measurements, the accuracy within, and a little above, the normal working
range is important, but accuracy in the over-current and fault ranges of current does
not matter. On the other hand, a protective CT must deliver accurate currents in the
fault range, whereas accuracy in the working range is unimportant. This gives rise to
two different design concepts.

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The classes of accuracy are laid down by British Standards. For each type different ranges of accuracy
are specified for measurement and for protective transformers according to the purpose for which
they are to be used. The ranges are as follows:

VTs CTs

Voltage Phase Class Current Ratio Phase Displ

Class
Ratio Error Displ Error

Measuremen
0.1 ±0.1% ±15' 0.1 ±10.25-0.1% ±10'-5'
0.2 ±0.2% (angle) 0.2 ±0.5 - 0.2% ±20'- 10'
0.5 ±0.5% ±10' 0.5 ±1.0-0.5% ±60'-30'
1 ±1.0% ±20' 1 ±2.0-1.0% ±120'-60'
3 ±3.0% ±40' 3 ±3% Not spec.
Not spec. 5 ±5% Not spec.
Protective
3P ±3% ±120' 5P ±1% ±60'
6P ±6% ±240' 10P ±3% ±60'
Special X as specified

Most indicating instruments on onshore and offshore switchboards are fed from VTs
and CTs of Class 0.5, and most protective relays from VTs Class 3P and CTs Class 5P.
There are, however, exceptions (for example differential relays are fed from Class X
CTs), and it is necessary to refer to drawings for particular cases.
If it is ever necessary to check or recalibrate a switchboard instrument or relay, it must
always be done with instrument transformers of a class higher than those with which it
normally runs.

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Short-Time Factor

When a current transformer is used in a power system it may be subjected to fault

current many times larger than its primary rating and, therefore, it must be able to
withstand the effects of this current for the time for which it is likely to persist. The
maximum current that it can carry without mechanical and thermal damage is
expressed as a multiple of its rated current and is known as the short-time factor. For
example, a current transformer of ratio 200/5 which is capable of withstanding a
current of, say, 13,000 A would have a short-time factor of 65. Such a short-time factor
would always be associated with a period of duration of the current for example 3 s.
Smaller currents would be permissible for longer periods, the permissible time
increasing as the square of the reduction of current. Larger currents, however, are not
necessarily permissible for any period of time, since electromagnetic forces have also
to be considered.
Accuracy Limit Factor

When a current transformer is used to energize a protective relay it must maintain its
characteristic ratio up to some multiple of its rated current. This multiple, which
depends on the type and characteristics of the protection, may be 10, 20 or some even
higher value and is known as the "Accuracy Limit Factor".

The small ratio error introduced by the magnetizing current is often compensated for in
the case of measuring current transformers by slightly modifying the ratio of primary to
secondary turns from the nominal ratio. For example, a 100/1 current transformer
might have one primary turn and 98 secondary turns so that the transformation ratio
would appear to be 100 to 1.02 A, but when it is used to supply its rated burden the

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secondary current is reduced from the above value to 1 ampere by the magnetizing
losses.

The load of a current transformer is called the burden and can be expressed either as a
VA load or as impedance. In the former case the VA is taken to be at the CT nominal.
Secondary current. For example, a 5-VA burden on a 1-A transformer would have
impedance of 5 ohms:

All burdens are connected in series and the increase in impedance increases the
burden on the current transformer. A current transformer is unloaded if the secondary
winding is short-circuited as under this condition the VA burden iszero because the
voltage is zero. The errors of transformer depend on the angle of the burden as well as
its impedance.

Calculation of Transformer Burden

Instrument transformers are rated according to the burden that they can carry and still
remain within their specified accuracy. The burdens are always given in VA units (i.e.
power factor is ignored), and all burdens are simply added together. Manufacturers of
instruments and relays similarly state the burdens of these devices in VA. Thus, if a CT

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operates an ammeter (2VA), a current relay (3VA) and, say, the current coil of a k\Vh
meter (4VA), the total burden on the CT of these three devices will be 9VA.

The burden imposed by long secondary pilot leads, however, cannot be ignored. If, for
example, the total resistance of a CT secondary run were 0.5 ohms (go and return) and
the CT had a 5A secondary, the total volt-drop across the pilots would be 0.5 x 5 ==
2.5V. With 5A current flowing in them, the burden of the pilot leads would be 2.5V x 5A
=12.5VA, and this would need to be added to that of the instruments (9VA
above),.togive a total burden on the CT of 12.5+9 = 21.5VA. It must therefore have a
rating sufficient to meet this total burden. In general, pilot leads impose far less VA
burden on a 1A current transformer than on a 5A.

Calculation of CT burden

In previous Figure a 20VA CT with full-load secondary current of 5A supplies two

ammeters, a current relay, a wattmeter and kWh meter with VA burdens as shown. The
pilot leads have a resistance of 0.1 ohm per core. Is the 20VA rating of the CT
sufficient?

Total instrument burden =2+2+3+2+4= 13VA.

Total pilot load resistance = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2 ohm.

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With 5A secondary current, volt-drop in leads is 5 x 0.2 = IV.

Burden imposed by both leads = 5A x 1V= 5VA.

Total burden on CT == 13 + 5 = 18VA.

As the CT is rated 20VA, it has sufficient margin.

The trainee should work out for himself what would be the total burden if the CT had a
1A secondary.

Dangers with Open-Circuited Current Transformers

When a CT secondary circuit is closed, current flows through it, which is an exact
proportion of the primal current, regardless of the resistance of the burden. In the
below Figure (a) the secondary of the CT (assumed to have a ratio of 1000/5A and to
have 1000A flowing in the primary) is carrying exactly 5A, and, since the secondary
terminals Sl and 52 are short-circuited, there is no voltage between them.

If now the short-circuit be replaced by a resistance of, say, 0.5 ohm (as in the below
Figure (b)), the game 5A will flow through, causing a volt-drop of 2.5V and a burden of
5 x 2.5 =12.5VA. If the resistance were increased to 5 ohms (as in the below Figure (c)),
the terminal voltage with 5A flowing would rise to 25V and the burden to 125VA. The
greater the resistance, the greater would be the voltage and burden until, as it
approached infinity, (the open-circuit condition), so also in theory would the voltage
(and burden) become infinite. This cannot of course happen in practice because the CT
would saturate or the terminals flash over due to the very high secondary voltage
between them. But it does show the danger of open-circuiting the secondary of a

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running CT. Lethal voltages can be produced at the point of opening. This is why CT
secondary's are never fused.

Voltage and burden of a current transformer

The danger from an open-circuited CT is twofold. It can produce lethal voltages and so
is a very real danger to personnel. The high voltage across the secondary winding could
also cause insulation failure in that winding, leading at best to inaccuracy and at worst
to burnout or fire.

Before ever an instrument or relay is removed from the secondary loop of a running CT
(if such a thing had to be done), the wires feeding that instrument must first be
securely short-circuited at a suitable terminal box or, better, at the CT itself. Similarly, if
a running CT is ever to be taken out of circuit, it must first be firmly shorted. CTS with

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1A secondaries are more dangerous than those with 5A, as the induced voltages are
higher.

To prevent this danger many CT secondaries are permanently short-circuited by a

‘metrosil, which is a non-linear element with a high resistance at low voltages but
which breaks down to almost a short-circuit at the higher and dangerous voltages. It
does, however, somewhat reduce the accuracy of the CT and is not always acceptable
for this reason. There is also a range of CTs designed to saturate if their burden
becomes excessive, so that even on open-circuit their secondary voltage will not
exceed about 100V. It is not safe; however, to assume that such CTs are fitted in any
particular case.

WARNING:WHENEVER POSSIBLE THE MAIN CIRCUIT SHOULD BE MADE DEAD BEFORE

INTERFERING WITH CT SECONDARIES OR THEIR INSTRUMENTS OR RELAYS"

Specification of Current Transformers

A method of specifying current transformers for protective purposes is detailed in BS

3938. In this specification they are defined in terms of rated burden, accuracy class,
and accuracy limit. Standard values of rated burden are:

2.5,5,7.5, 10, 15 and30VA.

Two accuracy classes are quoted 5P and 10P which gives a composite error at rated
accuracy limit of 5% and 10% respectively. Standard accuracy limit factors are: 5, 10,
15, 20 and 30. The method of describing a current transformer is as follows: 15VA class
5P20.

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Which means that it is rated for a burden 15VA and will not have more than 5% error at
20 times rated current. It is frequently more convenient to refer directly to the
maximum useful voltage which can be obtained. In this connection, the knee-point of
the magnetization curve is defined as that point at which an increase of 10% of
secondary voltage would increase the magnetizing current by 50%. Design
requirements of current transformers for general protective purposes are frequently
specified in terms of knee-voltage, magnetizing current at the knee-point or at some
other point and secondary resistance. These are known in general as "class X" current
transformers.

Rated Secondary Current

Current transformers are usually designed to have rated secondary current of 0.5 A, 1A
or 5A. Most burdens will require a definite amount ofVA at rated current and
consequently will have an impedance which varies inversely as the square of rated
current, so that the value of the rated secondary current does not appear to be
important. Many burdens, however, are situated at some distance from the
corresponding current transformers, and as the wire size of the interconnecting leads is
usually large enough to carry the current produced by a current transformer of any
secondary rating, the leads introduce a definite resistance and therefore more burden
at the higher rated currents, e.g. lead resistance lohm at 1A corresponds to 1VA; lead
resistance 1Q at 5A corresponds to 25 VA.

Clearly in all cases where leads may be appreciable there is a great advantage in using
the lower rated current transformer. Modem practice favors the use of the 1A
secondary winding.

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in-service testing of ct-metered installations

Electrical utilities have significant concerns about revenue loss due to inaccuracies from
metering. Metering inaccuracies are caused by installation errors, aging and
environmental failures, and theft. Studies have consistently shown that the majority of
revenue loss in their system comes from their CT-metered installations. This occurs
because these are the larger customers of the utility such that an error will create
obviously a much larger loss and because CT installations are more complex and
comprise more components resulting in a higher probability of failures. The attached
Table presents the 32 different failure modes that you can have in a CT-metered
installation. In nearly all cases these failure modes result in errors in favor of the
customer resulting in under-billing of the customer. To protect against this revenue
loss, utilities have implemented in-service testing of their CT-metered installations.
These test programs may consist of ratio testing, burden testing, ratio/burden testing,
and wire verification testing.

Ratio Testing

Ratio testing involves simultaneously measuring the primary current and the secondary
current in order to calculate the operating ratio of the circuit. This ratio value is
compared to the rated ratio to determine the percent error for that CT. Ratio values
greater than the rated ratio result in under-billing and ratio values less than the rated
ratio result in over-billing. As presented in the Table, ratio errors can be caused by
manufacturer error, shorting bar left connected at the CT, shorted primary turns,
shorted secondary turns, magnetization, etc. Most utilities use an error threshold of
plus or minus 2 percent to determine adequate ratio performance of installed CT’s.

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Others choose to have an error threshold of 1 percent for their large CT customers and
2 percent for their smaller CT customers.

Burden Testing

Burden testing of CT-metered installations involves measuring the secondary current of

the CT circuit while introducing additional burden in graduated steps, usually up to the
rated burden of the CT, into the circuit and assuming constant customer load during
the duration of the test. If the measured secondary current remains constant during
the duration of the test then the CT is deemed to have passed the burden test as rated.
This allows the determination of the performance of the CT under the build up of
additional burden in order to evaluate future performance if such additional burden
does occur. If the customer load does change sometime during the burden test then
the secondary current will correspondingly change giving a false indication of burden
error. This is a major limitation of burden testing. As presented in the Table, burden
errors can be caused by excessively long secondary wires, wrong wire gauge, loose
connections, corroded connections, etc. In a majority of cases, burden errors are
caused by loose or corroded connections in the secondary circuit. Hence when a
burden error is detected a tightening of the screws in that circuit will usually correct
the error. Otherwise, a search for and elimination of the high burden component will
be necessary.

Ratio/Burden Testing

The dependence on constant customer load during the duration of the test is a major
limitation for burden testing. To overcome this limitation, a technique called
ratio/burden testing is recommended. Ratio/burden testing involves measuring the CT
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ratio while imposing a series of additional burdens into the secondary circuit usually up
to the rated burden of the CT. In this test any customer load change will create a
corresponding change in both the primary current and the secondary current so that
the ratio should be unaffected. Hence any change in the ratio value during the test will
unquestionably be due to burden error.

Wire Verification

Wiring errors in CT-metered installations are detected through use of phase angle
analysis of the primary current signal, secondary current signal, and secondary voltage
signal. For a particular meter type and secondary wiring network there will be an
appropriate phase angle relationship among these signals. Errors in wiring such as CT
reversal, CT cross phasing, or CT-PT cross phasing will introduce particular additional
phase shifts that are readily identifiable indicating the presence of a wiring error.

Comprehensive CT-System Testing

To assure the absence of all of the possible 32 failure modes that can occur in a CT-
metered installation (see Table) a comprehensive in-service test is required that
comprises ratio testing, ratio/burden testing, and wire verification testing in tandem.
Passing a comprehensive test assures accurate CT and secondary circuit performance
at that site.

EXAMPLES OF CT CIRCUIT FAILURES

1. CT with Shorted Turns

2. Wrong Selection of Dual Ratio CT
3. Magnetized CT

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4. Burden Failure in Secondary Circuit
5. Wiring Error

TABLE. CT System Failure Modes

Failue Mode Test Technique Possible Cause
for Failure Mode of Failure Mode
Wiring Problems
1 Cross Phasing of a CT Wire Verification Installation Error
2 Cross Phasing of a CT/PT Wire Verification Installation Error
3 X1X2/H1H2 Reversal of a CT Wire Verification Installation Error
4 X1X2/H1H2 Reversal of a PT Wire Verification Installation Error
5 Meter Socket Wire Error Wire Verification Installation Error
6 Loose Connections Burden Test Vibration/Wind/Installation Error
7 Corroded Connections/Terminals Burden Test Moisture
8 Insulation Stripping Error Burden Test Installation Error
9 Excessive Wire Length/Small Wire Burden Test Installation Error
10 Broken Wire Strands Burden Test Installation Error
11 Meter Overburdened Burden Test Installation Error

Primary/Secondary Current Shunt Problems

12 Shorted Turns (Wiring & Leakage Current) Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
13 Shorted Turns (Turn to Turn) Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
14 Shorted Turns (Turn to Ground) Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
15 Theft (Secondary Shunt) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
16 Theft (Primary Shunt) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
17 Theft (CT Wrap) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
18 Theft (Primary Tap) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering
19 Theft (Secondary Tap) Ratio/Burden Test Tampering

Current Transformer Problems

20 Open Secondary Ratio Test Installation Error/Tampering
21 Shorted Secondary Ratio Test Installation Error/Tampering
22 Magnetized CT Ratio/Burden Test Lightning/Ground Fault
23 Dual Ratio Error Ratio Test Installation Error
24 Inaccurate Ratio on CT Ratio Test Manufacturer Defect
25 Wire Wrap Error on CT Ratio Test Manufacturer Defect
26 Inaccurate Rated Burden on CT Burden Test Manufacturer Defect
27 CT Burden Manufacturer Error Burden Test Manufacturer Defect
28 CT Mounted Backwards Wire Verification Installation Error
29 Polarity Dot on Wrong Side of CT Wire Verification Manufacturer Defect
30 Overburdened CT Ratio/Burden Test Secondary Burden
31 Overdriven CT Ratio/Burden Test Excessive Current
32 CT Phase Shift Wire Verification Harmonic Loading

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Chapter ZERO:

Electric

Safety

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PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY

Most of us have experienced some form of electric "shock," where electricity

causes our body to experience pain or trauma. If we are fortunate, the extent of that
experience is limited to tingles or jolts of pain from static electricity buildup discharging
through our bodies. When we are working around electric circuits capable of delivering
high power to loads, electric shock becomes a much more serious issue, and pain is the
least significant result of shock.
As electric current is conducted through a material, any opposition to that flow
of electrons (resistance) results in a dissipation of energy, usually in the form of heat.
This is the most basic and easy-to-understand effect of electricity on living tissue:
current makes it heat up. If the amount of heat generated is sufficient, the tissue may
be burnt. The effect is physiologically the same as damage caused by an open flame or
other high temperature source of heat, except that electricity has the ability to burn
tissue well beneath the skin of a victim, even burning internal organs.
Another effect of electric current on the body, perhaps the most significant in
terms of hazard, regards the nervous system. By "nervous system" I mean the network
of special cells in the body called "nerve cells" or "neurons" which process and conduct
the multitude of signals responsible for regulation of many body functions. The brain,
spinal cord, and sensory/motor organs in the body function together to allow it to
sense, move, respond, think, and remember.
Nerve cells communicate to each other by acting as "transducers:" creating
electrical signals (very small voltages and currents) in response to the input of certain
chemical compounds called neurotransmitters, and releasing neurotransmitters when
stimulated by electrical signals. If electric current of sufficient magnitude is conducted

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through a living creature (human or otherwise), its effect will be to override the tiny
electrical impulse normally generated by the neurons, overloading the nervous system
and preventing both reflex and volitional signals from being able to actuate muscles.
Muscles triggered by an external (shock) current will involuntarily contract, and there's
nothing the victim can do about it.
This problem is especially dangerous if the victim contacts an energized
conductor with his or her hands. The forearm muscles responsible for bending fingers
tend to be better developed than those muscles responsible for extending fingers, and
so if both sets of muscles try to contract because of an electric current conducted
through the person's arm, the "bending" muscles will win, clenching the fingers into a
fist. If the conductor delivering current to the victim faces the palm of his or her hand,
this clenching action will force the hand to grasp the wire firmly, thus worsening the
situation by securing excellent contact with the wire. The victim will be completely
unable to let go of the wire.
Medically, this condition of involuntary muscle contraction is called tetanus.
Electricians familiar with this effect of electric shock often refer to an immobilized
victim of electric shock as being "froze on the circuit." Shock-induced tetanus can only
be interrupted by stopping the current through the victim.
Even when the current is stopped, the victim may not regain voluntary control
over their muscles for a while, as the neurotransmitter chemistry has been thrown into
disarray.
This principle has been applied in "stun gun" devices such as Tasers, which on
the principle of momentarily shocking a victim with a high-voltage pulse delivered
between two electrodes. A well-placed shock has the effect of temporarily (a few
minutes)immobilizing the victim.
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 Electric current is able to affect more than just skeletal muscles in a shock victim,
however. The diaphragm muscle controlling the lungs and the heart -- which is a
muscle in itself -- can also be "frozen" in a state of tetanus by electric current. Even
currents too low to induce tetanus are often able to scramble nerve cell signals enough
that the heart cannot beat properly, sending the heart into a condition known as
fibrillation. A fibrillating heart flutters rather than beats, and is ineffective at pumping
blood to vital organs in the body. In any case, death from asphyxiation and/or cardiac
arrest will surely result from a strong enough electric current through the body.
Ironically, medical personnel use a strong jolt of electric current applied across the
chest of a victim to "jumpstart" a fibrillating heart into a normal beating pattern.
That last detail leads us into another hazard of electric shock, this one peculiar to
public power systems. Though our initial study of electric circuits will focus almost
exclusively on DC (Direct Current, or electricity that moves in a continuous direction in
a circuit),modern power systems utilize alternating current, or AC. The technical
reasons for this preference of AC over DC in power systems are irrelevant to this
discussion, but the special hazards of each kind of electrical power are very important
to the topic of safety.
Direct current (DC), because it moves with continuous motion through a
conductor, has the tendency to induce muscular tetanus quite readily. Alternating
current (AC), because it alternately reverses direction of motion, provides brief
moments of opportunity for an afflicted muscle to relax between alternations. Thus,
from the concern of becoming "froze on the circuit," DC is more dangerous than AC.
However, AC's alternating nature has a greater tendency to throw the heart's
pacemaker neurons into a condition of fibrillation, whereas DC tends to just make the
heart standstill. Once the shock current is halted, a "frozen" heart has a better chance
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of regaining a normal beat pattern than a fibrillating heart. This is why "defibrillating"
equipment used by emergency medic's works: the jolt of current supplied by the
defibrillator unit is DC, which halts fibrillation and gives the heart a chance to recover.
In either case, electric currents high enough to cause involuntary muscle action
are dangerous and are to be avoided at all costs. In the next section, we'll take a look at
how such currents typically enter and exit the body, and examine precautions against
such occurrences.
SHOCK CURRENT PATH
As we've already learned, electricity requires a complete path (circuit) to
continuously flow. This is why the shock received from static electricity is only a
momentary jolt: the flow of electrons is necessarily brief when static charges are
equalized between two objects. Shocks of self-limited duration like this are rarely
hazardous.
Without two contact points on the body for current to enter and exit,
respectively, there is no hazard of shock. This is why birds can safely rest on high-
voltage power lines without getting shocked: they make contact with the circuit at only
one point.
In order for electrons to flow through a conductor, there must be a voltage
present to motivate them. Voltage, as you should recall, is always relative between two
points.

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 There is no such thing as voltage "on" or "at" a single point in the circuit, and so
the bird contacting a single point in the above circuit has no voltage applied across its
body to establish a current through it. Yes, even though they rest on two feet, both
feet are touching the same wire, making them electrically common. Electrically
speaking, both of the bird's feet touch the same point; hence there is no voltage
between them to motivate current through the bird's body.
This might lend one to believe that it's impossible to be shocked by electricity by
only touching a single wire. Like the birds, if we're sure to touch only one wire at a
time, we'll be safe, right? Unfortunately, this is not correct. Unlike birds, people are
usually standing on the ground when they contact a "live" wire. Many times, one side
of a power system will be intentionally connected to earth ground, and so the person
touching a single wire is actually making contact between two points in the circuit (the
wire and earth ground):

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 The ground symbol is that set of three horizontal bars of decreasing width
located at the lower-left of the circuit shown, and also at the foot of the person being
shocked. In real life the power system ground consists of some kind of metallic
conductor buried deep in the ground for making maximum contact with the earth. That
conductor is electrically connected to an appropriate connection point on the circuit
with thick wire. The victim's ground connection is through their feet, which are
touching the earth.
A few questions usually arise at this point in the mind of the student:
• If the presence of a ground point in the circuit provides an easy point of
contact for someone to get shocked, why have it in the circuit at all?
Wouldn't a groundless circuit be safer?
• The person getting shocked probably isn't bare-footed. If rubber and fabric
are insulating materials, then why aren't their shoes protecting them by
preventing a circuit from forming?
• How good of a conductor can dirt be? If you can get shocked by current
through the earth, why not use the earth as a conductor in our power
circuits?
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 In answer to the first question, the presence of an intentional "grounding" point
in an electric circuit is intended to ensure that one side of it is safe to come in contact
with.
Note that if our victim in the above diagram were to touch the bottom side of
the resistor, nothing would happen even though their feet would still be contacting
ground:

Because the bottom side of the circuit is firmly connected to ground through the
grounding point on the lower-left of the circuit, the lower conductor of the circuit is
made electrically common with earth ground. Since there can be no voltage between
electrically common points, there will be no voltage applied across the person
contacting the lower wire, and they will not receive a shock. For the same reason, the
wire connecting the circuit to the grounding rod/plates is usually left bare (no
insulation), so that any metal object it brushes up against will similarly be electrically
common with the earth.
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 Circuit grounding ensures that at least one point in the circuit will be safe to
touch. But what about leaving a circuit completely ungrounded? Wouldn't that make
any person touching just a single wire as safe as the bird sitting on just one? Ideally,
yes. Practically, no. Observe what happens with no ground at all:

Despite the fact that the person's feet are still contacting ground, any single
point in the circuit should be safe to touch. Since there is no complete path (circuit)
formed through the person's body from the bottom side of the voltage source to the
top, there is no way for a current to be established through the person. However, this
could all change with an accidental ground, such as a tree branch touching a power line
and providing connection to earth ground:

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 The trouble with trees is that no one can guarantee which wire their branches
might touch. If a tree were to brush up against the top wire in the circuit, it would
make the top wire safe to touch and the bottom one dangerous:

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 With a tree branch contacting the top wire, that wire becomes the grounded
conductor in the circuit, electrically common with earth ground. Therefore, there is no
voltage between that wire and ground, but full (high) voltage between the bottom wire
and ground. Tree branches touching power lines are only one potential source of
accidental grounding in a power system. Consider another ungrounded power system
with no trees in contact, but with two people touching single wires:

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 With each person standing on the ground, contacting different points in the
circuit, a path for shock current is made through one person, through the earth, and
through the other person. Even though each person thinks they're safe in only touching
a single point in the circuit, their combined actions make for a deadly scenario. This is
exactly why ungrounded power systems are dangerous: the voltage between any point
in the circuit and ground (earth) is unpredictable. The only one guaranteed to be safe in
this scenario is the bird, who has no connection to earth ground! By firmly connecting a
designated point in the circuit to earth ground, at least safety can be assured at that
one point. This is more assurance of safety than having no ground connection at all.

In answer to the second question, rubber-soled shoes do indeed provide some

electrical insulation to help protect someone from conducting shock current through
their feet.

However, most common shoe designs are not intended to be electrically "safe,"
their soles being too thin and not of the right substance. Also, any moisture, dirt, or
conductive salts from body sweat on the surface of or permeated through the soles of
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shoes will compromise what little insulating value the shoe had to begin with. There
are shoes specifically made for dangerous electrical work, as well as thick rubber mats
made to stand on while working on live circuits, but these special pieces of gear must
be in absolutely clean, dry condition in order to be effective. Suffice it to say, normal
footwear is not enough to guarantee protection against electric shock from a power
system.
Research conducted on contact resistance between parts of the human body and
points of contact (such as the ground) shows a wide range of figures (see end of
chapter for information on the source of this data):
• Hand or foot contact, insulated with rubber: 20 MΩ typical.
• Foot contact through leather shoe sole (dry): 100 kΩ to 500 kΩ
• Foot contact through leather shoe sole (wet): 5 kΩ to 20 kΩ
As you can see, not only is rubber a far better insulating material than leather,
but the presence of water in a porous substance such as leather greatly reduces
electrical resistance.
In answer to the third question, dirt is not a very good conductor (at least not
when it's dry!). It is too poor of a conductor to support continuous current for
powering a load.
However, as we will see in the next section, it takes very little current to injure or
kill a human being, so even the poor conductivity of dirt is enough to provide a path for
deadly current when there is sufficient voltage available, as there usually is in power
systems.
Some ground surfaces are better insulators than others. Asphalt, for instance,
being oil based, has a much greater resistance than most forms of dirt or rock.

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Concrete, on the other hand, tends to have fairly low resistance due to its intrinsic
water and electrolyte(conductive chemical) content.
OHM'S LAW
A common phrase heard in reference to electrical safety goes something like
this: "It's not voltage that kills, it's current!" While there is an element of truth to this,
there's more to understand about shock hazard than this simple adage. If voltage
presented no danger, no one would ever print and display signs saying: DANGER --
HIGH VOLTAGE!
The principle that "current kills" is essentially correct. It is electric current that
burns tissue, freezes muscles, and fibrillates hearts. However, electric current doesn't
just occur on its own: there must be voltage available to motivate electrons to flow
through a victim .A person's body also presents resistance to current, which must be
taken into account.
Taking Ohm's Law for voltage, current, and resistance, and expressing it in terms
of current for a given voltage and resistance, we have this equation:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The amount of current through a body is equal to the amount of voltage applied
between two points on that body, divided by the electrical resistance offered by the
body between those two points. Obviously, the more voltage available to cause
electrons to flow, the easier they will flow through any given amount of resistance.
Hence, the danger of high voltage: high voltage means potential for large amounts of
current through your body ,which will injure or kill you. Conversely, the more
resistance a body offers to current, the slower electrons will flow for any given amount

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of voltage. Just how much voltage is dangerous depends on how much total resistance
is in the circuit to oppose the flow of electrons.

Body resistance is not a fixed quantity. It varies from person to person and from
time to time. There's even a body fat measurement technique based on a
measurement of electrical resistance between a person's toes and fingers. Differing
percentages of body fat give provide different resistances: just one variable affecting
electrical resistance in the human body. In order for the technique to work accurately,
the person must regulate their fluid intake for several hours prior to the test, indicating
that body hydration another factor impacting the body's electrical resistance.

Body resistance also varies depending on how contact is made with the skin: is it
from hand-to-hand, hand-to-foot, foot-to-foot, hand-to-elbow, etc.? Sweat, being rich
in salts and minerals, is an excellent conductor of electricity for being a liquid. So is
blood, with its similarly high content of conductive chemicals. Thus, contact with a wire
made by a sweaty hand or open wound will offer much less resistance to current than
contact made by clean, dry skin.

Measuring electrical resistance with a sensitive meter, I measure approximately

1 million ohms of resistance (1 MΩ) between my two hands, holding on to the meter's
metal probes between my fingers. The meter indicates less resistance when I squeeze
the probes tightly and more resistance when I hold them loosely. Sitting here at my
computer, typing these words, my hands are clean and dry. If I were working in some
hot, dirty, industrial environment, the resistance between my hands would likely be

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much less, presenting less opposition to deadly current, and a greater threat of
electrical shock.

But how much current is harmful? The answer to that question also depends on
several factors. Individual body chemistry has a significant impact on how electric
current affects an individual. Some people are highly sensitive to current, experiencing
involuntary muscle contraction with shocks from static electricity. Others can draw
large sparks from discharging static electricity and hardly feel it, much less experience a
muscle spasm.

Despite these differences, approximate guidelines have been developed through

tests which indicate very little current being necessary to manifest harmful effects. All
current figures given in milliamps (a milliamp is equal to 1/1000 of an amp):

BODILY EFFECT) DIRECT CURRENT 50 Hz AC 10 kHz AC

Men = 1.0 mA Men = 0.4 mA Men = 7 mA
Slight sensation felt at hand(s)
Women = 0.6 mA Women = 0.3 mA Women = 5 mA
Men = 5.2 mA Men = 1.1 mA Men = 12 mA
Threshold of perception
Women = 3.5 mA Women = 0.7 mA Women = 8 mA
Painful, but voluntary muscle Men = 62 mA Men = 9 mA Men = 55 mA

control maintained Women = 41 mA Women = 6 mA Women = 37 mA

Men = 76 mA Men = 16 mA Men = 75 mA

Painful, unable to let go of wires
Women = 51 mA Women = 10.5 mA Women = 50 mA
Men = 90 mA Men = 23 mA Men = 94 mA
Severe pain, difficulty breathing
Women = 60 mA Women = 15 mA Women = 63 mA

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 Possible heart fibrillation after 3 Men = 500 mA Men = 100 mA

seconds Women = 500 mA Women = 100 mA

"Hz" stands for the unit of Hertz, the measure of how rapidly alternating current
alternates, a measure otherwise known as frequency. So, the column of figures
labeled"60 Hz AC" refers to current that alternates at a frequency of 60 cycles (1 cycle =
period of time where electrons flow one direction, then the other direction) per
second. The last column, labeled "10 kHz AC," refers to alternating current that
completes ten thousand(10,000) back-and-forth cycles each and every second.

Keep in mind that these figures are only approximate, as individuals with
different body chemistry may react differently. It has been suggested that an across-
the-chest current of only 17 milliamps AC is enough to induce fibrillation in a human
subject under certain conditions. Most of our data regarding induced fibrillation comes
from animal testing.

Obviously, it is not practical to perform tests of induced ventricular fibrillation on

human subjects, so the available data is sketchy. Oh, and in case you're wondering, I
have no idea why women tend to be more susceptible to electric currents than men!

Suppose I were to place my two hands across the terminals of an AC voltage

source at 60Hz (60 cycles, or alternations back-and-forth, per second). How much
voltage would be necessary in this clean, dry state of skin condition to produce a
current of 20 milliamps(enough to cause me to become unable to let go of the voltage
source)? We can use Ohm's Law (E=IR) to determine this:
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 E = IR
E = (20 mA)(1 MΩ)
E = 20,000 volts, or 20 kV

Bear in mind that this is a "best case" scenario (clean, dry skin) from the
standpoint of electrical safety, and that this figure for voltage represents the amount
necessary to induce tetanus. Far less would be required to cause a painful shock! Also
keep in mind that the physiological effects of any particular amount of current can vary
significantly from person to person, and that these calculations are rough estimates
only.

With water sprinkled on my fingers to simulate sweat, I was able to measure a

hand-to hand resistance of only 17,000 ohms (17 kΩ). Bear in mind this is only with one
finger of each hand contacting a thin metal wire. Recalculating the voltage required to
cause a current of 20 milliamps, we obtain this figure:
E = IR
E = (20 mA)(17 kΩ)
E = 340 volts

In this realistic condition, it would only take 340 volts of potential from one of
my hands to the other to cause 20 milliamps of current. However, it is still possible to
receive a deadly shock from less voltage than this. Provided a much lower body
resistance figure augmented by contact with a ring (a band of gold wrapped around the
circumference of one's finger makes an excellent contact point for electrical shock) or
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full contact with a large metal object such as a pipe or metal handle of a tool, the body
resistance figure could drop as low as 1,000 ohms (1 kΩ), allowing an even lower
voltage to present a potential hazard:

E = IR
E = (20 mA)(1 kΩ)
E = 20 volts

Notice that in this condition, 20 volts is enough to produce a current of 20

milliamps through a person: enough to induce tetanus. Remember, it has been
suggested a current of only 17 milliamps may induce ventricular (heart) fibrillation.
With a hand-to-hand resistance of 1000 Ω, it would only take 17 volts to create this
dangerous condition:

E = IR
E = (17 mA)(1 kΩ)
E = 17 volts
Seventeen volts is not very much as far as electrical systems are concerned.
Granted, this is a "worst-case" scenario with 60 Hz AC voltage and excellent bodily
conductivity, but it does stand to show how little voltage may present a serious threat
under certain conditions.

The conditions necessary to produce 1,000 Ω of body resistance don't have to be

as extreme as what was presented, either (sweaty skin with contact made on a gold
ring).
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 Body resistance may decrease with the application of voltage (especially if
tetanus causes the victim to maintain a tighter grip on a conductor) so that with
constant voltage a shock may increase in severity after initial contact. What begins as a
mild shock -- just enough to "freeze" a victim so they can't let go -- may escalate into
something severe enough to kill them as their body resistance decreases and current
correspondingly increases.

Research has provided an approximate set of figures for electrical resistance of

human contact points under different conditions:

• Wire touched by finger: 40,000 Ω to 1,000,000 Ω dry, 4,000 Ω to 15,000 Ω

wet.
• Wire held by hand: 15,000 Ω to 50,000 Ω dry, 3,000 Ω to 5,000 Ω wet.
• Metal pliers held by hand: 5,000 Ω to 10,000 Ω dry, 1,000 Ω to 3,000 Ω
wet.
• Contact with palm of hand: 3,000 Ω to 8,000 Ω dry, 1,000 Ω to 2,000 Ω
wet.
• 1.5 inch metal pipe grasped by one hand: 1,000 Ω to 3,000 Ω dry, 500 Ω to
1,500 Ω wet.
• 1.5 inch metal pipe grasped by two hands: 500 Ω to 1,500 kΩ dry, 250 Ω to
750 Ω wet.
• Hand immersed in conductive liquid: 200 Ω to 500 Ω.
• Foot immersed in conductive liquid: 100 Ω to 300 Ω.

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 Note the resistance values of the two conditions involving a 1.5 inch metal pipe.
The resistance measured with two hands grasping the pipe is exactly one-half the
resistance of one hand grasping the pipe.

With two hands, the bodily contact area is twice as great as with one hand. This
is an important lesson to learn: electrical resistance between any contacting objects
diminishes with increased contact area, all other factors being equal. With two hands
holding the pipe, electrons have two, parallel routes through which to flow from the
pipe to the body(or visa-versa).

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 As we will see in a later chapter, parallel circuit pathways always result in less
overall resistance than any single pathway considered alone.

In industry, 30 volts is generally considered to be a conservative threshold value

for dangerous voltage. The cautious person should regard any voltage above 30 volts as
threatening, not relying on normal body resistance for protection against shock. That
being said, it is still an excellent idea to keep one's hands clean and dry, and remove all
jewelry can present a hazard by conducting enough current to burn the skin if brought
into contact between two points in a circuit. Metal rings, especially, have been the
cause of more than a few burnt fingers by bridging between points in a low-voltage,
high current circuit.

Also, voltages lower than 30 can be dangerous if they are enough to induce an
unpleasant sensation, which may cause you to jerk and accidently come into contact
across a higher voltage or some other hazard. I recall once working on a automobile on
a hot summer day. I was wearing shorts, my bare leg contacting the chrome bumper of
the vehicle as I tightened battery connections. When I touched my metal wrench to the
positive(ungrounded) side of the 12 volt battery, I could feel a tingling sensation at the
point where my leg was touching the bumper. The combination of firm contact with
metal and my sweaty skin made it possible to feel a shock with only 12 volts of
electrical potential.

Thankfully, nothing bad happened, but had the engine been running and the
shock felt at my hand instead of my leg, I might have reflexively jerked my arm into the
path of the rotating fan, or dropped the metal wrench across the battery terminals
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(producing large amounts of current through the wrench with lots of accompanying
sparks). This illustrates another important lesson regarding electrical safety; that
electric current itself may be an indirect cause of injury by causing you to jump or
spasm parts of your body into harm's way.

The path current takes through the human body makes a difference as to how
harmful it is. Current will affect whatever muscles are in its path, and since the heart
and lung(diaphragm) muscles are probably the most critical to one's survival, shock
paths traversing the chest are the most dangerous. This makes the hand-to-hand shock
current path a very likely mode of injury and fatality.

To guard against such an occurrence, it is advisable to only use on hand to work

on live circuits of hazardous voltage, keeping the other hand tucked into a pocket so as
to not accidently touch anything. Of course, it is always safer to work on a circuit when
it is unpowered, but this is not always practical or possible. For one-handed work, the
right-hand is generally preferred over the left for two reasons: most people are right-
handed(thus granting additional coordination when working), and the heart is usually
situated to the left of center in the chest cavity.

For those who are left-handed, this advice may not be the best. If such a person
is sufficiently uncoordinated with their right hand, they may be placing themselves in
greater danger by using the hand they're least comfortable with, even if shock current
through that hand might present more of a hazard to their heart. The relative hazard
between shock through one hand or the other is probably less than the hazard of

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working with less than optimal coordination, so the choice of which hand to work with
is best left to the individual.

The best protection against shock from a live circuit is resistance, and resistance
can be added to the body through the use of insulated tools, gloves, boots, and other
gear. Current in a circuit is a function of available voltage divided by the total resistance
in the path of the flow. As we will investigate in greater detail later in this book,
resistance shave an additive effect when they're stacked up so that there's only one
path for electrons to flow:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Now we'll see an equivalent circuit for a person wearing insulated gloves and
boots:

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 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝐵𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝐶𝑙𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Because electric current must pass through the boot and the body and the glove
to complete its circuit back to the battery, the combined total (sum) of these
resistances opposes the flow of electrons to a greater degree than any of the
resistances considered individually.

Safety is one of the reasons electrical wires are usually covered with plastic or
rubber insulation: to vastly increase the amount of resistance between the conductor
and whoever or whatever might contact it. Unfortunately, it would be prohibitively
expensive to enclose power line conductors in sufficient insulation to provide safety in
case of accidental contact, so safety is maintained by keeping those lines far enough
out of reach so that no one can accidently touch them.
SAFE PRACTICES

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 If at all possible, shut off the power to a circuit before performing any work on it.
You must secure all sources of harmful energy before a system may be considered safe
to work on. In industry, securing a circuit, device, or system in this condition is
commonly known as placing it in a Zero Energy State. The focus of this lesson is, of
course, electrical safety. However, many of these principles apply to non-electrical
systems as well.

Securing something in a Zero Energy State means ridding it of any sort of

potential or stored energy, including but not limited to:
• Dangerous voltage
• Spring pressure
• Hydraulic (liquid) pressure
• Pneumatic (air) pressure
• Suspended weight
• Chemical energy (flammable or otherwise reactive substances)
• Nuclear energy (radioactive or fissile substances)

Voltage by its very nature is a manifestation of potential energy. In the first

chapter I even used elevated liquid as an analogy for the potential energy of voltage,
having the capacity (potential) to produce current (flow), but not necessarily realizing
that potential until a suitable path for flow has been established, and resistance to flow
is overcome. A pair of wires with high voltage between them do not look or sound
dangerous even though they harbor enough potential energy between them to push
deadly amounts of current through your body. Even though that voltage isn't presently

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doing anything, it has the potential to, and that potential must be neutralized before it
is safe to physically contact those wires.
All properly designed circuits have "disconnect" switch mechanisms for securing
voltage from a circuit. Sometimes these "disconnects" serve a dual purpose of
automatically opening under excessive current conditions, in which case we call them
"circuit breakers." Other times, the disconnecting switches are strictly manually-
operated devices with no automatic function. In either case, they are there for your
protection and must be used properly. Please note that the disconnect device should
be separate from the regular switch used to turn the device on and off. It is a safety
switch, to be used only for securing the system in a Zero Energy State:

With the disconnect switch in the "open" position as shown (no continuity), the
circuit is broken and no current will exist. There will be zero voltage across the load,
and the full voltage of the source will be dropped across the open contacts of the
disconnect switch.
Note how there is no need for a disconnect switch in the lower conductor of the
circuit.
Because that side of the circuit is firmly connected to the earth (ground), it is
electrically common with the earth and is best left that way. For maximum safety of
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personnel working on the load of this circuit, a temporary ground connection could be
established on the top side of the load, to ensure that no voltage could ever be
dropped across the load:

With the temporary ground connection in place, both sides of the load wiring are
connected to ground, securing a Zero Energy State at the load.
Since a ground connection made on both sides of the load is electrically
equivalent to short-circuiting across the load with a wire that is another way of
accomplishing the same goal of maximum safety:

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 Either way, both sides of the load will be electrically common to the earth,
allowing for no voltage (potential energy) between either side of the load and the
ground people stand on. This technique of temporarily grounding conductors in a de-
energized power system is very common in maintenance work performed on high
voltage power distribution systems.
A further benefit of this precaution is protection against the possibility of the
disconnect switch being closed (turned "on" so that circuit continuity is established)
while people are still contacting the load. The temporary wire connected across the
load would create a short-circuit when the disconnect switch was closed, immediately
tripping any over current protection devices (circuit breakers or fuses) in the circuit,
which would shut the power off again. Damage may very well be sustained by the
disconnect switch if this were to happen, but the workers at the load are kept safe.
provide protection against electric shock. Rather, they exist solely to protect
conductors from overheating due to excessive currents. The temporary shorting wires
just described would indeed cause any over current devices in the circuit to "trip" if the
disconnect switch were to be closed, but realize that electric shock protection is not
the intended function of those devices. Their primary function would merely be
leveraged for the purpose of worker protection with the shorting wire in place.

Since it is obviously important to be able to secure any disconnecting devices in

the open (off) position and make sure they stay that way while work is being done on
the circuit, there is need for a structured safety system to be put into place. Such a
system is commonly used in industry and it is called Lock-out/Tag-out.

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 A lock-out/tag-out procedure works like this: all individuals working on a secured
circuit have their own personal padlock or combination lock which they set on the
control lever of a disconnect device prior to working on the system. Additionally, they
must fill out and sign a tag which they hang from their lock describing the nature and
duration of the work they intend to perform on the system. If there are multiple
sources of energy to be "locked out" (multiple disconnects, both electrical and
mechanical energy sources to be secured, etc.), the worker must use as many of his or
her locks as necessary to secure power from the system before work begins. This way,
the system is maintained in a Zero Energy State until every last lock is removed from all
the disconnect and shutoff devices ,and that means every last worker gives consent by
removing their own personal locks. If the decision is made to re-energize the system
and one person's lock(s) still remain in place after everyone present removes theirs, the
tag(s) will show who that person is and what it is they're doing.

Even with a good lock-out/tag-out safety program in place, there is still need for
diligence and common-sense precaution. This is especially true in industrial settings
where a multitude of people may be working on a device or system at once. Some of
those people might not know about proper lock-out/tag-out procedure, or might know
about it but are too complacent to follow it. Don't assume that everyone has followed
the safety rules!

After an electrical system has been locked out and tagged with your own
personal lock, you must then double-check to see if the voltage really has been secured
in a zero state.

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 One way to check is to see if the machine (or whatever it is that's being worked
on) will start up if the Start switch or button is actuated. If it starts, then you know you
haven't successfully secured the electrical power from it. Additionally, you should
always check for the presence of dangerous voltage with a measuring device before
actually touching any conductors in the circuit. To be safest, you should follow this
procedure is checking, using, and then checking your meter:
• Check to see that your meter indicates properly on a known source of
voltage.
• Use your meter to test the locked-out circuit for any dangerous voltage.
• Check your meter once more on a known source of voltage to see that it
still indicates as it should.

While this may seem excessive or even paranoid, it is a proven technique for
preventing electrical shock. I once had a meter fail to indicate voltage when it should
have while checking a circuit to see if it was "dead." Had I not used other means to
check for the presence of voltage, I might not be alive today to write this. There's
always the chance that your voltage meter will be defective just when you need it to
check for a dangerous condition. Following these steps will help ensure that you're
never misled into a deadly situation by a broken meter.

Finally, the electrical worker will arrive at a point in the safety check procedure
where it is deemed safe to actually touch the conductor(s). One final precautionary
measure to take at this point is to make momentary contact with the conductor(s) with
the back of the hand before grasping it or a metal tool in contact with it. Why? If, for
some reason there is still voltage present between that conductor and earth ground,
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finger motion from the shock reaction (clenching into a fist) will break contact with the
conductor. Please note that this is absolutely the last step that any electrical worker
should ever take before beginning work on a power system, and should never be used
as an alternative method of checking for dangerous voltage. If you ever have reason to
doubt the trustworthiness of your meter, use another meter to obtain a "second
opinion."
COMMON SOURCES OF HAZARD
Of course there is danger of electrical shock when directly performing manual
work on an electrical power system. However, electric shock hazards exist in many
other places, thanks to the widespread use of electric power in our lives.

As we saw earlier, skin and body resistance has a lot to do with the relative
hazard of electric circuits. The higher the body's resistance, the less likely harmful
current will result from any given amount of voltage. Conversely, the lower the body's
resistance, the more likely for injury to occur from the application of a voltage.

The easiest way to decrease skin resistance is to get it wet. Therefore, touching
electrical devices with wet hands, wet feet, or especially in a sweaty condition (salt
water is a much better conductor of electricity than fresh water) is dangerous. In the
household, the bathroom is one of the more likely places where wet people may
contact electrical appliances, and so shock hazard is a definite threat there. Good
bathroom design will locate power receptacles away from bathtubs, showers, and sinks
to discourage the use of appliances nearby. Telephones that plug into a wall socket are
also sources of hazardous voltage (the ringing signal in a telephone is 48 volts AC --
remember that any voltage over 30 is considered potentially dangerous!). Appliances
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such as telephones and radios should never, ever be used while sitting in a bathtub.
Even battery-powered devices should be avoided. Some battery-operated devices
employ voltage-increasing circuitry capable of generating lethal potentials.

Swimming pools are another source of trouble, since people often operate radios
and other powered appliances nearby. The National Electrical Code requires that
special shock-detecting receptacles called Ground-Fault Current Interrupting (GFI or
GFCI) be installed in wet and outdoor areas to help prevent shock incidents. More on
these devices in a later section of this chapter. These special devices have no doubt
saved many lives, but they can be no substitute for common sense and diligent
precaution. As with firearms, the best "safety" is an informed and conscientious
operator.

Extension cords, so commonly used at home and in industry, are also sources of
potential hazard. All cords should be regularly inspected for abrasion or cracking of
insulation, and repaired immediately. One sure method of removing a damaged cord
from service is to unplug it from the receptacle, then cut off that plug (the "male" plug)
with a pair of side cutting pliers to ensure that no one can use it until it is fixed. This is
important on jobsites, where many people share the same equipment, and not all
people there may beware of the hazards.

Any power tool showing evidence of electrical problems should be immediately

serviced as well. I've heard several horror stories of people who continue to work with
hand tools that periodically shock them. Remember, electricity can kill, and the death it

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brings can be gruesome. Like extension cords, a bad power tool can be removed from
service by unplugging it and cutting off the plug at the end of the cord.

Downed power lines are an obvious source of electric shock hazard and should
be avoided at all costs. The voltages present between power lines or between a power
line and earth ground are typically very high (2400 volts being one of the lowest
voltages used in residential distribution systems). If a power line is broken and the
metal conductor falls to the ground, the immediate result will usually be a tremendous
amount of arcing (sparks produced), often enough to dislodge chunks of concrete or
asphalt from the road surface, and reports rivaling that of a rifle or shotgun. To come
into direct contact with a downed power line is almost sure to cause death, but other
hazards exist which are not so obvious.

When a line touches the ground, current travels between that downed
conductor and the nearest grounding point in the system, thus establishing a circuit:

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 The earth, being a conductor (if only a poor one), will conduct current between
the downed line and the nearest system ground point, which will be some kind of
conductor buried in the ground for good contact. Being that the earth is a much poorer
conductor of electricity than the metal cables strung along the power poles, there will
be substantial voltage dropped between the point of cable contact with the ground
and the grounding conductor, and little voltage dropped along the length of the cabling
(the following figures are very approximate):

If the distance between the two ground contact points (the downed cable and
the system ground) is small, there will be substantial voltage dropped along short
distances between the two points. Therefore, a person standing on the ground
between those two points will be in danger of receiving an electric shock by
intercepting a voltage between their two feet!

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 Again, these voltage figures are very approximate, but they serve to illustrate a
potential hazard: that a person can become a victim of electric shock from a downed
power line without even coming into contact with that line!

One practical precaution a person could take if they see a power line falling
towards the ground is to only contact the ground at one point, either by running away
(when you run, only one foot contacts the ground at any given time), or if there's
nowhere to run, by standing on one foot. Obviously, if there's somewhere safer to run,
running is the best option. By eliminating two points of contact with the ground, there
will be no chance of applying deadly voltage across the body through both legs.
SAFE CIRCUIT DESIGN
As we saw earlier, a power system with no secure connection to earth ground is
unpredictable from a safety perspective: there's no way to guarantee how much or
how little voltage will exist between any point in the circuit and earth ground. By

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grounding one side of the power system's voltage source, at least one point in the
circuit can be assured to be electrically common with the earth and therefore present
no shock hazard.

In a simple two-wire electrical power system, the conductor connected to

ground is called the neutral, and the other conductor is called the hot:

As far as the voltage source and load are concerned, grounding makes no
difference at all. It exists purely for the sake of personnel safety, by guaranteeing that
at least one point in the circuit will be safe to touch (zero voltage to ground). The "Hot"
side of the circuit, named for its potential for shock hazard, will be dangerous to touch
unless voltage is secured by proper disconnection from the source (ideally, using a
systematic lockout/tag-out procedure).

This imbalance of hazard between the two conductors in a simple power circuit
is important to understand. The following series of illustrations are based on common
household wiring systems (using DC voltage sources rather than AC for simplicity).If we
take a look at a simple, household electrical appliance such as a toaster with a

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conductive metal case, we can see that there should be no shock hazard when it is
operating properly. The wires conducting power to the toaster's heating element are
insulated from touching the metal case (and each other) by rubber or plastic.

However, if one of the wires inside the toaster were to accidently come in
contact with the metal case, the case will be made electrically common to the wire,
and touching the case will be just as hazardous as touching the wire bare. Whether or
not this presents a shock hazard depends on which wire accidentally touches:

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 If the "hot" wire contacts the case, it places the user of the toaster in danger. On
the other hand, if the neutral wire contacts the case, there is no danger of shock:

To help ensure that the former failure is less likely than the latter, engineers try
to design appliances in such a way as to minimize hot conductor contact with the case.
Ideally, of course, you don't want either wire accidently coming in contact with the
conductive case of the appliance, but there are usually ways to design the layout of the
parts to make accidental contact less likely for one wire than for the other. However,
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this preventative measure is effective only if power plug polarity can be guaranteed. If
the plug can be reversed, then the conductor more likely to contact the case might very
well be the "hot" one:

Appliances designed this way usually come with "polarized" plugs, one prong of
the plug being slightly narrower than the other. Power receptacles are also designed
like this, one slot being narrower than the other. Consequently, the plug cannot be
inserted "backwards," and conductor identity inside the appliance can be guaranteed.
Remember that this has no effect whatsoever on the basic function of the appliance:
it's strictly for the sake of user safety.

Some engineers address the safety issue simply by making the outside case of
the appliance nonconductive. Such appliances are called double-insulated, since the
insulating case serves as a second layer of insulation above and beyond that of the
conductors themselves. If a wire inside the appliance accidently comes in contact with
thecae, there is no danger presented to the user of the appliance.

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 Other engineers tackle the problem of safety by maintaining a conductive case,
but using a third conductor to firmly connect that case to ground:

The third prong on the power cord provides a direct electrical connection from
the appliance case to earth ground, making the two points electrically common with
each other. If they're electrically common, then there cannot be any voltage dropped
between them. At least, that's how it is supposed to work. If the hot conductor
accidently touches the metal appliance case, it will create a direct short-circuit back to
the voltage source through the ground wire, tripping any over current protection
devices. The user of the appliance will remain safe.

This is why it's so important never to cut the third prong off a power plug when
trying to fit it into a two-prong receptacle. If this is done, there will be no grounding of
the appliance case to keep the user(s) safe. The appliance will still function properly,

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but if there is an internal fault bringing the hot wire in contact with the case, the results
can be deadly. If a two-prong receptacle must be used, a two- to three-prong
receptacle adapter can be installed with a grounding wire attached to the receptacle's
grounded cover screw. This will maintain the safety of the grounded appliance while
plugged in to this type of receptacle.

Electrically safe engineering doesn't necessarily end at the load, however. A final
safeguard against electrical shock can be arranged on the power supply side of the
circuit rather than the appliance itself. This safeguard is called ground-fault detection,
and it works like this:

In a properly functioning appliance (shown above), the current measured

through the hot conductor should be exactly equal to the current through the neutral
conductor, because there's only one path for electrons to flow in the circuit. With no
fault inside the appliance, there is no connection between circuit conductors and the
person touching the case, and therefore no shock.

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 If, however, the hot wire accidently contacts the metal case, there will be current
through the person touching the case. The presence of a shock current will be
manifested as a difference of current between the two power conductors at the
receptacle:

This difference in current between the "hot" and "neutral" conductors will only
exist if there is current through the ground connection, meaning that there is a fault in
the system.

Therefore, such a current difference can be used as a way to detect a fault

condition. If a device is set up to measure this difference of current between the two
power conductors, a detection of current imbalance can be used to trigger the opening
of a disconnect switch, thus cutting power off and preventing serious shock:

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 Such devices are called Ground Fault Current Interrupters, or GFCIs for short, and
they are compact enough to be built into a power receptacle. These receptacles are
easily identified by their distinctive "Test" and "Reset" buttons. The big advantage with
using this approach to ensure safety is that it works regardless of the appliance's
design. Of course, using a double-insulated or grounded appliance in addition to a GFCI
receptacle would be better yet, but it's comforting to know that something can be
done to improve safety above and beyond the design and condition of the appliance.

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