“Data base is a collection of related data.

It is a collection
of large volume of facts and figures in a orderly manner”.
Data base has the following implicit properties
1. A database represent aspects of real word.
2. A data base is designed built and populated with a
data for a specific purpose.it has an intended group
for a user.
What are the four main types of actions involved in a
database? Briefly discuss each
OR
What does defining, constructing, manipulating and
sharing of database mean?

➢The DBMS is a general purpose software system that

facilitates defining, constructing, manipulating and sharing
databases among various users and applications.
➢ Defining: a database involves specifying the datatypes,
structures and constraints of the data to be stored in the
database.

➢ Constructing the database is the process of storing the

data on some storage medium that is controlled by the
DBMS
➢ Manipulating a database includes functions such as
querying the database to retrieve specific data,
Updating the data bases to reflect changes in the mini
world and generating reports from the data

➢ Sharing a database allows multiple users and

programs to access the database simultaneously
What does protecting and maintaining a database mean?

➢ A DBMS is responsible not only for defining,

constructing, manipulating and storing the database but
must also be able to protect and maintain the database
for a long period of time.
➢ Protection includes system protection against hardware
or software crashes and security protection against
unauthorized or malicious access.

➢ Maintaining a database refers to allowing the system to

evolve over time as the requirements change over time.
 What are the responsibilities of a DBA?

i) The main responsibility of the DBA is to look after

the database, the DBMS and associated software's
ii) He is responsible for authorizing access to the database,
Co-ordinating and maintaining monitoring its use and also
acquiring the hardware and software resources that are
required.

iii) The DBA would be able responsible for problems such

as breach of security or poor response time (slow
execution).
 What are the responsibilities of the database designer?

➢ Data base designers are responsible for

identifying the data to be stored in the
database.
➢ choosing appropriate structures to represent
and store this data .
➢ He is responsible to communicate with all prospective
database users in order to understand their
requirements and to create a design that meets these
requirements.
➢Database designers typically interact with each
potential group of users and develop "views" of the
database as per the requirements of these groups.
 What are the different types of database end-users?
Discuss the main activities of each

End users are such people primarily for whom the database is
created.
They are such people whose jobs require access to the database
for querying, updating, generating reports, etc.
There are several categories of end users such as
➢ casual end users:- are such users who
occasionally. access the database.
➢ They may need different information each time
they query the database.
➢ These users include managers, occasional
browsers, etc.
Naive or parametric end users: make up the major
portion of database users. They constantly query the
database using standard types of queries and updates
called "canned transactions".
sophisticated end users: includes engineers, scientists
business analysts and others who thoroughly familiarize
themselves with the DBMS to implement applications
(programs) that meet their complex requirement.
 Stand alone users:
➢ maintain personal databases by using ready made
programming packages that provide easy to use menu based
interface.
➢ Normally naïve end-users need to learn very little about the facilities
provided by DBMS.

➢ Casual users learn only a few facilities that they may use
repeatedly.
➢ Sophisticated use learn most of the facilities of the DBMS
 Who are are the workers behind the scene in a DBMS
software Who are and system environment.

Workers behind the scene would include such persons.

who are typically not interested in the database itself.
They include people such as
DBMS system designers: who design modules such as modules
for implementing catalog, modules for controlling concurrency,
handling data recovery & security.
Tool developers : who design tools (software packages)
tools are the optional packages that are often purchased
separately.
Operators and maintenance personnel: are responsible
actual running and maintenance of hardware and software
system..
 Discuss the main characteristics of database approach and
how it differs from traditional file systems?
➢ A number of characteristics distinguish the database approach
from the traditional approach of programming with files such
as
➢ In traditional file-processing, each user defines and
implements the files needed for his specific application.

➢ Each users maintains separate files which promotes

redundancy, wastage of valuable memory space and
inconsistency.
➢ The database approach on the other hand maintains a
single repository of data which can be accessed by
various users.
➢ Hence it avoids redundancy and inconsistency.
 1. self describing nature of the database systems
➢ The traditional file processing system does not contain
the description of itself.
➢ However, the database approach not only stores the
database but also stores a complete description of the
database structure and constraint in a "catalog".

➢ The information stored in the catalog is referred to as

the "metadata".
 Insulation between programs and data
➢ In traditional file processing approach, data definition
is a part of the application program.
➢ Hence, programs would be able to work with only one
specific database.
➢ In the database approach, data definition is stored in
the DBMS catalog separately from access programs
This property is called as "program-data independence"
➢ Further application programs can operate on the data
by invoking operations (functions) regardless of how
these operations are implemented. This is termed as
"program operation independence.
➢This characteristics of the database that allows
program- data independence and program -
operation independence is called as data
abstraction.
 Support of multiple views of the data
➢ traditional file processing approach supports a single
view of the data.
➢ However, a database approach support multiple view of the
data.
➢ Database approach supports users each of whom would
require a certain view of the database.

➢ Hence, DBMS approach provides facilities for defining

multiple views.
 sharing of data and multi-user transaction:
➢ Traditional file processing approach did not support sharing
of data..
➢ How ever, supports sharing of the modern database approach
data as well as multi-user transactions.
➢ dbms includes features such as concurrency control to ensure
that several users trying to update the same data to do so in a
controlled manner. It also enforces isolation property,
atomicity property.
 Discuss the main categories of Data Models
Data Models can be categorized mainly into three
groups namely

➢High level or conceptual data models

➢Representation or implementation data models
➢Lower level or physical data model
 High level or conceptual data model
➢ These data models provide concepts that are close to
the many users perceive data.
➢ It uses concepts such as entity attribute relationship etc.
➢ An entity represents a real world object such as an
employee property etc.
➢ An attribute represents some property that further
describe the entity such as employee name salary sex
etc.
➢ Relationship among two or more entities represent an
association among entities such as works on is the
relationship between employee and project entity
 Representation or implementation data model
➢ Are the data models used most frequently in commercial DBMS.
➢ It includes models such as network model hierarchical model
relational model etc.

Low level or physical data model

➢ This model provides concepts that describe the detail of
how data is stored in the computer.
➢ It specifies the record format record ordering access
part etc.
 Describe need the mappings 3- schema architecture. Why
do we between schema levels? How do different schema
support this definition languages. architecture?
➢ The goal of the 3-schema
architecture is to separate the user
application and the physical
database.
➢ In this architecture schema can be
defined at the following three level
➢ Internal schema
➢ Conceptual schema
➢ External schema
➢ Internal Schema :Which describe the physical storage
structure of the database.

➢ Conceptual Schema: Which describe the structure of the

whole database for a entities, attributes, data types,
relationships, constraints etc.

➢ External Schema: Which describes a part of the databases

that a particular user group is interested in and hides the rest
of the databases.
➢ The 3 schema given above are only description of the data.
➢ The actual data exists at the physical level.
➢ In the 3 schema architecture, each user group refers to its own
external schema
➢ Hence the DBMS must transform a request specified on the
external schema into a request on the conceptual schema.
➢ Which in turn must transform to a request on the internal
schema.
➢ The data extracted from the database must be re-formatted to
match the user’s external view...

➢ This process of transforming request and result b/w

levels is called as “mapping”.
The three schema architecture to promote the concept of logical
data independence and physical data independence.
“Logical data independence” refers capacity to change the
conceptual scheme without having to change the external
scheme.
“Physical data independence” refers capacity to change the
Internal scheme without having to change the conceptual
scheme
 Write a note on the different DBMS languages
There are many DBMS languages such as
Data Definition Language (DDL)
➢ which is used by the database designers and the
administrators to specify the conceptual schema.

Storage definition language(SDL)

➢ is used to specify the internal schema
 View definition language(VDL)
➢ this used to specify user use and their mapping to a
conceptual schema.

Data manipulation language(DML)

➢ has a name suggest it used to perform manipulations
on the database such as retrieval insertion deletion
modification etc
 There are 2 main types of DML’S namely
1. High level OR non procedural DML.
2. Low-level OR procedural DML.

➢ High level DML OR non procedural DML can be used on

its own to specify complex database operations.
➢ These statements can also be embedded in a general
purpose programming language called the host
language
➢ Low level OR procedural DML cannot be used on its
own to specify complex database operations.
➢ Rather They must be compulsorily embedded in a
general purpose programming language called the host
language.

➢ In such a case DML is called the data sublanguage.

 What are the advantages of DBMS support OR discuss the
capabilities that must be provided by DBMS.
➢ A good DBMS must support the concept of catalog and hence
must possess a self describing nature.
➢ it must achieve insulation between program and data and
program and operation hence must achieve data abstraction.
➢ it also supports multiple views on data and must permit
sharing of data and multi user transaction processing.
➢ Controlling redundancy: a good DBMS must control
redundancy redundancy refers to the existence of same
data multiple times in the database.

➢ it leads to duplications of efforts wastage of storage

space and inconsistency. ideally a good DBMS design
must store each logical data item at only one place in
the database.
Restricting unauthorized access;
➢ in a multi user environment all users must not be
allowed to access all the information that is there
in the database.
➢ Therefore a good DBMS master provide security
and authorization subsystem which the DBA users
to create accounts with access restrictions.
➢ Providing storage structures for efficient query
processing :
is another important requirement the query
processing and optimization n module is responsible
for this activity.
Providing multi user interface:
➢ Because many types of users with varying levels
of technical knowledge uses the database.
➢ A good DBMS must provide a variety of user
interface such as Menu driven interface, natural
language interface, graphical user interface.
 Enforcing integrity constraints
➢ most database application have certain integrity
constraints that must hold for the data such as specifying
the data type for each item specifying uniqueness on
data item values etc.
➢ the Good DBMS should provide a capabilities for
defining and enforcing this constraints.
Providing persistent storage for programming object
➢ is another important expectation go to database
traditional database system normally suffered from
impedance mismatch problem.
➢ since data structure provided by DBMS and the

programming languages what incompatible.

 Discuss the different types of user friendly interface and
the types of users typically use each.t
➢ Many user-friendly interfaces are provided by DBMS to
enable the users to interact with the data in the database.
➢ Menu based interface.
➢ form based interface.
➢ natural language interface.
➢ graphical user interface.
➢ interfaces for parametric.
➢ users interface for the DBA.
➢ Menu based interface present the users with a list of
options (called menus) that helps the users to make a
request.
➢ the advantages of this is the user need not to
memorize the specific commands and syntax
➢ Form based interface presents a form to each users users can fill out
all of the form entries are a few entries to insert new data onto the
database.
➢ Forms are usually designed and programmed by Naïve users.
➢ Natural language interface accept request in English or some
other languages and attempts to understand them natural
language interface .
➢ would have a Dictionary of important words if the
interpretation is successful it generates a high level query
otherwise a dialogue is started with the users to clarify the
request
➢ Graphical user interface presents a picture form of the
schema.
➢ The user can then use a pointing devices such as a
mouse to make a choice out of the many options
provided by the GUI
➢ Interface for parametric uses specially designed
keeping in mind the parametric (uses such as a
bank teller).
➢ who often have a small set of operation to be
performed function keys on the keyboard can be
programmed to initiate release commands
➢ this allows parametric users to operate with the
minimum number of key strokes
➢ Interface for the DBA contains privileged
commands that can be used only by the DBA
staff.
➢ this includes commands for creating accounts
generating account authorization etc.
 With the new diagram explain the component module of
DBMS and their interaction

➢ A DBMS a complex software system the component

module of DBMS under interaction is as shown below
➢It consists of two half the top half refers to
various users of database environment and their
interfaces.
➢ the lower half shows the internals of DBMS
responsible for storage of data.
➢ As noted above top half contains interfaces for the
DBA staff, casual users, application programmers and
parametric users.
➢ The DDL compiler processes schema definition
(specified in DDL) and store the descriptions of
schemas DBMS catalog.
➢ The query compiler accepts interactive queries and
convert them into an intermediate form and passes it
onto the query optimizer.
➢ Query optimizer would further optimize the queries
by elimination of redundancy reordering of operation
etc.
➢ The pre-compiler extracts DML commands from an
application program return in host language and sends
it to the DML compiler.
➢ the rest of the program is sent to the host language
compiler.
➢The lower half of the diagram contains A runtime
database processor and a stored data manager.

➢The runtime database processors executes

privileged commands, queries from the query
optimizers and compile transactions.
➢The data manager helps the runtime database
processor by using a basic operating system
services for carrying out low level input output
operations.
What are database utilities list a few common
functions the utilities perform.
➢Database utilities refers to additional facilities that
help the DBA to manage the database system
some of the common utilities are
➢ Loading. a loading utility is used to load existing
data files into the database.
➢ Backup a backup utility creates a backup
copy of the database they usually storing the
entire database onto the tape.

➢ This backup back up copy can be used to

restore the database in case catastrophic
failures.
Database storage reorganization :
➢ this utility can be used to reorganize a set of
data files into a different file organization to
improve performance.
 Performance monitoring :
➢ this utility provides the performance statistics of
the database to a DBA by using which he can
make scientific decision about improving
performance.
 What are the different ways of classifying
DBMS? explain
There are several criteria based upon the DBMS can
be classified
Based on the data modeling
they can be classified as relational data model,
object data model, hierarchical data model, network
data model, etc.
Based on the number of users
they can be classified as a single user system and
multi user system.

Based on the number of sites

they can be classified as centralized or
distributed.
Based on the type of software
at various sites they can be classified as
homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Based on the purpose
they can be classified as a specific purpose and
general purpose.

Mentioned criteria classification can be made based

on the cost, based on the access path
Different phases of database design OR high level conceptual data
model for database design
➢ The first step is called as the requirement collection
and analysis phase.

➢ during this phase, database designers interview the

database users to understand their expectations

➢ the end of the first phase the database designers

generates the data requirements and functional
requirements.
➢ When is the first step has been completed.
➢ the second step involves functional analysis of the
functional requirement of the preparation of the
conceptual design.
➢ using the data requirement this phase includes the
creation of entity types relationship and constraints.
➢ The third step in the database design is the actual
implementation of the database using a commercial
DBMS such as Oracle.
➢ this phase generates the database schema.
➢ this phase also marks the shift from high level data
model into implementation data model
➢ The last step in the data was designed is the physical
design phase.
➢ during which internal structures, index, access path,
file organization etc. are specified.
➢ Along with this, this phase also involves the design of
database transaction to match the functional
requirements.
 What is the difference between logical data independence and
physical data independent which one is harder to achieve.? Why?

➢ 3schema architecture can be used to achieve logical

independence and physical dependence.
➢Logical data independence refers to the capacity to
change the conceptual schema without having to
change external schema.
➢ include expansion of the database adding
constraints reducing the database.
➢ Physical data independence reference the capacity to
change the internal schema without having to change
the conceptual schema.
➢ schema may include reorganization of files, creations
of new access structures etc.
➢Physical data independent exits in most
databases.
➢The exact location of data on the disk,
encoding, compression, splitting, merging of
records etc. Are hidden from the user.
➢ Other hand logical data independence is
harder to achieve.
➢ Since it demands the schema and the next
higher level schema to be intact and only the
mappings b/w the 2 levels be changed.
➢ Write a note on centralized on client server
architecture for DBMS.
➢ Centralized architecture is such an arrangement in
which all the DBMS functionality, application program
execution and user interface processing work carried
out on one machine.
➢ In a client server architecture a client is typically
a user machine that provides user interface
capabilities and capabilities for local processing.

➢Then the client requires access to the database

that do not exist on that machine , it connects to a
server that provides the needed functionalities.
➢The server is a powerful system containing both
hardware and software that can provide services to
the client machine such as file access, printing etc.

➢ The two main types of client server architectures

are two tire and three architecture.
 Explain the operations of two tier client server architecture? how
does it differ from a three tier client server architecture

➢ A 2 tier client server architecture is such an

architectures in which the user interface program
and application program can run on the client
side.

➢ When the client requires a database access it

establishes a connection which is the DBMS.
➢ once the connection is created the client program can
communicate with the DBMS.
➢ A standard called as (ODBC) open database connectivity
provides an application programming interface.
➢ which allows client side program to call the DBMS as long
as both client and server machines how necessary software
installed on them.
➢ The advantages of architecture is simplicity and it’s compatibility
with the existing system
➢ Many web applications use a three tier architecture
which adds an additional layer called application
server or web server between the client and database
server.
➢ this additional layer stores business rules, procedures
and constraints that are used to access the database
from the database server.
➢ it can also improve database security by
checking it client credentials before forwarding
your request to the database server.

➢ List the summary of notations for E R Diagrams.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ATTRIBUTES

Are such attributes which can be

divided into a sub parts..
Attribute that cannot be further
subdivided are called as automatic
attribute
Most attributes have a single value for a
particular entity such attributes are called
single value attribute
The value of 1 attribute can be
obtained using the value of another
attribute.
That cannot be obtained by using the value of
another attribute it’s called as a stored attribute.
“The cardinality ratio of a binary relationship specifies the
maximum number of relationships instant can participate
in the possible cardinality ratio for binary relationship type
are,
➢1:1
➢1:N
➢N:1
➢M:N