General Wave Properties

(a) Wave motion

 Periodic oscillations (vibrations) that results in a transfer of energy

 Waves can be mechanical e.g. sound and earthquakes which require a material through which to
travel, or electromagnetic e.g. light that can travel across empty space (vacuum)

(b) Transfer of energy

• A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through vibrations from one place to another
without transferring matter or the medium. E.g. a wave travelling along a rope carries energy
away from the wave source but the rope does not have a net movement in the direction of energy
transfer.

1
  Individual rope particles do not move with the wave, they vibrate vertically about fixed positions

Wave terminology

Term Definition Unit

Wavelength λ The wavelength, λ of a wave is the shortest distance between two points moving m
in phase
Frequency f This is the number of complete waves f that pass a given point per second. Hz

Period T The period, T, is the time it takes for one complete wave to pass a given point s
1
𝑓=
𝑇
Speed v Distance travelled by a wave per second m/s

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜆
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = = 𝑓𝜆
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇

𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

Amplitude The amplitude, a, is the maximum displacement from the rest position or m
equilibrium position.
Transverse The direction of vibration of the medium is perpendicular to the direction in
wave which the wave is transferring energy
Longitudinal The direction of vibration of the medium is parallel to the direction in which the
wave wave is transferring energy

2
Transverse wave

 Each part of the wave is oscillating with the same frequency and amplitude but they are not all in
phase with one another. (i.e. some points are moving up, some down and some are stationary)
 Examples include: water waves, secondary earthquake waves (S waves) and light
 The highest point on a transverse wave is a crest and the lowest point a trough.
 One wavelength is the distance between adjacent crests or troughs.

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 Chapter 13 Notes
Light

_____

Laws of Reflection
- Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection
- Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie on same plane

Refraction
- Definition: Bending of light through different medium
- Light bends towards normal through denser medium
- When light travels from optically less dense to optically denser
medium, it bends towards the normal
- When light travels from optically denser to optically less dense
medium, it bends away from the normal
- Light travelling perpendicular to boundary passes undeflected

- Angle of Incidence: Angle between normal and incident ray

- Angle of Refraction: Angle between normal and refracted ray

Snell’s Law: 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2

 Chapter 13: Light

Rainbow Formation
- White light travels at the same speed in air
- When it enters the water droplet, blue light with shortest wavelength
bends the most, red light with longest wavelength bends the least

Optical Density
- Glass is optically denser
than air means light travels
slower in glass than air and
refracts more in glass than
in air → Measured using
refractive index, n

- Glass has refractive index n

of 1.5 means in glass,
speed of light is
2.0x10 ms or 1.5 times
8 -1

slower in glass than in air (air = 1.00, ice = 1.31, water = 1.33, crystal
= 1.8, diamond = 2.4
2
 Chapter 13: Light

Refractive Index

𝒄
𝒏=
𝒗
Where n is the refractive index
c is the speed of light in air
v is the speed of light in medium

 Example 1: What is the speed of light in a medium with a refractive

index of 2.4?

n = speed of light / speed of light in medium

2.4 = c/v
v = 3.0x108ms-1/2.4
= 1.3x108ms-1

Total Internal Reflection

● Occurs in optically denser medium, at angle above critical angle, c

Critical Angle:
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐 =
𝑛𝑚

3
 Chapter 16 Static Electricity

Types of charges

 A negative charge refers to an electron

 A positive charge refers to a proton or an atom which has lost electrons (ion)

Unit of charge

 1 electron has a charge of 1.6 × 10─19 C

 1 Coulomb of electric charge is made up of 6.25 × 10─18 electrons

Law of electrostatics

 Like charges repel and unlike charges attract

Testing the charge on an object

 Charged object attracts uncharged object

 Charged object also attracts object with the opposite charge
 Therefore, the only test for a charged object is repulsion

Electric field

 An electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a force

 (By convention) Direction of an electric field line is the direction of the force exerted on a small
positive test charge placed in the field
 Field line is perpendicular to the surface of the charged object
 Field lines always point away from a positive charge and towards a negative charge

Electric field of an isolated point charge

1
Electric field between two isolated point charges

Electrostatic charging by friction (rubbing)

Explanation:

 Electrons which are loosely attached (attracted) to the atoms at the surface of the material are
removed due to friction and deposited on the surface of the other material.
 Rubbing transfers electrons, which are negatively charged, from the surface of one material to the
other.
 The triboelectric series categorises materials based on their tendency to become positively or
negatively charged

Positive Negative
Air, human body, glass, nylon, wool Teflon, silicon, vinyl, polyethylene, rubber
2
*Take note: the charge on an object refers to excess charge

Electrostatic charging by induction

(1) Charging 2 conductors

(2) Charging one conductor

How is charge distributed on the surface of a conductor?

Charge density is highest where a surface is most sharply curved. Flat surfaces have a low charge density
compared with curved surfaces and charge density is highest at corners, edges and points on conductors.
(This does not apply to insulators because charge cannot flow to establish any particular distribution)

3
Discharging

Hazards of electrostatic charging

(1) Electrostatic discharge

Electric charges can accumulate on trucks due to friction between the road and the rotating tyres of the
trucks. When a sudden discharge occurs, it may cause sparks, and ignite flammable items that the trucks
may be carrying. To prevent this, some older petrol tankers have metal chain at the rear of the vehicle. This
chain hangs close to the ground, and provides an earthing path for excess charges.

(2) Anti-static bags

Electrostatic discharge can also damage electronic equipment, such a circuit boards and hard drives. To
protect these equipment, they are usually packed in antistatic packaging. Antistatic materials have a thin
layer of metallised film, which acts an an electrostatic shield for the equipment placed inside. (like a Faraday
cage)

(3) Lightning

 A thundercloud is electrically charged due to the turbulent winds and moving particles of ice and
water within the cloud
 Negatively charged base of cloud induces positive charge on the ground and the buildings below.
 Positive charge builds up at the points of the lightning conductor causing surrounding air particles to
be ionised. The ionised air particles then stream towards the cloud.
 The steady leakage of positive charge towards the clouds from the points and the flow of electrons
(from air) down the lightning conductor to earth helps to prevent a large build-up of charge on the
highest point of the building.

4
 Chapter 21 Electromagnetism

(a) Magnetic field patterns due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids

Recall: Use the right hand grip rule to determine direction of magnetic field/magnetic poles on a solenoid

Magnetic field due to currents in straight wire Magnetic field due to current in solenoid

1
 Effect of reversing direction of current and increasing current strength

Top View of currents

Strength of a magnetic field around a current carrying wire depends on:

 The strength of the current and the distance from the wire.

 Take note that the spacing between consecutive circles increases, this shows that the
magnetic weakens as distance increases
Magnetic field of a solenoid and a single loop

Magnetic field around a solenoid Magnetic field around a single loop

Determine the direction of the magnetic field inside outside each of the following diagrams. Use a ‘dot’ or
‘cross’ to represent the direction of the field.

2
Draw the magnetic field pattern around and inside the solenoids.

(b) Describe how the circuit breaker works

(c) Describe experiments that shows force on (i) current carrying conductor in a magnetic field (ii)
moving charged particles in a magnetic field (Motor Effect)

(i) Current carrying conductor

 A force is exerted on a current carrying conductor when it is placed perpendicular to a

magnetic field.
 The magnetic field set up by the current in the wire interacts with the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet, causing a force to be exerted on the wire.

3
 (ii) Force on a beam of charged particles in a magnetic field (replace current carrying conductor with
a moving charged particle)

(d) Deducing direction of force, current and magnetic field – use Fleming’s Left Hand rule

Fleming’s left hand rule shows that

when a current (second finger) is
perpendicular to the magnetic field it is
placed in (first finger), a force is
exerted on the current carrying
conductor (thumb)

Predict the direction of the force acting

on each charge moving through the
magnetic fields as shown.

4
Using a catapult field to illustrate the motor effect

The closely packed magnetic field lines below the wire in Fig 3 indicates that the magnetic field in that
region is stronger. Therefore, a net upward force will be exerted on the wire

Question 1

(a) A wire is wound around a soft-iron core forming a solenoid, as shown in the figure.

There is a gap in the core. The solenoid is connected in series with a 12 V battery and a variable resistor.
The resistance of the solenoid is 0.30  and the variable resistor is set so that it has a resistance of 4.5 .

(i) Calculate the current in the solenoid.

(ii) The current in the solenoid magnetises the soft-iron core. Explain how the electric circuit is used
to increase the strength of the magnetic field.

(iii) The figure below shows a horizontal, current-carrying wire PQ in the gap.

1. The magnetic field in the gap is uniform and vertically upwards. The current in PQ is from left to
right. Describe the effect of the magnetic field on PQ.

2. State the effect on PQ of increasing the strength of the magnetic field in the gap.

5
(b) The starter motor in a car is powered by a 12 V battery that is positioned next to the motor. The current
in the motor is 75 A.
(i) Calculate the power supplied by the battery.

(ii) Suggest and explain why the wires that connect the motor to the battery are very thick.

Question 2

The figure shows the coil of a loudspeaker attached to a cardboard cone. One pole of a stationary cylindrical
magnet lies near to the coil.

There is an alternating current in the coil of the loudspeaker. A student hears the note produced.

(a) (i) Explain why the cone of the loudspeaker vibrates.

(ii) Explain how the vibrating cone produces sound waves in the air.

(b) A stronger cylindrical magnet is now used. State the difference in the note heard.

Motor effect and Loudspeaker

Current through coil produces a changing magnetic

field

This magnetic field interacts with the magnetic field of

the permanent magnet causing a force to act on the
cone

As the alternating current in the coil changes direction

and magnitude, the speaker cone moves back and
forth

The loudness of the sound depends on the current

The pitch of the sound depends on the frequency of the

alternating current

6
(e) Force exerted on parallel current carrying conductors

Magnetic field of one conductor interacts with the magnetic field of the other conductor, causing a force to
be exerted on both conductors (Newton’s third law)

The direction of the force between parallel current-carrying conductors is:

 Repulsive if the currents are in opposite directions

 Attractive if the currents are in the same direction

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(f) Force on a current carrying coil in a magnetic field

To increase the turning effect

 Increase number of turns on the coil

 Increase the magnitude of the current
 Increase the strength of the permanent magnet

(g) Electric motor (D.C. motor)

A force acts on both sides of the coil but in

opposite directions because the current is in
opposite directions. These two forces produce a
turning effect which turns the coil anticlockwise.
The centre of the coil is connected to an axle
which can be used to do work e.g. spin the
blades of a fan.

Motors change electrical energy into mechanical energy (kinetic or potential).

They consist of magnets fixed to the casing of the motor (stator) so they remain stationary and a rotating
armature on which the coils of wire are wound.

When a current flows through the coils, the interaction between the magnetic field due to the current and
the fixed magnet causes the armature to rotate. (Fleming’s left hand rule)

(a) Which way does the coil rotate as seen

from X?
(b) Identify the parts A to F.

8
(h) Action of a split ring commutator

A split ring commutator acts as a switching

device to change the direction of the current
in the coil every half rotation so that the
direction of the moment remains constant.

Current flows in the direction ABCD Commutator and coil rotates by 90°
Upward force acts on D No current flows into coil due to split in commutator

Commutator and coil continue moving due to Current flows in the direction DCBA
inertia Downward force acts on D.
Current reverses direction and flows in the direction Direction of moment remains as anticlockwise
DCBA throughout
Downward force acts on D

The turning effect can be increased by increasing number of turns on the coil, placing a soft iron core in
the centre of the coil, increasing current and using stronger magnets (e.g. electromagnet)

Winding the coils on a soft iron cylinder

transfers the magnetic field more
efficiently from the permanent magnet
to the coils than an air core.

9
Extension:

(Recall: Moment = Force × perpendicular distance)

Magnetic force = BIl (B = magnetic field strength, I = current, l = length of coil perpendicular to magnetic field)

Formula can be simplified to Moment = nBIA (n = number of turns, A = area of coil)

Question 3

The figure shows several stages in the rotation of the coil in a simple motor.

(a) Describe how the moment on the coil changes as it rotates from position A to D.

(b) Sketch a graph to represent the change in moment.

(c) At which point in the rotation of the coil must the current flowing through it change direction? Explain
your answer.

10
 Parts Function
Stator Stationary part of motor comprising electromagnets/permanent magnet
Protective covering used to house whole motor
Field winding Copper wire wound on stator used to produce magnetic field if permanent magnets
are not used
Armature core Attached to rotor (rotating part of motor)
(soft iron core) Made of iron and is used to concentrate the magnetic field to increase the turning
effect
Armature winding Copper wire wound on the rotor on which a force is exerted when current flows
Provides the turning effect by converting electrical energy to kinetic energy
Connected to the axle from which useful work is extracted (e.g. spinning a turbine or
fan blades)
Commutator Reverses direction of current flow every half revolution of the rotor
Brush Made of graphite or carbon
Makes sliding contact with commutator
Supplies current from external circuit to commutator to armature winding.

Question 4

The figure shows a type of motor. PQ and RS are solenoids. The solenoids and the coil ABCD are connected
in parallel to a battery.

a) Explain briefly how the motor works.

________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________

b) State
(i) the polarity at end Q of the solenoid PQ;
(ii) the direction of current in the coil;
(iii) the direction of rotation of the coil as seen by the observer.

11
c) Name the component E and explain its function.
________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

d) The motor can be modified and converted into a simple ammeter to allow it to measure the current
passing through. Suggest and explain briefly how this can be done.
________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

e) A student says that if the battery is replaced by a 50 Hz a.c supply, the coil will only oscillate to and
fro hence the motor will not function properly. Explain why the student is incorrect.
________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

12
O Level 2015

Applications of electrostatic charging

(1) Electrostatic precipitator

 Used to remove smoke and dust from the waste gases going up the chimneys of factories and power
stations.
 The wire grid is kept highly charged so that dust particles in the gas going up the chimney are given
the same charge.
 The charged particles are repelled from the wire grid and attracted to the earthed plates where they
become deposited.
 These plates are tapped from time to time so that the dust particles fall down the chimney and are
removed at the bottom.

5
(2) Fingerprinting

 Metal plate with a coating of fine powder is given a large electrical charge. The specimen is given the
opposite charge.
 The powder is repelled from the metal towards the specimen.
 When the powder hits the specimen, it is stuck to the ridges of the fingerprint
 Elsewhere, the powder is repelled and falls back on to the metal plate.

(3) Photocopier

 Surface of drum is covered with selenium, which becomes conducting when exposed to light.
 Toner is sprayed on drum and sticks to part of the drum
 Paper is passed over the drum and the toner powder sticks to the paper
 The powder on the paper is melted and forms a permanent image on the paper

Method 1 (O level 2012)

6
Method 2 (O level 2007)

7
(4) Spray painting

A fine needle at the tip of the spray paint gun is charged negatively. This gives all the paint droplets exiting
the spray gun a negative charge. If the object to be spray-painted is given a positive charge, then the paint is
attracted to it covering the object evenly on all sides.

Additional information

If a negatively charged rod is brought close to a small piece of paper (which is an insulator). The excess
electrons on the rod repel the electrons in the atoms which make up the paper, but attract the positively
charged nuclei. Since paper is an insulator, the repelled electrons are not free to move through the paper.
Instead, the atoms in the paper polarize: i.e., their nuclei move slightly towards, and their electrons slightly
away from, the rod. The attractive force between the excess electrons in the rod and the atomic nuclei in
the paper is slightly greater than the repulsion between the electrons in the rod and those in the paper,
since the electrons in the paper are, on average, slightly further away from the rod than the nuclei. Thus,
there is a net attractive force between the rod and the paper. In fact, if the piece of paper is sufficiently light
then it can actually be picked up using the rod. In summary, whenever a charged object is brought close to
an insulator, the atoms in the insulator polarize, resulting in a net attractive force between the object and the
insulator.

8
 Chapter 13: Light

Optical Fibers
- Uses Total Internal Reflection
- Information can be transmitted from one place to another by
sending pulses of light through an optical fiber
- Used in telecommunication to transmit telephone and cable
television signals, and internet data
- Advantages
- Light travels faster than electricity → Data travels faster than in
metal wires
- Less signal loss than metal wires + Weigh less than metal wires
- Less expensive + Non-flammable

Angle of Incidence
- i < c → Refraction
- i = c → r = 90º
- i > c → Total internal reflection

4
 Chapter 13: Light

Thin Convex Lenses

● Optical Centre
○ The midpoint between the surfaces of the lens on its principal
axis.
● Principal axis
○ The horizontal line passing through the optical centre of the lens.
● Focal point
○ The point where the refracted light rays converge
● Focal length
○ The distance between the centre of the lens and the focal point
of the lens

Thin Lens
1 1 1
- Formula → 𝑢+ 𝑖 = 𝑓
Where u = distance of object from optical centre,
i = distance of image from optical centre,
f = distance of focal point from optical centre
- When u > f, image formed is real, inverted, and on opposite side of lens
as object

5
 Chapter 13: Light

- When u < f, image formed is virtual, upright and on same side of lens
as object

How do diverging lenses work? (concave)

- As light rays travel from air to lens, optically less dense to denser,
decreasing speed of light, resulting in change in direction
How do converging lenses work? (convex)
- Cause the light rays to converge at a focal point
- Light rays hit lens at different angles, so they refract at different angles
- Angle of refraction is largest at lens edge while no refraction occurs in
the middle
- Depending on distance of object from optical center, image has different
characteristics (see thin lens formula)

Thin Converging Lens

- Ray passing through optical centre continues in same direction without
bending
- Ray passing through thin lens, parallel to principal axis, always hits focal
point

6
 Chapter 13: Light

- Ray passing through focal point always travels parallel to principal axis

Ray Diagrams:

● Ray 1 is parallel to principal axis

● Ray 2 passes through optical centre
● Ray 3 passes through focal point f

Terms to describe the Image

● Orientation
○ Upright / inverted
● Size
○ Diminished / same size / magnified
● Type
○ Real (can be captured on screen) / virtual

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 Chapter 13: Light

Case 1: *the rays are usually PARALLEL!

● U (object dist) = infinite
● v (image dist) = F
● Inverted, diminished, real
● Used in telescope

Case 2
● u > 2f
● f < v < 2f
● Inverted, diminished, real
● Used in camera, human eye

Case 3
● u = 2f
● v = 2f
● Inverted, same size, real
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 Chapter 13: Light

● Used in photocopier

Case 4
● f < u < 2f
● v > 2f
● Inverted, magnified, real
● Used in projector

Case 5
● u=f
● v = infinity
● Inverted, magnified, real
● Used in torchlight

9
 Chapter 13: Light

Case 6
● u<f
● v = behind object
● upright, magnified, virtual
● Used in magnifying glass

Summary of ray diagrams

10
 Chapter 13: Light

How to Draw Ray Diagrams

- Draw two arrows from the top of the object to indicate the light rays
reflected from the object (must draw b)
- Light ray parallel to principal axis
- Light ray that passes through optical centre
- Locate point where the light rays intersect and draw the top of the image
there
- If the focal point is not on the opposite side of the lens (i.e. light rays
diverge as below), extend the light rays until they converge and draw
the image there

Example 1:
If the focal length of the camera is 10 cm, where should the object be placed
from the camera?
- Not 20 cm (exactly 2F), >20cm
Example 2:
A light ray travels into a thin converging lens. Which is the emergent ray?
- A: Draw an object to the light ray + another light ray through the optical
center as this ray will not bend, and will converge with the emerging ray
11
 Chapter 13: Light

Example 3:
Half the lens is blocked. What changes occur to the image formed?
- Less bright
Example 4:
A lens forms a blurred image of an object on a screen. How can image be
focused on screen?
- Use a lens of longer focal length at the same position
Example 5:
A glass block is replaced with one which has higher refractive index. Total
internal reflection now occurs at the top surface. Why?
- With higher refractive index, light ray is refracted more when it enters
the glass block → Smaller angle of refraction and larger angle of
incidence at B (inside block) that is greater than critical angle → Total
internal reflection
- As refractive index increases, critical angle becomes smaller →
Angle of incidence is now greater than critical angle → Total internal
reflection

12
Longitudinal wave
 When a longitudinal wave transfers energy through a medium, the medium itself has no net
movement; it vibrates about a fixed position.
 Examples: sound and primary earthquake waves (P waves)

 One wavelength is the distance between adjacent compressions or rarefactions

Graphical representation of waves

4
 The graph below shows the vertical displacement of
point Q with time

Wavefront

Waves on a ripple tank are produced

continuously by a motor that vibrates a
small dipper or beam suspended on
the water surface. It can be used to
study wave behavior.

5
 A wavefront is an imaginary line
joining adjacent points moving in
phase. (e.g. a line joining crests).
The distance between adjacent
wavefronts is one wavelength

Compare transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse Longitudinal
Production Medium vibrates Electric and magnetic fields Medium vibrates parallel
perpendicular to the vibrating perpendicular to to the direction of
direction of energy each other energy transfer
transfer (mechanical) (electromagnetic) (mechanical)
Medium Yes No Yes
Transmission Transfer energy Transfer energy Transfer energy
Examples Water Light Sound
Earthquake S waves Earthquake P waves

A wave in a string is travelling to the right at 2.0 m/s. The diagram below shows its displacement-
distance graph at t = 0 s.

(a) Sketch a displacement distance graph to

show how the wave appears at 3.0 s.
(b) Mark and label the position of P and Q
on the wave drawn in (a)

6
Describe how the speed, frequency and wavelength of a water wave change when it enters shallower water.

Characteristics Deep water to shallow water

Speed
Wavelength
frequency

7
Figures 12.13a and 12.13b show the displacement-position and displacement-time graph of a wave
travelling along a length of rope respectively.

Determine
(a) Amplitude a;

(b) Wavelength λ;

(c) Period T;

(d) Frequency f;

(e) Speed of the wave v.