Definitions and Concepts for CAIE Physics GCSE

Topic 5: Atomic Physics

Definitions in ​bold ​are for extended students only

5.1 The Nuclear Atom

5.1.1 Atomic Model

Alpha particle: ​A positively charged particle consisting of two protons and two
neutrons. They are highly ionising, but can be stopped by a few centimetres of
air.

Atom: ​The smallest component of an element having the chemical properties of

the element, consisting of a nucleus containing combinations of neutrons and
protons and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus by electrical attraction.

Electrons: ​A negatively charged constituent of the atom, that are found in different
energy levels, around the nucleus.

5.1.2 Nucleus

Isotopes: ​Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
The atomic number is the same, but the mass number is different.

Nuclear fission: ​The splitting of a large and unstable nucleus into two smaller
and more stable nuclei to produce energy. This is the method currently used in
nuclear power stations.

Nuclear fusion:​ ​The joining of two small, light nuclei to form a larger, heavier
one and release energy. It cannot happen at low pressures and temperatures
since in these conditions the electrostatic repulsion of protons in the
nucleus cannot be overcome.

Nucleon number: ​The number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Nucleus: ​Is a collection of particles called protons, which are positively charged,
and neutrons, which are electrically neutral.

Nuclide: ​Refers to an atom with a distinct number of protons and neutrons in its
nucleus.

Nuclide notation​: Is a shorthand method of showing information about atoms.

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Proton number: ​The number of protons found in an atom of a specific element. Each
element has a different proton number.

5.2 Radioactivity

5.2.1 Detection of Radioactivity

Background radiation: ​Radiation that is found in small quantities all around us and
originates from natural sources such as rocks and cosmic rays, as well as from
man-made sources such as nuclear weapons testing and accidents.

Beta particle: ​A high speed electron that a nucleus emits when a neutron converts
into a proton. ​They are ionising but can be stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium.

Gamma ray:​ Electromagnetic radiation emitted from a nucleus. They have a very high
penetrating power and require several centimetre of lead to absorb them.

5.2.2 Characteristics of the three kinds of Emission

Ionisation​: The process in which an electron is given enough energy to

break away from an atom.

Random nature of radioactive decay: ​You cannot predict which nuclei in a

radioactive sample will decay next, or when the next decay will occur - it is a random
process.

5.2.3 Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay: ​The random process involving unstable nuclei emitting radiation
to become more stable. During α- or β-decay the nucleus changes to that of a different
element.

5.2.4 Half-Life

Half life: ​The time it takes for the number of unstable nuclei of an isotope in a
sample to halve, or the time it takes for the initial count rate of a sample of the
isotope to halve. It is different for different isotopes.

5.2.5 Safety Precautions

Ionising radiation: ​Radiation that can cause cell mutations, damage cells and tissues,
and lead to cancers.

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 CIE Physics IGCSE

Topic 5: Atomic Physics

Summary Notes

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The nuclear atom

An atom consists of:

● A positively charged nucleus made of:
○ Positive protons
○ Neutral neutrons
● Surrounded by negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus

The radius of the nucleus is a lot smaller than the radius of the entire atom. Almost all the mass of
the atoms lies in the nucleus.

Particle Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0.0005 -1

Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Isotopes are forms of an element’s
atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.
For a given nuclide 𝑍𝐴 𝑋 :
● X is the symbol of the element
● A is the nucleon number (number of neutrons and protons)
● Z is the proton number (number of protons)

Alpha particle scattering:

● An early model of the atom proposed by JJ Thomson
was the plum pudding model - that the atom consisted
of a cloud of positive charge with negatively charged
electrons dotted around inside it.
● In Rutherford’s scattering experiment, he aimed a beam
of alpha particles at a thin gold foil. He concluded that:
○ The atom was composed primarily of empty space
because most alpha particles passed straight through.
○ It had a nucleus which was massive and contained most
of the mass of the atom because it deflected some alpha
particles straight back.
○ The nucleus was positively charged because it repelled
the positively charged alpha particles.
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Nuclear fission:
● The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission
● Uranium-235 is a commonly used isotope as the fuel in nuclear reactors
● When a Uranium-235 nucleus absorbs a neutron, it splits into two daughter nuclei
and 2 or 3 neutrons, releasing energy in the process
● The neutrons then can induce further fission events in a chain reaction

Nuclear fusion:
● The process of fusing two nuclei to form a larger nucleus is called nuclear fusion
● Energy is released during this process
● Nuclear fusion is how the sun and other stars release energy

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Radioactivity
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous transformation of an unstable nucleus into a more stable
one by the release of radiation. It is a random process which means one cannot know what
nucleus will decay and when it will decay because it is down to chance.

Decay processes:

● Alpha:
○ A heavy nucleus emits an alpha particle (helium nucleus).
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴−4 4
equation: 𝑍 𝑋→ 𝑍−2 𝑌+ 2 𝛼
○ They are highly ionising and weakly penetrating. They are stopped by a sheet of
paper.
○ They are slightly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
● Beta:
○ A neutron turns into a proton and emits a beta particle (electron)
○ The nucleus changes to that of a different element according to the following
𝐴 𝐴 0
equation: 𝑍 𝑋→ 𝑍+1 𝑌+
−1 𝑒−
○ They are moderately ionising and moderately penetrating. They are stopped by a
thin sheet of aluminium.
○ They are greatly deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
● Gamma:
○ After a previous decay, a nuclei with excess energy emits a gamma particle.
○ Gamma particles are a form of electromagnetic radiation.
○ They are lowly ionising and highly penetrating. They are stopped by many
centimetres of lead.
○ They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

Some ways of detecting radiation include:

● Photographic film:
○ The more radiation absorbed by the film, the darker it gets (the film is initially white).
○ They are worn as badges by people who work with radiation, to check how much
exposure they have had.
● Geiger-Muller tube:
○ A Geiger-Muller tube is a tube which can detect radiation.
○ Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to the machine, which
produces a clicking sound. The greater the frequency of clicks, the more radiation
present.
● Cloud chamber:
○ A cloud chamber is a small container full of water vapour.
○ Alpha particles create short, broad tracks while beta particles produce long, wispy
tracks.

Weak radiation that can be detected from external sources is called background radiation. Sources
of background radiation include:
● Cosmic rays
● Radiation from underground rocks
● Nuclear fallout
● Medical rays

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 ● The half-life of an isotope is
the time taken for half the
nuclei to decay, or the time
taken for the activity to
halve.
● In the graph, the count rate
drops from 80 to 40 counts
per minute in 2 days, which
means the half-life is
around 2 days.
● Background radiation
has to be subtracted
before attempting to
perform half-life
calculations

Uses of radioactivity:
● Smoke detectors
○ Long half life alpha emitters are used in smoke detectors.
○ Alpha particles cause a current in the alarm.
○ If smoke enters the detector, some of the alpha particles are absorbed and the
current drops, triggering the alarm.
● Thickness monitoring
○ Long half life beta emitters can be used for thickness monitoring of metal
sheets.
○ A source and receiver are placed on either side of the sheet during its
production. If there is a drop or rise in the number of beta particles detected,
then the thickness of the sheet has changed and needs to be adjusted.
● Sterilisation of equipment
○ Gamma emitters are used to kill bacteria or parasites on equipment so it is
safe for operations.
● Diagnosis and treatment
○ Short half life gamma emitters such as technetium-99m are used as tracers in
medicine as they concentrate in certain parts of the body.
■ The half life must be long enough for diagnostic procedures to be
performed, but short enough to not remain radioactive for too long.
○ Other gamma emitters such as cobalt-60 can be used to destroy tumours with
a high dose of radiation.

Exposure to radiation can destroy living cell membranes by ionisation, causing the cells to die, or
damage DNA which causes mutations that could lead to cancer.

Safety measures include:

● Minimising the time of exposure to radiation. For example, radioactive tracers with a short
half life should be used.
● Keeping as big a distance from the radioactive source as possible. They should be handled
using tongs and held far away from people.
● Using shielding against radiation, such as the concrete shielding around a nuclear reactor.
Radioactive sources must also be kept in a lead-lined box.

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