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© Eru, A. N., & Ayegba, S. I.

First Published: December, 2020

Fundamentals of Information
and Communication
Technology

ISBN: 978-978-989-198-6

Publisher: Optimism Academic Publishers

Makurdi, Nigeria.

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 CHAPTER ONE

CONCEPT OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
The acronym ‘ICT’ stands for Information and Communications
Technology and ICTs stands for Information and Communication
Technologies. ICTs are the device set of technological tools and
resources used to communicate, create, disseminate, store, and
manage information. These technologies include computers, the
internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and television), and
telephony. ICT has been of immense contribution to advancement
and sustenance of several disciplinary areas and concepts. ICTs
have been touted as potentially enabling tools for educational and
economic change as well as for sustainable development. When
used appropriately, different ICTs are said to help expand access
to sustainable development.

What is ICT?
Many scholars have viewed the concept of ICT from different
perspectives. The term, Information and Communications
Technology (ICT) have been introduced in the early 1990s to
replace Information Technology (IT) in recognition of the
communicating abilities and facilities offered by the computer.
However, while most people adopted the term ICT, people in
higher education used the term Communication and Information
Technology (C & IT) to refer to the same concept.
ICT refers to a broad field encompassing computers,
communication equipment and the services associated with them.
This means that ICT is not just considered as applications and
systems but also as skill for life. In this sense, it is viewed in line

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with literacy and numeracy as a fundamental skill that every
individual needs so as to live confidently, effectively and
independently in a modern or contemporary society.ICT is also
viewed as a broad subject concerned with technology and other
aspects of managing and processing information and that it deals
with the use of electronic computers and computer software to
convert, store, protect, process, transmit, and retrieve information
(Hameed, 2006). The term ICT was coined to reflect the seamless
convergence of digital processing and telecommunications.
As commonly perceived, it is not limited to the modern
sophisticated, high technology gadgets or networks; In fact, ICTs
have been in use for many decades. For instance, i n postal
services and radio as communication mediums to transmit
information even to very remote places. For ease of use, these can
be divided into old and new ICTs wherein the former one includes
Radio, Television, Telephone, Fax, Telegram, etc. while the later
comprises of data networks, e-mail, World Wide Web (or
internet) and cutting-edge wireless and wire line technologies.
The term “ICT” describes the use of computer-based technology
and the internet to make information and communication services
available to a wide range of users. The term is used broadly to
address a range of technologies, including telephones. Eru,
Ayegba and Ayangeaor (2019) added that, central to these is the
internet, which provides the mechanism for transporting data in a
number of formats including text, images, sound, and video.
Additionally, ICT deals with the application layer, the systems
that enable information to be collected and distributed, analyzed,
and processed. ICT is an integration of the technologies and the
process to distribute and communicate the desired information to
the target audience and making the target audience more
participative in nature.
The term ICT also refers to: information channels such as the
World Wide Web, online database, electronic documents, intranet,
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etc; communication channels such as e-mail, electronic discussion
groups, electronic conferences, the use of cell phones, etc; and
hardware and software used to generate, prepare, transmit, and
store data, such as computers, radio, TV, computer
programmes/tools, etc.

Importance of ICT
The significance of ICT cannot be overemphasized in today’s
workplace, as its relevance spans wider than one could have
imagined decades ago. This is why Eru (2017) stressed that
information and communication technologies have become very
vital gizmos in almost every sphere of life; ranging from the home
to the office; in business and in education, in health and in
governance, in banking and the economy.
Generally, ICTs are used in various forms depending on the needs
of organizations. The benefits of ICT the following:
i. It provides dependable means for communication;
ii. It enhances work efficiency – ICT is used in creating
new collaborative models to increase the efficiency of
workers;
iii. It reduces cost of production – reduces information and
transaction costs;
iv. It increases output/service delivery;
v. It enables resource sharing;
vi. It enhances teaching/learning process;
vii. It helps in proper security management;
viii. It is used in governance/administration;
ix. It improves access to basic services;
x. It can be used for election purposes – a term referred to
as e-election;
xi. It devices are used for financial recordkeeping and
management;
xii. It gadgets are used for medical diagnosis;
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 xiii. It is used as training aid;
xiv. It offers immediate connectivity–voice, data, visual–
improving efficiency, transparency and accuracy;
xv. It substitutes for other more expensive means of
communication and transaction, such as physical travel;
xvi. It increases choice in the marketplace and provide access
to other available goods and services;
xvii. It widens the geographic scope of potential markets; and
xviii. It channels knowledge and information of all kinds.
Problems Associated with ICT
There are many problems associated with the use of ICT, some of
which include:
i. Data stealing: User’s privacy can be intruded.
ii. Virus attacks: In computer-based ICT, users could loss
data and/or information through the invasion of computer
viruses.
iii. Lack of human resources: Many staff including the
administrators could not use the ICT tools for better
office management, and this is due to lack of training.
This was why Idowu and Esere (2013) stated that, an
average Nigerian worker is not computer literate, which
is disappointing in this modern digital era.
iv. Cybercrime: This is a crime where a computer is the
object of the crime or is used as a tool to commit an
offense. A cybercrime is the kind of crime committed
with the aid of a computer/ICT device. A cybercriminal
may use a device to access a user’s personal information,
confidential business information, government
information, or disable a device. This is usually done
through diverse hacking and cracking methods. It is also
a cybercrime to sell or elicit the above information
online.

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v. Unemployment: The ICT advancement has increased
job displacement, thereby encouraging unemployment.
vi. Software problems: Software is meant to run under
certain conditions and appropriately compatible computer
programs with specified requirements. Once these conditions
are not met, there is bound to be issues in the operation.
vii. Hardware problems: ICT services are not available to
some people due to hardware promiscuity. Most hardware
devices (like printers, scanners, etc) may also develop
installation faults, etc.
viii. Cost of internet data and electronic services: One of
the challenges of deploying ICT in Nigerian schools and
workplace is the high cost of internet data and electronic
services, which is basically the determinant of ICT usage
and value. Hence, the services are inaccessible as most
organizations cannot afford it.
ix. Inconsistency in electricity supply: In Nigeria, the
major challenge to the growth and development of most
industries is poor electricity supply. This is a huge
setback to the progress of Nigeria’s economy, as it is
difficult to boast of one full day without electricity
interruption, not to talk of a week or one month.

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 EXERCISE I

1. Explain what the terms, ‘ICT’ and ‘ICTs’ mean to

you.
2. Differentiate between ICT and Computer.
3. Discuss five (5) areas of application of ICTs.
4. Highlight other importance/benefits of ICT.
5. Write a short essay on “Tackling the Barriers of
ICT in Nigeria.”

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 CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPT OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Definition of Computer

A plethora of definitions have been available in literature over the

years, as different scholars have had several approaches to the
definition of the word, Computer. However, because of some
definitions offered by certain roadside computer users and
unprofessional trainers which have shown to be very conical and
narrowed in the real notion of its application, it is pertinent that
we present a refined definition that is all-encompassing in the
generality of computing concept which is suitable and
comprehensible by all, and for all levels as well as all areas of
study.

Computer could be defined as an electronic device (or machine)

that is capable of accepting data as inputs (through the input unit),
processing or manipulating the data and information (in the
processing unit) and producing the result(s) of processing called
output/information (through the output unit). It also has the ability
to store/save data (in the storage units) for future reference, use
and other purposes. Data and information retrieval is also
possible.

The Computer as a System

Today, almost everyone in the world make use of computers in

one way or the other. It finds applications in various fields of
engineering, medicine, commercial, research and others. Not only

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in these sophisticated areas, but also in our daily lives, computers
have become indispensable. They are present everywhere, in all
the devices that we use daily like cars, games, washing machines,
microwaves, etc. and in day-to-day computations like banking,
reservations, electronic mails, internet and many more.

In a way to ensure a perfect functionality of computer in these

multiple areas, there is need for collaborative liaison among
different subunits that make up the entire service delivery system.
Therefore, the computer functions as a collection of several
components or entities all connected together to function as a
single unit, herein referred to as a computer system. Fig.2.1
presents a desktop PC and its various accessories, also known as a
set of computer system.

Speakers

Fig.2.1: A desktop PC and its accessories

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The computer can be used to type documents, send and receive
electronic mails (e-mails), and surf the Internet. You can also use
it to manipulate data on spreadsheets and accounting packages,
handle automated databases, make presentations, play games, and
many more.
Whether realized or not, computers play an important role in our
lives today. When we deposit and withdraw cash from an ATM
(Automatic Teller Machine), scan groceries at the store, or use a
calculator, we are said to be using a type of computer. When
Medical personnel (radiographers, laboratory scientists, etc.)
engage the use of machinery to perform their job such as medical
diagnosis, they are said to be using some type of computers.
Reservation of tickets in air lines and railways, payment of
telephone and electricity bills, business data processing, weather
forecasting, etc. are some of the areas where computer has
become extremely useful. But as you will observe later, it does
much more than that. It can be compared to a magic box, which
serves different purpose to different people.

Computer Nomenclature
The word computer is coined from the word compute meaning to
calculate, analyze, evaluate, determine, manipulate, process, and
work out figures. This nomenclature is based on its fundamental
functions. Computer is also simply called PC (meaning Personal
Computer), laptop, processor, notebook, or machine.
The word computer is interchangeably used with the term
computer system or simply system. The computer system refers to
the collective name for a PC and its associated accessories; hence
it is sometimes simply referred to as a system.

Basic Services, Functions and Anatomy of Computer

In general, the basic services rendered by the computer include:
inputting (entering/accepting data into the computer), processing
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(manipulation of inputted data), outputting (producing the result
of the input data or information) and storage (saving
data/information).
The Computer mainly consists of the following functions: input,
process, output and storage. These functions are diagrammatically
described as follows. As depicted in Fig.2.2, the block diagram of
computer consists mainly;
i. Input unit
ii. CPU (Control unit, Main Memory and ALU)
iii. Output unit
iv. Secondary Storage unit

Fig 2.2: The building block of computer

The first computers to use input, processing, output and storage

are the Jacquard Loom and Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine.
The first electronic computers to use these four functions included
the ENIAC, the UNIVAC and the Harvard Mark 1. The IBM

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5150, which was introduced in 1981, also used all four functions
(Claerr, 2018).
Input devices on a modern computer include the keyboard, mouse,
etc. The central processing unit (CPU) processes the data. Devices
such as Read-Only Memory (ROM), the hard drive, Compact
Disks (CDs) and Digital Versatile Disks (DVDs) can store the
data. Output devices include the monitor, speakers and printer.
When you input information into your computer with the mouse
or keyboard, you are sending a signal to the CPU. The CPU has a
logic unit that can do basic arithmetic. The control unit directs the
computer to execute programs that have been stored in the
memory. The speed by which a computer executes programs is
measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS); the
processor’s speed is measured in gigahertz (GHz). When the data
has been processed, it is output in a human-readable form through
the monitor and speakers. It can also be stored again for later
processing. Storage media can be used to both input and output
data.
The four basic functions of a computer make it possible for us to
perform many tasks that were previously impossible. Using a
computer, you can balance your checkbook, purchase
merchandise, send and receive messages, do research, process
your photographs, create music and store crucial data, among
other things. Computers are easily networked, they can help
people from remote parts of the world communicate more quickly
and easily than with traditional methods.

Characteristics of Computers
The following are the aspects/attributes of the computer:
1. Speed (of Processing): Today's computer processes data
with a very high-level speed as it uses the very large-scale
integrated circuit (VLSIC) or microprocessor instead of the

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 earliest vacuum tubes/amniotic valves. In general, no
human being can compete to solving the complex
computation, faster than today’s computer.
2. Accuracy: Since Computer is programmed, whatever input
we give, it gives result with accuracy. In other words, the
computer system delivers job without error. Most errors
discovered with the computer could be attributed to human
fault.
3. Reliability: The output generated by the computer is very
reliable, but it is reliable only when the data, which is
passing as input to the computer and the program, which
gives instructions are correct and reliable.
4. Timeliness: As the computer of nowadays works with
needed speed and accuracy, it also delivers job in time. In
other words, the computer system gives result of
processing at the appropriate time.
5. Efficiency: The computer has certain degree of robustness
with effectiveness and high reliability.
6. Versatility: Computers are very versatile machines. In
other words, we can use computer to perform completely
different type of work at the same time. Computers are
capable of performing almost any task, provided the task
can be reduced to a series of logical steps.
7. Storage/Volume: Computer can store mass storage of data
with appropriate format. It has a provision to store large
volumes of data in the small storage devices, which have
capacity to store huge amounts of data and makes retrieval
of data an easy task.
8. Automation: Once the instructions are fed into the
computer, it works automatically without any human
intervention until the completion of execution of program
or meets logical instructions to terminate the job. This is
possible with the aid of the software.

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9. No Intelligent Quotient: The computers of today do not
have natural intelligence. It rather depends on human
intelligence and instructions; in other words, it uses
Artificial Intelligence (AI). That is to also say that, the
computer does not work without instruction(s).
10. Power of Remembering: It can remember data for us.
This is, in some way, different from storage as the
computer does not necessarily store what it remembers.
11. No Emotions/feelings: Computer does not have emotions,
or feeling for its user.
The fact that the computer user may have erroneously
entered certain value(s) for processing does not mean that
the computer system will certainly go ahead to process the
supposed right values, because the computers do not have
feelings that the user had made such mistakes. The
computer has no such human sensation, as it cannot act on
data that has not been inputted. This is the reason for
Garbage-In Garbage-Out (GIGO) functionality of the
computer. GIGO, in its real essence implies that computer
would always produce the result based on the data input.
That is to say that, if a user enters a wrong value of 232
instead of 323 for instance, the computer system processes
the result based on the data value it receives and not the
other way round. However, the computer could warn/alert
the user on commonly discovered syntax/semantic errors
during inputting or processing (as the case may be).
12. Diligence: Computer can work for hours without any break
and/or error and is free from tiredness, lack of
concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without
creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be
performed, a computer will perform every calculation with
the same accuracy. Due to this capability, it overpowers
human being in routine type of work.

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 EXERCISE II

1. Define the term, “Computer” in your own words.

2. The Computer is said to be an electronic device with
uniqueness, debunk!
3. Discuss Computer as a System.
4. What are the Basic Services of a Computer?
5. Discuss the functions and analyze the anatomy of a
Computer.
6. Write the full meaning of each of the following:
ENIAC, UNIVAC, CD, DVD, CPU, ALU, CU, MIPS, GHz,
and VLSIC.
7. In your understanding, explore the concept of GIGO
in computer.

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 CHAPTER THREE

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

There are many types of computers, but personal computers

such as desktop and laptop computers are probably the two types
of computer that you first think of. The first electronic computer,
the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC), was
developed in 1946. It measured 18 feet by 80 feet and weighed 30
tons (see Fig. 3.1).

Fig 3.1: The first electronic computer (ENIAC)

However, computers could be classified based on the type of

signals they processed, size (or structure), functionality (or
purpose) and age (or generation) as discussed below.

Classification of Computers Based on Type of Signal

Processed

1. Analog Computer: An analog computer or analogue

computer is a type of computer that uses the continuously-
changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical,
mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved.
The Collins English Dictionary defines an analog computer as
mechanical, electrical, or electronic computer that
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performs arithmetical operations by using some variable physical
quantities, such as mechanical movement or voltage, to
represent numbers.
The analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity.
Setting up an analog computer required scale factors to be chosen,
along with initial conditions such as, starting values.
Running an electronic analog computer, assuming a satisfactory
setup, started with the computer held with some variables fixed at
their initial values. Moving a switch released the holds and
permitted the problem to run. In some instances, the computer
could, after a certain running time interval, repeatedly return to
the initial-conditions or state to reset the problem, and run it
again.

Amplifier Speedometer

Wall clock Car fuel meter

Fig.3.2: Examples of analog computer
2. Digital Computer: According to Collins English Dictionary,
digital computer is an electronic computer in which the
input is discrete rather than continuous, consisting
of combinations of numbers, letters, and other characters written
in an appropriate programming language and represented
internally in binary notation.
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Any of a class of devices capable of solving problems by
processing information in discrete form. In contrast to analog
computer, digital computers represent varying quantities
incrementally, as their numerical values change. It operates on
data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are
expressed in binary code – that is, using only the two digits 0 and
1. By counting, comparing, and manipulating these digits or their
combinations according to a set of instructions held in
its memory, a digital computer can perform such tasks as to
control industrial processes and regulate the operations of
machines; analyze and organize vast amounts of business data;
and simulate the behavior of dynamic systems (e.g.,
global weather patterns and chemical reactions) in scientific
research. Examples of digital computer are shown in Fig.3.3.

Digital clock Digital Car Speedometer

Digital fuel pump Digital calculator Digital wristwatch

Fig.3.3: Examples of digital computer

3. Hybrid Computer: Hybrid computers are computers that
exhibit features of analog computers and digital computers. It is
mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical
processes and machines. The digital component behaves like the
controller, providing logical operations. The analog behaves like
the ‘solver,’ computing differential equations.
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Nowadays, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are
used for transforming data into suitable form for either type of
computation. For example, in hospital’s ICU, analog devices
might measure the patient’s temperature, blood pressure and other
vital signs. These measurements which are in analog might then
be converted into Numbers and supplied to digital components in
the system and hence displayed in digital form. These components
are used to monitor the patient’s vital sign and send signals if any
abnormal readings are detected. Hybrid computers are mainly
used for specialized tasks. Examples of hybrid computer are
shown in Fig.3.4.

Hybridized wristwatch Hybrid Car Speedometer

Fig.3.4: Examples of hybrid computer

Classification of Computers by Size and Capacity
Generally, sizes of computers determine the processing abilities.
Larger computers have higher processing speeds while smaller
ones offer the better experience for personal computing.

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Computers are classified according to their data processing speed,
amount of data that they can hold and price. Generally, a
computer with high processing speed and large internal storage is
called a big computer. Due to rapidly improving technology,
we are always confused among the categories of computers.
However, when classified according to size and capacity,
depending upon their speed and memory size, the following
types of computers can be identified: microcomputers,
minicomputers, mainframe computers, and supercomputers.
1. Microcomputer/Personal Computer: Microcomputers are
the smallest, least expensive and the most used types of
computers. They have a small memory, less processing power, are
physically smaller, and permit fewer peripherals compared to
super and mainframe computers. They are more commonly
known as personal computers (PCs). The term was initially used
to refer to IBM compatible computers. They became popular in
the 70s and 80s, at the dawn of the microprocessor chips. These
chips meant that a machine used by one individual was now
feasible. The advent of PCs meant cheaper alternatives to more
expensive and centralized systems. They were more affordable for
office use and created cheaper networking environments. By the
mid-1990s, they became the de facto computer of choice for
offices and homes. The last 2 decades have witnessed the
proliferation of even smaller systems.
This signaled the start of the mobile age, which continued to go
with the trend of smaller devices as the new century progressed.
This ultimately gave birth to wearable computers and gadgets.The
operating system used in personal computers varies, but the
common ones include:
i. Windows
ii. Mac OS X
iii. Linux
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iv. IOS
v. Android
vi. Macintosh
Categories of Personal Computers: The categories of personal
computers include:
i. Desktop Computers
ii. Mobile Computers
iii. Wearable Computers
i. Desktop Computers
Many people use desktop computers or desktops as they are often
referred to, at work, home, school, or the library. They can be
small, medium, or large in style, and usually sit on a desk. The
term desktop actually refers to the casing, or the tower. Once you
add a monitor, mouse, and a keyboard, you have what is typically
known as a desktop computer.
Most desktop computers are easy to upgrade and expand, or add
new parts. In addition to expandability, another benefit of desktop
computers is the cost. If you compare a desktop computer with
128MB of RAM and a 2GB hard drive to a laptop with the same
features, you will most likely find that the desktop computer is
priced lower. A reason for this may be simply due to the
portability and flexibility of use of the laptop.
The term desktop computer originated when the computer case
was wide and flat, and was designed specifically to fit on your
desktop with the monitor on top. Desktop computers are made up
of separate components such as:
 The System Unit; a rectangular case that contains important
parts like the motherboard, microprocessor, memory
modules, disk drive, and optical drive.

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  The monitor.
 A mouse.
 A keyboard.

Fig.3.5: A set ofdesktop computer

Types of Desktop Computer

Single Unit Systems: Single unit computers, also known as all-
in-one PCs, are a sub-type of desktop computers. They integrate
the monitor and system unit within a single unit.

They also have connectivity to a mouse, keyboard, and other

peripherals, usually through USB ports.

Fig.3.6: All-in-one single unit computer

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Nettop Systems: Nettop, which are sometimes called mini PCs,
are small and cheap system units. They use less power and
perform less processing.

Common features of Nettops include the Intel Atom

microprocessor, 1–2GB memory, and Wi-Fi connectivity. Just
like any other desktop, they attach to peripheral accessories via
USB ports and the monitor via VGA or DVI ports.

Fig.3.7: A nettop computer

Single Board Computers: These are the smallest possible

computers which mimic the shape and functionality of full-size
desktop motherboards. They fit on miniature circuit boards, the
size of an ATM card and spot numerous input/output ports for
connectivity to external peripherals. Standouts are USB ports for a
keyboard and mouse, HDMI output to monitors, Ethernet ports,
and Bluetooth/wireless capability.
A Single Board Computer (SBC) is an integrated piece of
hardware which is called so because it only spots one board,
unlike the desktop computer which features additional circuitry
like memory chips and processor.It is also a low power, fan-less
circuitry, low-cost system, and popular with hobbyists and
developers.

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An SBC can easily be confused with an embedded system
because of its size but is not, because it permits general purpose
functionalities synonymous with microcomputers.
Raspberry Pi3, Arduino and BeagleBone Blue are popular
examples of SBC.

Fig.3.8: Raspberry Pi2 Single Board Computer (SPB)

Thin Clients:These are low-cost computer types which rely on

server systems in order to provide computing services to attached
monitors. They communicate to the server via the remote desktop
protocol and are part of the networking implementation setup
known as client/server model.
While a thin client depends entirely on the availability of a server,
a desktop based client (the typical desktop computer), sometimes
called fat client, can operate independently of a server in case of
transmission downtime.
A typical thin client features are most input/output ports for
connectivity to peripherals. Standouts are VGA or DVI ports to

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the monitor, PS/2 or USB ports for keyboard and mouse, and
audio input/output ports.

Fig.3.9: Ncomputing thin client

ii. Mobile Computers

Mobile devices have become the norm in recent years. Most users
opt for laptops and tablets due to ease of use, and battery
power.Particular features that make mobile systems a favorite
include:
 Extended battery use.
 Wi-Fi capabilities.
 Mobility.
The most common types of mobile computers include:
 Laptop computers.
 Tablets.
 Smartphones.
 Personal Digital Assistants (PDA).
Laptops: The second type of computer that you may be familiar
with is a laptop computer or laptops as they are often referred to.
Laptops are battery or AC-powered personal computers that can
be easily carried and used in a variety of locations.

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A quick glance at the size of a laptop and you might guess that it
would be difficult to expand or upgrade. While the desktop
computer case is relatively easy to open and access internal
components, the small laptop case makes this more difficult in
comparison; however, the primary benefit of a laptop computer is
its small size and easy portability.
Laptops are lightweight mobile PCs with a thin screen. They were
initially called notebook computers because of their small size.
They operate on batteries. Unlike desktops, these systems
combine the microprocessor, screen, and keyboard in a single
case. The screen folds down onto the keyboard when not in use.
Two popular types of personal computers are the IBM compatible
and Macintosh computers. The first personal computer was
produced by IBM in 1981 and was called the IBM PC. In 1984,
Apple Computer introduced the Macintosh, or Mac, and it became
the first widely sold personal computer. Although both IBM and
Apple computers are personal computers, the term PC came to
refer to IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers.

Fig.3.10: A 17-inch laptop and 10-inch netbook.

Apple now produces a Macintosh computer called the iMac,
which is a desktop computer that features an all-in-one design.
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This means all the internal components are located behind the
monitor, rather than in a tower case, which is customary in
desktop computers.
Ultrabooks: Ultrabooks are special laptops specifically designed
to be thin and lightweight. They usually have longer lasting
batteries (5 hours minimum) and have strong hardware and
processing power to run most software.
Ultrabooks areequipped with the faster solid-state disk/drive
(SSD) storage in place of the slower hard disk drives that are
commonly used.
Chromebooks: Chromebooks are low-end laptops that only run
the web-based Chrome operating system. After the installation of
Chrome OS, additional software can only be installed via the
Chrome Web Store.The OS allows you to achieve traditional PC
functionality online. You can type documents, edit them,
implement group discussions, have teleconferencing, and use
basic online tools like search engines and e-mail.
These devices are increasingly targeted for users that spend most
of their time online for social activities. Their hardware includes
the Intel Atom microprocessor, Wi-Fi and wired network
connectivity, solid state disks (SSD), and an average of five hours
of battery life. They usually do not have optical drives.
Netbooks: Netbooks can be thought of as mini laptops. They are
smaller in size, price, and processing power. Just like
Chromebooks, they are primarily designed for web browsing,
electronic communication, and cloud computing. They are catered
to users who require less powerful client computers.Their
specifications are similar to Chromebooks. The biggest difference
is that they can run the lightweight Linux operating system.
Tablets: A tablet is a mobile computer equipped with a touch
screen or hybrid screen, which allows the user to operate it by use
of a digital pen or fingertip.Most tablets today are both multi-
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touch and multi-tasking, making it possible to manipulate them
using multiple fingers and accomplishing multiple tasks
simultaneously.
Tablets are handy, especially when normal notebooks and laptops
are simply too bulky for the mobile user. An iPad is a mini tablet
computer type.

Fig.3.11: An iPad

Smartphones: Back in 1996, a company called Palm Computing

developed a gadget called Palm 1000. It was revolutionary in
conception but did not actually build consumer excitement.
While the idea of a miniaturized computer was not new, the fact
that someone had actually been able to make a device with an
operating system that could work within its limitations was a huge
leap forward. It was one of the biggest innovations in the tech
industry.
The iPhone, released in 2007, was the first true smartphone. It
became an instant hit with consumers worldwide. It started the
smartphone industry that still persists today.

29
 Fig.3.12:An iPhone 6
Most smartphones today use an operating system such as IOS and
Android. They often have the ability to add applications. This is in
contrast to regular cellular phones which only support sandboxed
applications like Java games. In terms of features, smartphones
support full email capabilities as well as multiple functions to
serve as a complete personal organizer.
Depending on the manufacturer, other functions might include
additional interfaces such as miniature QWERTY keyboards,
touch screens, built-in cameras, contact management, built-in
navigation software, ability to read office documents in PDF and
Word file formats, media software for playing music, browsing
photos, and viewing video clips.
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): Personal digital assistants
(PDAs), also called handheld computers, pocket PCs, or palm top
computers, are battery-powered devices that are small enough to
carry almost anywhere.
While weaker to larger systems, these are useful for scheduling
appointments, storing addresses and phone numbers, and playing
games. Some have more advanced capabilities, such as making
telephone calls or accessing the Internet.
PDAs seem to have been overtaken by tablets and smartphones,
almost rendering them obsolete.

30
iii. Wearable Gadgets
Like the term suggests, wearable computers, or simply wearables,
are miniature devices that are designed to be worn or attached
onto your body. Wearables are designed to function as smart
devices similar to smartphones. They typically provide specific
functions like health monitoring.
Whereas general purpose wearables offer a fuller computing
experience that includes reading emails, the lesser systems fit as
embedded devices capable of minimal functions. Examples of
these devices include smartwatches, smartglasses, smartclothes,
smartshoes.
Smartwatches: These became popular around 2013, when
Samsung launched Gear, a wristwatch fitted with sensors to
communicate directly with a smartphone.
Dubbed the smartphone and phablet companion, a smartwatch
gives features like internet connectivity and text messaging
among others.It also provides communication between the user
and other devices.
The leading tech companies in the world are all scrambling for
opportunities in manufacturing smartwatches. Samsung launched
Gear in 2013 and Apple has the Apple Watch.
Head Mounted Displays: Another wearable being developed is
the heads up display unit (HUD) or head mounted display unit
(HMD).This device is meant to be worn or attached to the head
and uses a transparent glass display that interfaces with the human
eye. It does not interfere with the user’s sight.
Earlier HUDs were used for military purposes. They went from
using a cathode ray tube to a liquid crystal display. The
technology eventually embraced laser-based projection for images
and motion pictures.

31
A notableexample isthe Google Glass, which permits a number of
functions like voice communication and reading tweets.
Smartware: Smartshoes and smartclothes are intended for health-
related functions like heart rate and waveform measurement.
These devices are intended to encourage the wearer to have an
active lifestyle.

Fig.3.13: Nike shoe showing the transmitter that communicates

with the iPod
Smartshoes and smartclothes can also be used for competitive
purposes, such helping athletes keep track of their running
distance and speed. One of the first initiatives into developing
these devices was the partnership between Apple and Nike. They
created the Nike+iPod Sports Kit, a device for measuring distance
and pace by the user. It worked by having the iPod communicate
to the Nike show via voice prompts.

2. Minicomputer
Minicomputers are general-purpose devices without the
monumental expenses associated with a larger system. Their
processing power is below that of mainframe systems but above
the capabilities of personal computers.

32
 Fig.3.14: MicroVAX II Clone Minicomputer
Minicomputers are also known as mid-sized or mid-range
computers.These became popular in the late 1960s but have
become almost extinct because of the popularity of personal
computers. The latter can now perform most of the tasks reserved
for minis. The first minicomputer was unveiled in 1967 by Digital
Equipment Corporation.
They became popular for control related functions as opposed to
computing prowess. Over the years, their usage was limited to
dedicated control assignments in mid-range organizations.
Minicomputers were intended for a number of activities listed
below:
 Switchboard control.
 Dedicated applications for graphics and computer design.
 Time-sharing, to allow multiple users to interact concurrently
on a single system.
 Control and monitoring of manufacturing activities.
 Monitoring and control of laboratory equipment.
Texas Instrument TI-990, K-202 and MicroVAX II are examples
of minicomputers.
33
3. Mainframe
Mainframe computers are large sized computer types. They are
equally powerful but fall short in terms of the computation ability
in supercomputers. They are like big file servers, enabling
multiple users from nearby and remote locations to access
resources at the same time. Also known as big iron, these systems
can handle massive amounts of data going in and out
simultaneously. This makes them popular with businesses.
They are also resilient as they are capable of operating for over 10
years without failing. Users access the mainframe using terminals
or personal computers. This can happen within the same building
or via wide area network (WAN).
Most of these systems run the z/OS (operating system) on 64bit
architecture. IBM System z9 mainframe is a large size computer
type.

Fig.3.15: IBM System z9 mainframe

34
Uses of Mainframes
They are used in large organizations where thousands of clients
have to access data simultaneously. For examples:
 Performing ATM cash withdrawals and deposits. During the
process, communication between the mainframe and remote
computer will help accomplish the financial transactions at
hand.
 Business transactions that use credit cards or pre-paid cards.
 Online electronic transactions.
 Cloud storage.
 Handling of patient records in major hospitals.
 Making reservations and travel schedules for airline
companies.
 Manipulation and tallying of data for census and electoral
purposes.
System z9, Fujitsu-ICL VME and Hitachi’s Z800 are examples of
Mainframes.

4. Supercomputer
According to Amuno (2018), supercomputers are arguably the
most powerful in terms of speed and accuracy. They are types of
computers used in solving complex mathematical computations.
They are capable of executing trillions of instructions per second,
which is calculated in floating point operations per second
(FLOPS).
The typical personal computer used at home and the office is only
capable of calculating millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
Supercomputers can go even faster with the rate of petaFLOPS
(or PFLOPS). This could bring up their processing numbers up to
the quadrillion.
Supercomputers were made popular in the 1960s by Seymore
Cray. They soon became the choice for complex projects. They
35
have evolved from the grid to cluster systems of massively
parallel computing. Cluster system computing means that
machines use multiple processors in one system, rather than
arrays of separate computers in a grid.
The operating systems that run in supercomputers vary depending
on the manufacturer but are generally based on the Linux Kernel.
A few popular ones include;
 CNK OS used in Blue Gene from IBM
 Cray Linux Environment used in Titan
 Sunway Raise OS in Sunway TaihuLight
These computers are the largest in terms of size. They can occupy
anything from a few feet to hundreds of feet. They are the most
expensive type of computer.

Fig.3.16: Tianhe-2 supercomputer

Table 3.1 shows the list of top supercomputers since the year
2008, as in Amuno (2018).

36
Table 3.1: Top Supercomputers between 2008 and 2017

Name of Speed in
Year Supercomputer Manufacturer
PFLOPS
2008 Roadrunner IBM - USA 1.105
2009 Jaguar Cray - USA 1.759
2010 Tianhe - 1A NUDT - China 2.566
2011 K Computer Fugitsu - Japan 10.51
2012 Titan Cray - USA 17.59
2013 Tianhe - 2 NUDT - China 33.86
2014 Tianhe - 2 NUDT - China 33.86
2015 Tianhe - 2 NUDT - China 33.86
2016 Sunway TaihuLight NSC -China 93.01
2017 Sunway TaihuLight NSC -China 93.01

Uses of Supercomputers
Because of their superiority, supercomputers are not intended for
your everyday tasks. They handle exhaustive scientific
applications that require complex and real-time processing.
 In the field of science, researchers use these machines to
compute and model properties of biological compounds like
protein and human blood. They are also used to interpret new
diseases and strains, and predict illness behavior and
treatment.

37
  The military use supercomputers to test new aircraft, tanks,
and a host of weaponry and camouflage. They also use them
to understand the effects they will have on soldiers and wars.
These machines are also used to help encrypt and decrypt
sensitive data.
 In entertainment, supercomputers are used to help make a
flawless online gaming experience. Games like World
of Warcraft demand intense processing. When thousands of
gamers around the world are playing, supercomputers help
stabilize the game performance.
 Meteorologists use them to simulate weather behavior. They
can also be used to predict earthquakes.
 Scientists use them to simulate and test the effects of nuclear
weapon detonation.
 Scientists also use them to simulate the events of the Big
Bang and other space related projects.
 Hollywood uses supercomputers to create realistic
animations.
 The famous supercomputers Deep Blue and Watson defeated
chess Grandmaster Gary Kasparov and quiz expert Ken
Jennings respectively.

Classification of Computers Based on Functionality/Purpose

Computers are designed to be either general purpose or special
purpose computing devices. Fig.3.17 shows a diagrammatic
representation of the classification according to purpose.

38
 COMPUTER

Special Purpose General Purpose

(embedded systems) (user-programmable)

Pre-programmed Can be adapted to

many situations

Watches Traffic Signals Personal Computers Workstations

Engine Televisions Mainframes Supercomputers

Management

Telephones Navigation Devices

Fig.3.17: Classification of computers according to purpose.

1. General Purpose Computers

General purpose computers are designed to handle a variety of
tasks. They can be used for almost every area of application. A
computer which can be used to accomplish tasks such as word
processing calculations, listen to audio sound, watch movies, play
games, communicate via mails, messengers, etc are termed
general purpose computers. They are slower than special purpose
computers when applied to the same task. Examples of general
purpose computers include desktop, laptop and palmtop. These
computers can be used in solving business problems and also used
to solve mathematical equations with same accuracy and
consistency. Most of the computers now are general-purpose
digital computers.

39
2. Special Purpose Computers
Special purpose computers are designed, made and used for a
specific purpose or application. They are also called dedicated
system. These are usually used for those purposes which are
critical and need great accuracy and response like Satellite
launching, weather forecasting etc. Examples of special purpose
computer are; the server, such as the radar system used in airport
towers, which is designed for tracking and mapping the paths of
aircrafts and other flying devices, and the embedded system.
Other examples include; computer game devices used in playing
games only, dedicated word processor, traffic control system,
computerized electronic devices such as calculators, pager and fax
machine.
Servers: These are computers designed to provide services to
client machines in a computer network. They have larger storage
capacities and powerful processors. Running on them are
programs that serve client requests and allocate resources like
memory and time to client machines. Usually, they are very large
in size, as they have large processors and many hard drives. They
are designed to be fail-safe and resistant to crash.
These are types of computers used to provide resources, services,
and functionality to client computers in a server-client network
model. Resources provided are based on the functions of a
particular server, which may fall under these categories:
 File server
 Database server
 Print server
 FTP servers
 Application server
 Web server
Server sizes depend on purpose and tasks in the network. Of
course, bigger and more multitasking installations will require
multiple system and storage installation. Servers are optimized to

40
run 24 hours and are capable of hot swapping of storage and other
hardware without having to shut down the system.

Embedded Systems: These are computer-based systems which

are standalone electronic hardware designed to perform dedicated
computing tasks. They are not general purpose installations like
the personal computer. They include a combination of the outer
hardware, microprocessor chip, and software. The core of such
systems is the microprocessor or micro-controller which executes
the assigned task. Popular devices that may be categorized under
embedded systems are listed below:
 Set-top boxes
 MP3 players
 DVD players
 Drones
 Printers
 Antilock braking systems
 USB devices like internet dongles
 Streaming players like Google Chromecast and Roku
 Thermostats
 Calculators
 Toys
 Digital cameras
 ATMs
 Video game consoles
 Routers and network peripherals
 Computer add-on cards and peripherals
 Digital watches.

Classification of Computers by Genealogy/Generation

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a
computer is/was being used. Initially, the generation term was
used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But
nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
41
together make up an entire computer system. There are totally five
computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in details along with their time period, characteristics,
advantages and disadvantages. The authors have chosen to use
approximate dates against each generation which are normally
accepted.
The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted
in the form that we see today. The present day computer,
however, has also undergone rapid change during the last five
decades (fifty years). This period, during which the evolution of
computer took place, have been divided into five distinct phases,
based on the type of switching circuits known as Generations of
Computers, as discussed below.
1. First Generation Computers (1940s – 1950s; Vacuum
Tube)
These computers used vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, occupying large space, taking up entire room. They
were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great
deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat which was often the
cause of malfunctions (hence, the need for enough ventilation/air-
conditioning). First generation computers relied on machine
language, the lowest-level programming language understood
only by computers, to perform operations. In other words, they
were machine-dependent, and they could only solve one problem
at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and
output was displayed on printouts.
The advantage of vacuum tubes technology is that it led to the
advent of electronic digital computer. Also, vacuum tubes were
only electronic devices available during those days which made
computing possible.

42
 Fig.3.18: The first generation computer
Features of first generation computers: The main features of
first generation computers are:
i. Vacuum tube technology
ii. Supported Machine language only
iii. Very costly
iv. Generate lot of heat
v. Slow Input/Output device
vi. Huge size
vii. Need of A.C.
viii. Non portable
ix. Consumed lot of electricity
Examples of first generation computers: Some computers of
this generation were:
i. ENIAC
ii. EDVAC
iii. UNIVAC
iv. IBM-701
v. IBM-650

43
2. Second Generation Computers (1950s – 1960s;
Transistors)
Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric
tubes (vacuum tubes) in the first generation computer. Transistors
are smaller than the electric tubes and have higher operating
speed. They have no filament and require no heating.
Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the
computer got reduced considerably. One transistor replaced the
equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. Allowing computers to become
smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable, but it
still generated a great deal of heat that can damage the computer;
thus, required much ventilation.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine
language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words and mnemonics.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for
input and printouts for output. These were also the first computers
that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from
a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
This generation using transistor was cheaper, consumed less
power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the
first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and
magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In
this generation, assembly language and high level programming
language like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. There were batch
processing and multiprogramming operating systems used.

44
 Fig.3.19: The second generation computer

Features of second generation computers: The main features of

second generation are:
i. Use of transistors
ii. Reliable as compared to First generation computers
iii. Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
iv. Generate less heat as compared to First generation
computers
v. Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation
computers
vi. Faster than first generation computers
vii. Still very costly
viii. A.C. needed
ix. Support machine and assembly languages
Examples of second generation computers: Some computers of
this generation were:
x. IBM 1620
xi. IBM 7094
xii. CDC 1604
xiii. CDC 3600
xiv. UNIVAC 1108
45
3. Third Generation Computers (1960s – 1970s; Integrated
Circuits)
The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They
used Integrated Circuits (ICs). The development of the integrated
circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many
transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of
silicon. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development
made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. So it is
quite obvious that the size of the computer got further reduced.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and
efficiency of computers. Much smaller and cheaper compare to
the second generation computers, it could carry out instructions in
billionths of a second. Computers of this generation were small in
size, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very high. In
this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time,
Multi-programming Operating System were used. High level
language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc) were used during this generation.

Fig.3.20: The third generation computer

46
Features of third generation computers: The main features of
third generation are:
i. IC used
ii. More reliable
iii. Smaller
iv. Generate less heat
v. Faster
vi. Lesser maintenance
vii. Still costly
viii. A.C needed
ix. Consumed lesser electricity
x. Support high level language
Examples of third generation computers: Computers of this
generation include:
i. IBM-360 series,
ii. Honeywell-6000 series,
iii. PDP (Personal Data Processor),
iv. IBM-370/168, and
v. TDC-316.

4. Fourth Generation (1970s – 1980s; Large Scale Integrated

Circuits)
Some of the computers that you see today are the fourth
generation computers that started around 1975. It uses large scale
Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is
possible to place computer’s central processing unit (CPU) on
single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later
Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.
VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit
elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it
possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable,
47
and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC)
revolution.
Thus, the computer which was occupying a very large room in
earlier days can now be placed on a table. In this generation, time
sharing, real-time, networks, distributed operating system were
used. All the higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE, etc.
were used in this generation.

Fig.3.21: The fourth generation computer

Features of fourth generation computers: The main features of

fourth generation are:
i. VLSI technology used
ii. Very cheap
iii. Portable and reliable
iv. Use of PC’s
v. Very small size
vi. Pipeline processing
vii. No A.C. needed
viii. Concept of internet was introduced
ix. Great developments in the fields of networks
x. Computers became easily available

48
Examples of fourth generation computers: Some computers of
this generation were:
i. DEC 10
ii. STAR 1000
iii. PDP 11
iv. CRAY-1(Super Computer)
v. CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

5. Fifth Generation (1990s – Date; Optic Fibre

Technology/ULSI/Artificial Intelligence)
These computers use optic fiber technology to handle Artificial
Intelligence (AI), expert systems, Robotics, etc., these computers
have high processing speeds and are more reliable. In the fifth
generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in
computer science, which interprets means and method of making
computers think like human beings. All the Higher level
languages like C and C++, Java, .Net, etc. are used in this
generation.
AI includes:
i. Robotics
ii. Neural networks
iii. Game Playing
iv. Development of expert systems to make decisions in real
life situations.
v. Natural language understanding and generation.

49
 Fig.3.22: The fifth generation computer

Features of Fifth Generation Computers: The main features of

fifth generation are:
i. ULSI technology
ii. Development of true artificial intelligence
iii. Development of Natural language processing
iv. Advancement in Parallel Processing
v. Advancement in Superconductor technology
vi. More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
vii. Availability of very powerful and compact computers at
cheaper rates.
Examples of fifth generation computers: Some computer types
of this generation are:
i. Desktop
ii. Laptop
iii. NoteBook
iv. UltraBook

50
 EXERCISE III

1. In a tabular format, trace the generation of computers,

under the following subheads:
(a) Duration (in years)
(b) Device(s) used
(c) Basic features
(d) Advantages
(e) Disadvantages
(f) Examples
2. Briefly discuss the concept of robots with adequate
examples.
3. Differentiate between embedded computers and servers.
4. Identify the distinctive features of the generations of
computers.
5. Distinguish between continuous and discrete input
(data).

51
 CHAPTER FOUR

COMPONENTS OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is a collection of computer components (parts)
that are needed for a computer to function effectively as a whole.
All types of computers basically consist of three components – the
hardware and the software components, then the userware.

The Computer Hardware Component

Hardware is any part of the computer that has a physical structure,
such as the computer monitor or keyboard. If it can be touched
directly, then it is hardware.

Fig.4.1: Hardware components of computer

The computer hardware component is further classified into the

input units, processing units, output units and storage units. Most
of these components of the computer are also referred to as the
computer peripherals, which are those auxiliary components or
52
accessories attached/connected to the computer to aid its
operation in one way or the other; thus, also known as the
auxiliary or peripheral devices.
The Input Units/Devices
The input devices are those computer hardware components that
allow data input in computer. Examples of these devices include;
mouse, keyboard, light pen, phone mouse piece, among others, as
indicated in figure 4.2.

Fig.4.2: Computer input devices

The Processing Units/Devices

Processing devices refer to the hardware components of computer
that process the inputted data. The component is basically the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) collectively referred to as the
system processor, where main manipulations take place.
Processing unit comprises of the ALU (Arithmetic and Logic
Unit) and the CU (Control Unit). The ALU is responsible for
calculations and logical operations in the computer and the CU
coordinates the sequence of operations.

53
 Fig 4.3: Computer processing unit
The Output Units/Devices
The computer output devices are the components responsible for
producing or displaying the result of processed data (information).
There are softcopy and hardcopy outputs. The softcopy output is
displayed through the display device (computer screen or
monitor/visual display unit), and the hardcopy output is printed
through the printing device (the printer).

Fig 4.4: Computer output devices

54
 Fig 4.5: Computer input vs. output devices
The Storage Units/Devices
Data are said to be raw facts. The singular form of data is referred
to as datum. Information refers to the processed or refined data.
Proper collection of the data is called information. Data and
information can be stored and retrieved, and are transferrable.
Hence, storage devices are used to store/save data or information
for later reference. They also enable data to be taken out of the
main computer and to be used in another. There are internal and
external storage units. The internal storage units include the RAM
(Random Access Memory) and the ROM (Read-Only Memory).
Information stored in the RAM could be updated unlike those
stored in the ROM. This is simply because the ROM is an
unalterable storage component in the computer. The external
storage devices include the floppy disk, compact disk (CD), flash
disk drive, external hard disk drive, magnetic disk, magnetic tape,
etc.

55
 Fig 4.6: Computer storage devices
Factors to be Considered when Storing Data
1. Type of data to be stored: Different types of data can be
store in several ways.
2. Type of storage to be used: The type of data to be stored
determines the type of storage to be used.
3. Size/volume: The size of data to be store as well as the
volume of the storage device need to be considered. The size
of data to be stored must not be greater than that of the
intended storage unit. Data size is measured in bits (b), byte
(B), Kilobyte (KB), Megabyte (MB), Gigabyte (GB),
Terabyte (TB), etc.
4. Data integrity: Stored/archived data need to exhibit
reasonable level of reliability.
5. Regular update of data: Stored data need to be up-to-date;
thus should be updated from time to time, in order to avoid
data loss and insecurity.
56
6. Validation of data: Data authentication or verification is
required.
7. Data encryption/security of data: The user needs to
consider security of the data to be saved. Insecurity of the data
could cause data loss. Data encryption is a strategy for
protecting data from getting loss.
8. Access control: There should be data access control on the
saved data. Not everyone should be able to access every data.
Data should be protected from unauthorized users.
9. Regular anti-virus update: It is expected that updated
antivirus software is installed in every computer system for
protection. Overtime, the software could be outdated; there is
therefore the need to perform regular update on them.
10. Data backup: Most times, the essence of external storage of
data is data-backup.
11. Data recoverability: The ability to recover the saved data is a
point of consideration when saving data.
12. Login/password: Method of access to the stored data should
be considered as such data could be protected.
13. Timing: Record of date and time of storage and updates is
essential.
The Computer Software Component
Software is any set of instructions (codes) that tells the hardware
what to do. It is what guides the hardware and tells it how to
accomplish each task. Software refers to encoded computer
instructions or commands (usually modifiable, unless stored on
some form of unalterable memory such as the ROM earlier
discussed), that make the computer behave the way it does.
Types of Software
The computer software component is categorized into two,
namely; System software and Application software.
1. System Software: Certain software are required for the
correct operation of the computer system. The software
57
responsible for sequential and orderly execution of tasks is called
the system software. They include the operating system, system
utilities and libraries. They usually carryout operation, control and
utility services and functions in the entire computer system. The
operating system is simply that which drives the computer system
(this is explicated in a later chapter).
2. Application Software: This type of software is installed in the
computer simply for the purpose for which the user wishes to use
a particular computer system. If the user wishes to use a PC for
internet services, for instance, there is need for installation of
certain software applications (such as the web browsers, network
configuration software, etc) in the computer, which enables the
user to operate it for his choice service(s). Perhaps, the user
chooses to use a PC for graphics design, he needs to install
graphics design applications (such as CorelDraw and/or other
graphics design software) or for word processing, he could install
applications like MS Word, etc. For spreadsheet, he could install
MS Excel and so on.
For more details on the different categories of application
software (particularly, the MS Word and Excel), see relevant
chapters of this book.

The Userware as Component of Computer

The computer system cannot function without people. People are
needed to manufacture the hardware; computer professionals are
required to develop the set of instructions or programs (software)
that makes the computer system operational. We also have the
group of people who use the computer system to process their
data and perform many other tasks on the computer. These
categories of people are referred to as people-ware or userware.
In summary, the computer peopleware refer to the group of people
who work together to produce the computer hardware or software.

58
There are two main categories of peopleware; computer
professionals and the non-professionals (computer end-users).
1. Computer Professionals: Computer professionals are people
who have education and experience in technical aspect of making
and using computer system. The computer professionals build the
computer hardware and software. They include:
i. Computer Systems Analyst
ii. The System Architect
iii. Programmer/Software Engineer
iv. Testing Engineer
v. Computer Design Engineer
vi. Database Designer and Administrator
vii. Website Designer
viii. Hardware Engineer
ix. Production Engineer
x. Quality Control Engineer

Each of these professionals has been extensively discussed in a

subsequent chapter.
2. Non-Computer Professionals: The end-users are people who
use the computer for entertainment, education or work-related
task. They may not necessarily understand the technical part of
the computer system. They may only use the computer for
services/activities in their diverse professions. Examples of end-
users includes but not limited to; teachers, doctors, nurses,
lawyers, computer vendors and the military.
Relationship between Hardware, Software and Userware
The hardware is simply a collection of some machine
components; it cannot solve problem on its own. It needs a set of
instructions (or computer program) called software, that will
enable it function in a desired manner.

59
 Fig.4.7: Relationship among computer components
The software alone cannot perform any function like calculation
or logical comparison. Software cannot function alone without the
hardware; it needs the hardware as its host to function. Hence,
both are dependent on each other. In other words, it is the
hardware component that hosts the software component.
Hardware and software cannot function very well without the
intervention of the user. Fig.4.7 shows the inter-relationship
among the computer components.

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 EXERCISE IV

1. Highlight the components of a Computer.

2. Differentiate between the input devices and the output

devices.

3. In clear terms, briefly distinguish between ‘software’ and

‘userware.’

4. In tabular form, categorize the following components of

computer into their respective classification; mouse,
printer, flash drive keyboard, plotter, joystick, monitor,
hard disk, mouthpiece, speaker, scanner, light pen,
memory card, microphone, webcam, headphone,
compact disc, external hard drive, and floppy disk.

5. With the aid of a diagram, briefly discuss the

interdependency of a system’s basic components in
solving a given problem.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

BASIC PARTS OF A DESKTOP COMPUTER

The computer desktop comprises of several components. All the

basic parts of a desktop computer are considered hardware; the
computer case, monitor, keyboard, mouse, and power cord are the
basic parts.
Beyond these parts are the hardware items that are located inside
the computer case and the peripherals, which are optional pieces
of hardware that make the computer system more useful, or
enable you to accomplish additional tasks. Let’s take a look at the
basic hardware components, or the things required in order to let
you and the computer interact.

Fig.5.1: A Desktop PC
The basic components (parts) of a desktop computer or things
required for a user to interact with the computer include:

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Computer case: The computer case is the metal and plastic box
that contains the main components of the computer. It houses the
motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), the power supply,
and more. Computer cases come in different shapes and sizes. A
desktop case lies flat on a desk, and the monitor usually sits on
top of it. A tower case is tall and sits next to the monitor or on the
floor. The front of the case usually has an on/off switch and two
or more drives.
Most of the personal computers you can purchase today include
tower cases, rather than desktop cases; however, some computers
are being made with all of the internal components built into the
monitor, which completely eliminates the tower.
Monitor: The monitor works with a video card, located inside the
computer case, to display images and text on the screen. The two
main types are Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Liquid Crystal
Display (LCD) monitors. The CRT monitor is big, like a tube
television, and takes up a lot of desk space; however, it is the least
expensive monitor, while the LCD monitor is thin and saves
energy, but costs more. Over the years, fewer CRT monitors are
seen as LCD monitors become the standard.
Monitor has an ON/OFF button and control buttons that allow a
user to change the monitor’s display. Control buttons are either
visible or located behind a small panel. Additionally, some
monitors have built-in speakers.
Power Cord: The power cord is the link between the power outlet
and the power supply unit in the computer casing. If the power
cord is not plugged in, the computer will not power on. It is a
good idea to keep the power cord plugged into an Uninterruptable
Power Supply (UPS), which serves as a surge protector with its
own temporary power conservative capability.
Keyboard: The keyboard is a piece of hardware that resembles a
typewriter keyboard. It is one of the primary ways we
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communicate with the computer by inputting data. There are
many different types of computer keyboard such as wired,
wireless, ergonomic, multimedia, and more. Although, there may
be differences in the location of some keys or features, keyboards
are very similar and allow you to accomplish basically the same
tasks.

Fig.5.2: The Computer keyboard

The computer keyboard is arranged in a standard formation,
which is the same formation used on typewriters. Today, the
QWERTY keyboard is the most commonly found and used
computer keyboard across most countries of the world.
Fig.5.2showsthe layout of keyboard keys on the QWERTY
keyboard.
 The main part of a computer keyboard has alpha-numeric
(letter and number) keys similar to a typewriter. However, the
keyboard also features special keys that cause the computer to
perform specific tasks.
 The Escape key, labeled Esc is used to cancel or escape from a
command. It allows you to stop a function or action. For
example, if your computer suddenly freezes up, you may be
able to resume by pressing Esc.
 The Function keys, along the top of the keyboard, are labeled
F1, F2, up to F12. These shortcut keys allow you to quickly

64
 complete a specific task within certain programs. For example,
F1 opens Help and F3 opens Search in Microsoft Office.
 The Print Screen, Scroll Lock and Pause/Break keys are at
the far right end of the keyboard. The Print Screen key takes a
“picture” of your screen that you can edit or save using a
graphics program while the Scroll Lock key is used together
with Ctrl key to stop a program temporarily and the
Pause/Break keys are also used to halt a program temporarily.
 The Enter key carries out commands. For example, while on
the Internet, you can type in a website address, called a URL,
and press Enter to go to the site. It also acts like a carriage
return on a typewriter, moving the cursor to the start of a new
line.
 The Control (Ctrl), Alternate (Alt), and Shift keys are
designed to work with other keys. For example, if you press
Ctrl + S at the same time, you can save a file, while Alt + F
pulls down the file menu and the Shift + any alphabetic key
cause the uppercase symbol on each key pressed on the
keyboard to be printed on the screen.
 The Backspace key erases a character to the left of
the cursor each time it is pressed.
To the right of the regular keys is the cursor control pad. At
the bottom are four arrow keys. Pressing any one of these
keys moves the cursor in the direction of the arrow.
Depending on the keyboard you are using, there are five to six
keys above the arrows including:
o The Delete key erases the character to the right the cursor.
o The Insert key switches between the insert mode and
overtype mode. The insert mode is the normal mode for
word processing.

65
 o The Home key moves the cursor to the left or beginning of
the current line.
o End moves the cursor to the right end of the current line.
o Page Up and Page down take you to the top or bottom of
the screen.
 The Number pad, at the far right end of the keyboard,
resembles a calculator keypad. It produces numbers from 0 – 9
and basic arithmetic symbols. It is used to enter numeric data
into the computer for manipulation (calculation).
Mouse: The mouse is a peripheral that is known as a pointing
device. The mouse has two top buttons; that is, the left (primary)
and the right (secondary) buttons, and a light or ball beneath. It
lets the user point to objects on the screen, click on them, and
move them. Previously, it was considered an optional device, but
now all desktop computers will come with a mouse.
There are two main types of mouse– optical and mechanical. The
optical mouse uses an electronic eye (Laser) to detect movement.
The mechanical mouse uses a rolling ball to detect movement; it
is less expensive, so many computers come with a mechanical
mouse.

The Use of Mouse

To properly use the mouse:
 Using your right hand, place your thumb on the desk or table
top on the left side of the mouse
 Your index (pointer) finger should rest on the left button of the
mouse.
 Place your middle finger on the right button of the mouse.
 Your ring finger and little finger should rest on the right side of
the mouse.
 The base of your wrist should rest on the mouse pad or
desktop, for stability.

66
Left-handed computer users sometimes use their right hand to
maneuver the mouse. However, if you’re left-handed and want to
use your left hand, the mouse buttons can be switched by setting.

To switch the mouse buttons for a left-handed user:

 Click Start.
 Choose Settings Control Panel.
 Double-click the Mouse icon in the Control Panel window.
 Click Left-handed.
 Click OK.

Using the mouse:

 Click: This is used to select an object on the screen by pressing
the left mouse button down with your index finger and then
release the button.
 To right-click, press and release the right mouse button with
your middle finger.
 To double-click, rapidly press and release the left mouse
button with your index finger twice in quick succession;
double-clicking an item on the desktop or in Windows Explorer
will open the file, folder or program.
 Drag and Drop: This drags an object on the screen by pressing
and holding down the left mouse button with your index
finger while moving the mouse. When the object is where you
want it, release the button; then it drops.
A trackball is similar to a mouse, but the ball that helps
maneuver the cursor is on top instead of underneath.
The Use of the Buttons, Sockets, and Slots on the Computer
Case
It is important to identify the uses of the buttons, sockets and slots
on the computer to enable the users to efficiently maximize its
potentials. Each computer is different; therefore the buttons, slots,
and sockets will vary from computer to computer; however,
67
there are certain features you can expect to find on most desktop
computers. Being familiar with the names of each and how they
are commonly used will help a user to connect that new printer,
mouse, digital camera, or other device for efficient output.

Fig.5.3: Front of a computer case

1. Power Button: The power button is used to power the
computer on and off. Additionally, you can use the power button
on some computers to place the computer in different energy-
saving modes such as hibernate, sleep, and standby. It is a good
idea to read your manual to learn how these features work on your
computer. The power button is usually directly above the
keyboard, but can also be located on any of the four sides of the
laptop casing.
2. CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) Drive:
A CD-ROM drive, also known as an optical drive, allows you to
play a CD-ROM, just like a CD player allows you to listen to
music. With a CD-ROM drive you can listen to music (if your
computer is sound-enabled), view files, and install software that
is located on a CD. A CD writer is a device that can be used in
conjunction with a CD-ROM drive and allows you to copy or
burn information onto specific types of CDs called CD-RW

68
(Compact Disk ReWritable) and CD-R (Compact Disk-
Recordable) discs.
3. DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc Read-Only Memory)
Drive: A DVD-ROM drive, also known as an optical drive,
reads DVD discs, all types of CDs, and can display movies from
digital video discs. DVDs can hold more data than a CD, so they
are a good storage option. A DVD burner is a device that can be
used in conjunction with a DVD-ROM and allows you to copy
information onto DVD discs. It is considered a type of storage. In
many of the computers you can purchase today, the CD and
DVD-ROM and/or burners are combined.
4. USB Port: The Universal Serial Port typically appears on
the back of the computer case, but can sometimes be found on the
front of the case, or hidden under a panel on the front of the case.
5. Audio in/Audio out: Every computer has a bank of audio
ports where you can connect various devices, including speakers,
microphones, headsets, and more.
Back of Computer Case
At the back of the computer case are connection ports that are
made to fit specific devices. The arrangement of these varies from
computer to computer. Some of the ports are color coded to
match a color on the device, which will help you determine which
port is used with a particular device.

69
 Fig.5.4: Back of a computer case

1. PS/2 Port: These ports are called PS/2 ports and are used
for the mouse and keyboard. Many people refer to them as the
mouse port or the keyboard port.
2. Ethernet Port: This port looks a lot like the modem or
telephone port but it is actually wider. You can use this port for
networking and also connecting to the Internet. Ethernet
3. Audio in/Audio out: Every computer has a bank of audio
ports where you can connect various devices, including speakers,
microphones, headsets, and more audio.
4. VGA port: Your monitor can be connected to this port.
5. USB Port: The Universal Serial Bus port is one of the
newest ports, but is also one of the most useful. These USB ports
let you attach a variety of devices such as mice, printers,
keyboards, web cameras, USB/flash drives, and digital cameras to
your computer quickly. Almost every peripheral made comes in a
USB version, and installing the devices using USB ports is much
easier than connecting devices using parallel and serial ports.

70
This is primarily because USB ports do not require you to reboot
your computer before you can use the new device.
6. Parallel Port: The parallel port is one of the two original
ports on the first personal computer. It is commonly known as the
printer port since this port is used to connect your printer to your
computer; however, with the rise in use of the USB ports, you can
expect to see a decrease in the use of this port. Currently, a large
number of parallel port printers are still manufactured and used on
older computers that don’t have USB support.
7. Serial Port: Serial ports can be used to plug in devices
such as dial-up modems and other devices. On recent computers,
the serial port has been replaced by the USB port. This is due to
the fact that most peripherals use the USB drive.
8. Expansion Slots: These empty slots are where expansion
cards are added to computers. For example, if your computer did
not come with a video card, you could purchase one and insert it
here.
9. FireWire Port: FireWire is actually the Apple brand name
for the IEEE 1394 port, and it is commonly referred to as the
FireWire port. It is the standard port used with digital video
cameras and high-resolution scanners. FireWire replaced the
parallel small computer system interface (SCSI), but it is not on
every computer; however, you can buy an adapter card to add
FireWire ports to your computer. The labeled image does not
include a FireWire port.

Peripherals You Can Use in Various Ports

 Printers: A printer is a peripheral that is used to print, or
produce, a version of what appears on the screen in a
hardcopy format. There are many types of printers available
including ink-jet, laser-jet, and photo printers. Also,
combination printers that include scanners and copiers are

71
 increasing in popularity. This peripheral is connected to the
computer via USB port or parallel port.
 Scanners: A scanner allows you to copy an image or
document and save it in electronic form onto your computer. A
scanner can be handheld, flatbed or an all-in-one scanner
which combines a scanner, printer and copier into one product.
A scanner is connected to the computer via a parallel port, a
USB port, or a SCSI connection. No matter which connection
is used, the images are stored on your PC’s hard drive in a
digital format.
 Speakers/Headphones: Speakers and headphones are output
devices; which means that they are devices that communicate
information from the computer to the user. They allow you to
hear sound and music. Both speakers and headphones connect
to a computer via audio in/out. However, some computers are
designed with speakers built into the monitor.
 Microphones: A microphone is a type of input device, or a
device that receives information from a user. You connect the
microphone to the computer and use the computer to record
sound or to communicate with another computer user via the
Internet. Many computers come with built-in microphones.
 Web Cameras: Web cameras, or web cams, are devices that
connect to a computer via USB port and display a video image
of whatever it is recording. This video image can be
transmitted over the Internet, allowing a user in another
location the ability to see the video in real-time. Web cameras
are used often in business for video conferences, and are also a
great tool for families to use to stay connected from different
parts of the world.
 Joystick or Game Controller: A joystick is a lever used
while playing a computer game. It could be connected to the
computer through PS/2 port or USB port.
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 Digital Cameras: A digital camera lets you capture a picture
in digital (computer-readable) form. You can transfer that
image directly from the camera to the computer. When you
use a digital camera, you can also preview your pictures before
printing them. If you do not like what you see, you can edit or
delete them. Today’s digital camera can be connected to the
computer via USB port.
 Personal Digital Assistant (PDA): A PDA is a handheld
computer that can have a variety of features including a
calendar, Internet access, video recording, word processing,
email access, phone, media player, and more. Most PDAs can
be synchronized with a PC to allow up-to-date contact
information stored on software such as Microsoft Outlook,
RSS feeds, or other web updates. This device can also be
connected to the computer via USB port.
 MP3 Players: An MP3 player is a portable device that
stores, organizes, and plays audio files. The player can read
files that are recorded from a CD using a computer, or
downloaded from various sites via the Internet. It can also be
connected to the computer via USB port.

73
 EXERCISE V

1. What is a desktop computer?

2. Briefly discuss the basic parts of a desktop computer.
3. List and explain the basic types of monitor.
4. Discuss in brief how to care for the following parts of a
desktop computer;
(a) Mouse
(b) Keyboard
(c) Printer
5. Highlight five (5) ports/slots on the computer, stating the
appropriate peripheral device(s) that could be connected
to the computer via the ports/slots.
6. Describe the computer keyboard highlighting its different
components.
7. Draw and label a computer motherboard.

74
 CHAPTER SIX

COMPUTER STORAGE DEVICES

Information storage and retrieval is a term used to describe the

organization, storage, location and retrieval of encoded
information in a computer system. Important factors in storing
and retrieving information are the type of media or storage device
used to store information, the media’s storage capacity, the speed
of access and information transfer to/from the storage media, the
number of time new information can be written to the media and
how the media interacts with the computer. The computer requires
different types of memory in the course of its data processing
activities. While some types of memory are used for temporary
storage of data and information, some other types are used for
permanent storage. Both types of storage are equally important.
The Storage/Memory Unit
The storage or memory unit in computer science is the term used
to refer to any location where data or information can be held
temporarily or permanently for current or later use. A storage
device is used in the computer to store data. It provides one of the
core functions of the modern computer. A computer commonly
has two storage types: primary and secondary. An example of
primary storage device is the RAM, while the secondary storage
device is the hard disk. Storage devices are characterized with the
following features;
 Speed
 Volatility
 Access method
 Portability
 Cost and capacity

75
Types of Storage
There are basically two main types of storage. They are:
1. Primary storage: this is also referred to as;
i. Primary memory/storage;
ii. Main storage;
iii. Main memory;
iv. Internal storage;
v. Internal memory; and
vi. Memory.
2. Secondary storage: this is also referred to as;
i. Secondary memory/storage;
ii. Auxiliary storage;
iii. Auxiliary memory;
iv. External storage;
v. External memory; and
vi. Mass storage.

Fig.6.1: Organization of computer storage

76
The Primary Storage
The primary storage also known as the main memory is directly
connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is
the only memory directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU
continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as
required.
Types of Primary Storage
The different types of primary storage are;
i. Random Access Memory (RAM)
ii. Read-Only Memory
iii. Register
iv. Cache Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM): The RAM is the central

storage unit in a computer system. It is the place in the computer
where the operating system (OS), application programs and data
in current use are kept temporarily, so that they can be accessed
by the computer processor; that is, the RAM is used to store
programs and data the CPU is currently processing. The more
volume of RAM a computer has, the more data the computer can
manipulate.RAM, also called the read/write memory, is a
temporary memory of a computer. It is said to be volatile since it
contents are accessible only as the computer is on. The contents
(data, information and programs) of RAM are cleared or lost once
the computer is turned off.
The two basic types of RAM are the dynamic RAM (DRAM) and
the static RAM (SRAM). The DRAM is a type of memory that
must be refreshed or re-energized constantly so that its contents
are not lost. The SRAM is faster and more reliable than any form
of DRAM because the term ‘static’ here refers to the fact that it
does not have to be re-energized as often as dynamic RAM.

77
Read-Only Memory (ROM): The ROM is a special type of
memory which can only be read, that is, it cannot be modified.
The ROM is non-volatile meaning that its contents (software and
information) are not lost when computer power is switched off.
ROM is used for storing program instructions or software that are
not subjected to change. It typically contains manufacturer’s
instructions which cannot be overwritten. Among other things,
ROM also stores an initial program called the “bootstrap loader”
whose function is to start the computer software operating, once
the power is turned on. The software governing efficient computer
system functioning is located here; therefore, ROM does not lose
data when the system is turned off because this memory is not
volatile.
The ROM chip that contains permanently written data information
and software is called a firmware.
However, there are some special types of ROM chips that are
programmable, meaning that they can be written onto. These
Read-Only Memories can be manufacturer-programmed or user-
programmed. They include the following:
(i) PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory): A PROM is a
memory chip on which you can store a program. But once the
program has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use it to
store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.
(ii) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): An
EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by
exposing it to ultraviolet light.
(iii) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory): An EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can
be erased by exposing it to electrical charge. This can also be
referred to as EAROM (Electrically Alterable Read-Only
Memory).

78
Registers: These are special-purpose high-speed temporary
storage located inside CPU. They are used for the quick storage
and retrieval of data and instructions. There are two major types
of register:
(i) Special-purpose registers; and
(ii) General-purpose registers.
The special purpose registers include; Program Counter (PC) or
Sequence Control Register, Instruction Register (IR) or Current
Instruction Register (CIR), Accumulator, Memory Address
Register (MAR), Memory Buffer Register (MBR) or Memory
Data Register (MDR).
Cache Memory: Cache memory is a special high-speed storage
mechanism that stores data so that future requests for that data can
be served faster. A cache is meant to improve access time and
enhance the overall performance of the computer. There are
different types of caches associated with the computer system.
There are caches for the CD-ROM, memory cache, hard drive
cache, and CPU cache; the CPU cache is its internal cache and is
often called level 1 (L1) cache. Some internet browsers keep a
cache on hard drive, of the most recent websites visited. If the site
hasn’t changed, it can load quicker from the hard drive than it can
over the phone lines.
Memory caching is effective because most programs access the
same data or instructions over and over, by keeping as much of
this information as possible on cache (built with SRAM), the CPU
avoids accessing the slower RAM (built with DRAM). Most
modern PCs also come with external cache memory called level 2
(L2) cache. These caches sit between the CPU and the RAM. Like
L1 caches, L2 caches are composed of SRAM.
The Secondary Storage
The secondary storage is a storage medium that holds data or
information permanently whether the computer is switched on or
79
off. That is, it is non volatile. The data or information remains on
this storage medium until the computer user decides to delete it
when it is no longer needed. The hard disk is a good example of
secondary storage device.
Many of the secondary storage devices are used as offline storage.
Offline storage is the computer data storage or a medium or a
device that is not under the direct control of the CPU. After
recording on this secondary storage device, it is then physically
removed or disconnected from the computer. It must be inserted
or connected by the user before the computer can access it again;
e.g. floppy disk, flash drive, external hard disk, CD’s, DVD’s,
Blu-ray discs, memory cards, etc.
Off-line storage is used to transfer information from one computer
to another, since the detached medium can be physically
transported. There are different types of secondary memory
(external) memory. They are:
i. Magnetic disk
ii. Magnetic tape
iii. Optical discs
iv. Flash drive
v. Memory card
vi. Smart card
Magnetic Disk: Magnetic storage uses different pattern of
magnetization on a magnetically coated surface to store
information. Magnetic storage is non-volatile. The information is
accessed using one or more read/write heads which may contain
one or more recording transducers. A read/write head only covers
a part of the surface so that the head or medium or both must be
moved relative to another in other to access data.
The magnetic disk storage is still the most preferred medium for
most secondary or back up storage today. This is because any
record on the disk can be retrieved or accessed without having to
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pass through all of the preceding records in the file. For this
reason, the disk is known as Direct Access Storage Device
(DASD). The major types of magnetic disk storage devices
include:
(i) Floppy disks (diskettes)
(ii) Zip disks
(iii) Hard disk (fixed disk and external hard disk)

Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic

recording, made of a tin magnetizable coating on a long narrow
strip of plastic film. Magnetic tape data storage uses digital
recording on to magnetic tape to store digital information. Tape
drive (tape unit/streamer) is the device that stores computer data
on a magnetic tape. Modem magnetic tapes are commonly
packaged in cartridges and cassettes.
The tape to be processed moves from the file reel through a
read/write head and is rewound on the machine reel. Data are
stored on the magnetic tapes sequentially (i.e. one after the other).
These data are also read and processed sequentially. Sequential
access is obtained by proceeding through the tape from the
beginning until the designated area is reached.
The amount of data that can be held on a magnetic tape depends
on its density. Thus, a tape density of 1600 bits per inch (bpi)
means that, 1600 characters can be recorded on each inch along
the total length of the tape.
Optical Discs: This is a storage medium from which data is read
and to which it is written by laser beam of light. Alternatively
refer to as optical media and optical storage, an optical disc holds
its content in digital format and is read using a laser. An Optical
Disc Drive (ODD) such as CD-R, DVD-R drive that can read and
also write information to disc is known as magneto-optic
(MO).There are three main types of optical discs: they are;
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(i) Compact Disc (CD)
(ii) Digital Versatile Discs (DVD)
(iii) Blu-ray Disc (BD)
Compact Disc (CD): A compact disc is a polycarbonate with one
or more metal layers capable of storing digital information. The
compact disc has a storage capacity of 650MB or 700MB. The
information on the CD can be read using the CD Drive. The
categories of CD’s available are:
 CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory)
 CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) also known as WORM
(Write Once Read Many Times)
 CD-RW (Compact Disc-Rewritable)
Digital Versatile Discs (DVD): This is a disc capable of storing
large amount of data. DVD drives were first sold in 1997 for
storing and viewing movies, hence DVD was then referred to as
Digital Video Disc. But today, it is also used for storing computer
software, data and different types of computer files or documents,
hence the term “versatile”. To play a DVD on a computer, a user
must have a DVD drive as well as a DVD player, which is a
software program designed to play and control a DVD. A DVD is
very similar to a CD except for it higher storage capacity (4.7GB
to 17GB). The categories of DVD’s available are:
 DVD-ROM (DVD-Read Only Memory)
 DVD-R and DVD+R (DVD-Recordable and
DVD+Recordable)
 DVD-RW and DVD+RW (DVD-ReWritable and
DVD+ReWritable)
 DVD-RAM (DVD-Random Access Memory)
Blu-ray Disc (BD): This is a type of optical disc that uses blue-
violet laser technology, in contrast to the red laser technology

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used in traditional DVD formats. The blu-ray was first announced
and introduced in 2006 and is capable of storing up to 25GB on a
single-layer disc and 50GB on a double-layer disc, each disc
being the size as a standard CD. The categories of Blu-ray discs
are as follows;
 BD-ROM (read only) – for pre-recorded content
 BD-R(recordable, only once) – for PC data storage
 BD-RW (rewritable) – for PC data storage
 BD-RE (rewritable) – for HDTV recording

Flash Drive: A flash drive is a small portable memory device that

could be plugged into a computer’s Universal Serial Bus (USB)
port. Flash drive are also called thumb drives, jump drives, pen
drives, key drives, tokens, USB drives or USB flash drive. Flash
drives are touted as being easy-to-use as they are portable and
small enough to be carried in a pocket and can plug into any
computer with a USB drive. Flash drives are durable because they
do not contain any internal moving parts like the hard disk.
Despite the small size, often the size of a thumb, flash drive can
store a large amount of data. Today, flash drives are available in
different sizes such as 256MB, 512MB, 1GB, 2GB 4GB, 8GB,
16GB, 32GB and beyond, and are widely used as an easy way to
transfer and store information from the computer.
Memory card: An electronic flash memory storage disk
commonly used in consumer electronic devices such as digital
cameras, MP3 players, mobile phone and other small portable
devices. It is also referred to as flash memory card. It is non-
volatile, meaning that the memory card will not lose its data when
removed from the device. The cards can also be erased or
reformatted and reused. Memory card are usually read by
connecting the device containing the card (such as digital camera
or mobile phone) to your computer or by using a USB card reader.
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There are different types of memory card, each varying in size,
compatibility and storage capacity. The most commonly used
memory cards are listed below.
(i) Secure Digital Card (SD card);
(ii) MiniSD card;
(iii) MicroSD card;
(iv) Secure Digital High Capacity Card (SDHC card);
(v) MiniSDHC card; and
(vi) MicroSDHC card
Smart Card: A smart card stores data on a thin microprocessor
chip embedded in the card. The smart card is similar in size to the
ATM card. When a smart card is inserted in to a specialized card
reader, the information on the card is read and if necessary
updated.

Fig.6.2: Smart card

Uses of smart cards

(i) Storing currency electronically: The smart card issued by
the bank for storing prepaid dollar or naira amount as electronic
money. Each time the smart card is used to purchase an item, the
available amount is reduced. If the amount remaining becomes
too low, it can be replenished at the bank. This card is also called
the credit card.

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(ii) Telephoning: The smart card issued by the telephone
company as prepaid telephone calling card. Using this card
provides convenience for the caller, and also eliminates the
company’s need to collect coins from the telephone.
(iii) Storing patient’s record: The smart card issued by the
hospital for storing patient records, vaccination data and other
healthcare information.
(iv) Storing workers’ record: The smart card issued by a
workplace (such as a corporate company) for recording
employee’s attendance in other to prepare his wages or salary
later.
(v) Information/transaction tracking: The smart card issued
by a company for tracking information such as customer
purchases.

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Table 6.1: Differences between Primary and Secondary Storage
S/N Primary Storage Secondary Storage
1 Most primary storage is All secondary storage is
volatile and therefore used non-volatile and therefore
for temporary data storage used for permanent data
storage
2 Primary storage is more Secondary storage is usually
expensive cheaper
3 Primary storage is smaller Secondary storage is bigger
in capacity in capacity e.g. Hard disk of
500GB
4 Primary memory is Secondary memory is
usually faster to access usually slower to access,
because its closer to the this is because secondary
CPU and/or is integrated memory connects to the
onto it and therefore is CPU via cables and
directly accessed by the therefore indirectly accessed
CPU quickly by the CPU slowly.
5 Primary storage is built Secondary storage is built
with semiconductor chips. with magnetic and optical
material.
6 Primary storage are External and portable
internal and fixed on the
motherboard
7 Examples of primary Examples of secondary
memory: RAM and ROM storage: Hard disk and
Compact disk.
Units of Storage
Currently, with Geopbyte as the highest unit of memory
measurement, the capacity of a storage device is measured in the
following units:
1. Bit (b)
2. Nibble (n)
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3. Byte (B)
4. Kilobyte (KB)
5. Megabyte (MB)
6. Gigabyte (GB)
7. Terabyte (TB)
8. Pentabyte (PB)
9. Exabyte (EB)
10. Zettabyte (ZB)
11. Yottabyte (YB)
12. Brontobyte
13. Geopbyte
Values of the Storage Units
1 bit = 1 binary digit = 0 or 1.
1 Nibble= 4 bits.
1 Byte = 8 bits = 2 Nibbles.
1024 bytes= 1 kilobyte (KB) = 210 Bytes.
1024 KB = 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1,048,576 Bytes = 2 20 Bytes.
1024 MB= 1 Gigabyte (GB)=1,073,741,824 Bytes = 2 30 Bytes.
1024 GB = 1 Terabyte (TB)=1,099,511,627,776 Bytes = 240Bytes.
1024 TB =1 Pentabyte (PB) = 1,125,899,906,842,624 Bytes = 2 50Bytes.
1024 PB = 1Exabyte (EB) = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976Bytes=2 60 Bytes.
1024 EB =1 Zettabyte (ZB) = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424, Bytes = 2 70 Bytes.
10124 ZB = 1Yottabyte (YB) = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176Bytes = 2 80Bytes.
1024 YB = 1 Brontobyte = 290 Bytes.
1024 Brontobytes = 1 Geopbyte = 2100 Bytes.

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 EXERCISE VI

1. Discuss the concept of information storage retrieval.

2. Briefly explain five (5) characteristics of a
storage/memory unit.
3. Describe secondary storage units under the following:
(a) Optical disk
(b) Magnetic disk
(c) Flash drive
(d) Memory card
4. Highlight the factors to be considered when storing data.
5. The terms ‘Storage’ and ‘Memory’ are synonymous,
discuss.
6. In tabular form, briefly distinguish the types of storage.
7. Differentiate between the following as memory units;
(a) RAM and ROM;
(b) Register and Cache;
(c) Smart Card and Memory card.
8. Differentiate between RAM and ROM as memory units.
9. Convert the following:
(a) 3 words to its byte equivalent;
(b) 4 bytes to its kilobyte equivalent;
(c) 1024 Bytes to its megabyte equivalent;
(d) 1024 GB to its terabyte equivalent;
(e) 1024 TB to its GB equivalent.
(f) How many bytes are in 10 words?

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

FILE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

The Concept of File

A file is an object on a computer that stores data, information,
settings, or commands used with a computer program. A file is a
collection of data stored in one unit, identified by a filename. It
can be a document, picture, audio or video stream, data
library, application, or other collection of data. Documents
include text files, such as a Word documents, RTF (Rich Text
Format) documents, PDFs, Web pages, and others. Pictures
include JPEGs, GIFs, BMPs, and layered image files, such as
Photoshop documents (PSDs). Audio files include MP3s, AACs,
WAVs, AIFs, and several others. Video files can be encoded
in MPEG, MOV, WMV, or DV formats, just to name a few.
In a graphical user interface (GUI), such as Microsoft Windows,
files display as icons that relate to the program which open the
content of the file. For example, the picture is an icon associated
with Adobe Acrobat PDF files. If this file was on your
computer, double-clicking the icon in Windows would open that
file in Adobe Acrobat or the PDF reader (provided this was
already installed on the computer). A file is a named collection of
related data/information that is recorded on secondary storage
such as magnetic disks, magnetic tables and optical disks.
A library file is a unit of data that is referenced by a specific
program or the operating system itself. These include plug-ins,
components, scripts, and many others. An application is a
program, or executable file. Programs such as Microsoft Internet
Explorer and Apple iTunes are both applications, but are also
files.

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Files can be opened, saved, deleted, and moved to
different folders. They can also be transferred across network
connections or downloaded from the Internet. A file’s type can be
determined by viewing the file's icon or by reading the file
extension. If the file type is associated with a specific application,
double-clicking the file will typically open the file within the
program.
Files are the most important mechanism for storing data
permanently on mass-storage devices. Permanently means that the
data is not lost when the machine is switched off. Files can
contain:
 Data in a format that can be interpreted by programs, but not
easily by humans (binary files);
 Alphanumeric characters, codified in a standard way (e.g.,
using ASCII or Unicode), and directly readable by a human
user (text files). Text files are normally organized in a sequence
of lines, each containing a sequence of characters and ending
with a special character (usually the newline character).
Consider, for example, a Java program stored in a file on the
hard-disk. In this unit we will deal only with text files.
Each file is characterized by a name and a directory in which the
file is placed (one may consider the whole path that allows one to
find the file on the hard-disk as part of the name of the file).
The most important operations on files are: creation, reading
from, writing to, renaming, and deleting. All these operations can
be performed through the operating system (or other application
programs).
Elements of a Computer File
Bit: This is a basic unit of information in computing and digital
communications. Bit is a binary digit which contains one of two
values, either 0 or 1. It is the smallest unit of data.

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Character: This is the smallest element in a file and can be a
letter, a number or special character. A character is equal to a byte
and a byte is made up of 8 bits. For example, letter B is a
character which is equal to a byte.
Field: A field (or data field) is a collection of characters (or bytes)
that make up a single fact, or unit of information called data item.
For instance, a data field containing “February 22, 2019” as a
data-item; this can be treated as a single field (birthdate) or 3
fields (month, day, and year). The number of fields created is
based on the type of processing to be carried out on them.
Record: Record is the collection of related fields or data items. A
record is composed of data items or information about a particular
person or entity. For instance, an employee record may contain a
Name field, Address field, Birthdate field, Sex field, and so on.
Computer File: This is a collection of related records in the
computer. If there are 120 employees, then each employee would
have a record perhaps called Employee Personal Details Record,
and the collection of 120 such records would constitute a file (in
this case, referred to as Employee Personal Details File).
Database: This is the collection of related files. Files are often
integrated into a database using a Database Management System
(DBMS). Examples of DBMS software include; Microsoft
Access, MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, FileMaker, InterBase, et
cetera.
A database is created when there is the need to create more than
one file/folder. For the Employee example mentioned above, the
organization in which they work may create other files to hold
facets of the employee data. In that situation, other files such as,
Employee Training History File, Employee Work History File,
and Employee Performance Evaluation File, could be additionally
created. Then these four files can be stored in a directory, referred
to as a database. During processing, the computer program can
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retrieve any of the files and access the data items stored in them, a
term referred to as database query.
File Organization: File organization refers to the grouping of
data into records, blocks and access structures. Access structures
link one element of a record with another and also one record with
another. They include address pointers, primary keys, hashing
functions, and indexes. File Organization is the logical
relationships among various records that constitute the file,
particularly with respect to the means of identification and access
to any specific record. In simple terms, storing the files in certain
order is called file Organization.
File Structure: This refers to the format of the label and data
blocks and any logical control record.
File Manager or File Browser: is a computer program that
provides a user interface to manage files and folders. The most
common operations performed on files or groups of files include
creating, opening (e.g. viewing, playing, editing or printing),
renaming, moving or copying, deleting and searching for files, as
well as modifying file attributes, properties and file
permissions. Folders and files may be displayed in a hierarchical
tree based on their directory structure. Some file managers contain
features inspired by web browsers, including forward and back
navigational buttons.
Some file managers provide network connectivity via protocols,
such as FTP, HTTP, NFS, SMB or WebDAV. This is achieved by
allowing the user to browse for a file server (connecting and
accessing the server's file system like a local file system) or by
providing its own full client implementations for file server
protocols.

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Folders
Folders on a computer provide a storage system similar to folders
in a filing cabinet. Folders can contain files and other subfolders.
Windows XP provides a number of default (personal) folders to
start your computer filing system. A folder is typically
represented by a folder icon. The folder name is under the icon:

Fig.7.1: Folder icon

Using My Computer
 The My Computer folder displays all hard disk drives and
removable storage devices connected to your computer:

Fig.7.2: My Computer
 Double-clicking on a drive or removable storage device
displays its contents.
To open the “My Computer” folder
 Click Start > My Computer.

Fig.7.3: My Computer directory

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Using My Documents
The My Documents folder provides a place to store all of your
files. When you save a document, the default save location is the
My Documents folder:

Fig.7.4: My Documents icon

To open the My Documents Folder
 Click Start > My Documents.
Using My Pictures
By default, the My Pictures folder is situated in the My
Documents folder. When you save pictures from your digital
camera or scanner to your computer, or save a file in a graphics
program, such as Microsoft Paint, the default save location is the
My Pictures folder:

Fig.7.5: My Pictures folder icon

To open the My Pictures folder
 Click Start > My Pictures.
Note: The My Pictures folder contains some sample pictures.

Using My Music
By default, the My Music folder is situated in the My Documents
folder. When you use Windows Media Player to copy music
from a CD or download music from the Internet, the default save
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location is the My Music folder:

Fig.7.6: My Music folder icon

To open the My Music folder
 Click Start > My Music.
Note: The My Music folder contains some sample music.
To determine file types
Within the Windows Explorer window each file will be marked
with a small icon, as illustrated in Fig.7.7. Besides, each file type
has a unique filename extension. In the example shown the first
file displays an icon representing Microsoft Word, and if you look
along the line of information about this file, it clearly states
(assuming that you are using the details mode to view the files)
that the file is indeed a Microsoft Word Document. The second
file is marked as a Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation file in
the same way.

Fig.7.7: Example of filename and icon

This indicates that somehow Windows knows what a Word file is
and what a PowerPoint file is. This is because when Word and
PowerPoint were installed onto the PC the installation program
gave Windows information about files that would be created using
these packages.
If you were to double click on say, the Word file, the Word
program would open up, and the data file that you double clicked
on would be displayed within the Word program. To use the

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jargon, files created within Word are “associated” with Microsoft
Word and all Word document files have a file extension of .doc.
In some cases, Windows does not have detailed information about
certain file types. In the example illustrated (see Fig.7.8), there are
two files and the icons used to display them are the generic
Windows default icons. This means that if you were to double
click on these files they would not run or be displayed within a
program, for the simple reason that Windows does not know what
to do with these files. There is no “file association” for these
particular files.

Fig.7.8: Example of file type unrecognized by Windows

Note that the icons shown for some of these file types will vary
depending on what programs you have installed on your
computer.
Some more examples
Each filename extension represents its type.

Fig.7.9: Examples of file name extensions

 The .EXE extension indicates that the file is an executable
(program) file.
 The .GIF extension means that the file contains an image. GIF
files are commonly found on the Web.
 .JPG or .JPEG is another common type of image file.
 .HTML (HyperText Markup Language) is the format that Web
pages are stored in.
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 .MDB files contain an Access database.
 .PDF is used by the Adobe Acrobat program. PDF files contain
documents that can be viewed or printed.
 .RTF (Rich Text Format) is used for word processed
documents. It is supported by many different kinds of word
processing application so it is useful for converting documents
from one program to another.
 .TXT files are simple text only files commonly created using
the Windows Notepad application.
 .XLS files contain an Excel Workbook.

To display commonly used folders on the desktop:

 Right-click on the desktop.
 From the pop-up menu, select Properties. This opens the
Display Properties dialog box.
 Click the Desktop tab.
 Click the Customize Desktop button:

Fig.7.10: Display Properties dialog

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 Check the icons you want displayed on your desktop in the
Desktop icons area:

Fig.7.11: Desktop icon

 Click OK.
 Click OK again to exit the Display Properties dialog box.

Using the Recycle Bin

 When you delete a program, file, or folder, it is moved to the
Recycle Bin. The Recycle Bin gives you the opportunity of
later retrieving your deleted items if you change your mind.
Items in the Recycle Bin still take up hard disk space. When
the Recycle Bin is full, Windows XP automatically cleans out
enough space to accommodate the newest deleted items.
 By default, the Recycle Bin is located on your desktop:

Fig.7.12: Recycle Bin

Displaying Folders on the Desktop
 Windows XP makes it easy to display the most commonly used
folders and programs on your desktop for easy access.
Managing Files and Folders
To open a File or Folder:
 Double-click on the file or folder you want to open. The file or
folder is displayed in a window.
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Note: To open programs, files, and folders from the Start menu,
only a single-click is required.
Copying, Cutting, and Pasting Files and Folders
 Copying files and folders is useful if you want to copy
(duplicate) a file or folder, and place it in another location.
Cutting a file or folder is useful if you want to move a file or
folder to another location.
To copy or cut files and folders:
 Right-click on the file or folder you want to copy or cut.
 From the pop-up menu, select Copy or Cut.
 Open the location you want the copied or cut item to be placed.
 Right-click in the location.
 From the pop-up menu, select Paste.
Creating Shortcuts for Files and Folders
Creating a shortcut is useful when you frequently access a
program, folder, or file, or when you want to place a program,
folder, or file in the Start menu. The desktop is a convenient
location to place shortcuts.
To create a shortcut from a program, file, or folder:
 Right-click on the program, file, or folder for which you want
to create a shortcut.
 From the pop-up menu, select Create Shortcut.
 Cut and paste the shortcut to the location you want.
OR
 Right-click on the program, file, or folder for which you want
to create a shortcut.
 From the pop-up menu, select Create Shortcut.
 Click and drag the shortcut into a folder or onto the desktop:

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 Fig.7.12: Creating shortcut from program/folder/file

When you delete a shortcut, the original program, file, or folder is

not deleted.
To create a shortcut from a location:
 Right-click on the location you want your shortcut.

 From the pop-up menu, select New >Shortcut:

Fig.7.13: Creating shortcut from location
Renaming Files and Folders
 Right-click on the file or folder you want to rename.
 From the pop-up menu, select Rename.

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 Type a new name:
Fig.7.14: Renaming file/folder
 Press the Enter key on your keyboard.
Deleting Files and Folders
To delete a file or folder located on the desktop:
 Right-click on the file or folder you want to delete.
 From the pop-up menu, select Delete.
OR
 Select the file or folder you want to delete.
 Press the Delete key on your keyboard.
To delete a file or folder located in a folder:
 Select the file or folder you want to delete.
 From the main menu, select File> Delete:

Fig.7.15:Deletinga file/folder

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OR
 Select the file or folder you want to delete.
 Press the Delete key on your keyboard.
Changing File and Folder Views
When viewing files and folders within a folder, files and folders
can be viewed as:
 Details:

Fig.7.16: Details folder/file view

 A List:

Fig.7.17: List folder/file view

 Icons:

Fig.7.18: Icon folder/file view

 Tiles:

Fig.7.19: Tiles folder/file view

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 Thumbnails:

Fig.7.20: Thumbnails folder/file view

Displaying the File and Folder Structure

 Click the Folders button on the Standard Buttons toolbar:

Fig.7.21: Folder structure

Navigating Folders
 TheStandardButtonstoolbarcontainsBack,Forward,andUpna
vigationbuttons:

Fig.7.22: Navigating folders

 When you click the Back navigation button, you return to the
previous opened folder.
 The Forward navigation button becomes active once you have
clicked the Back navigation button. The Forward navigation
button returns you to the opened folder you navigated back
from.
 The Up navigation button moves you up one level in the folder
structure. For example, the My Music folder is located in the
My Documents folder. If the My Music folder is open and you
click the Up navigation button, you will be taken to the My
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 Documents folder regardless of the folders that are Back or
Forward in your navigation.
Displaying File and Folder Properties
 Files and folders have property sheets that include information
such as the type, size and location of a file or folder; the date a
file or folder was created, modified, or accessed; file and folder
attributes; the name of the program that opens a file; and the
number of files or subfolders contained in a folder.
 File and folder property sheets vary depending on the type of
file or folder.
To display properties for files and folders within a folder
window:
 Select the file or folder (in the folder window) for which you
want to display properties.
 From the main menu, select File >Properties:

Fig.7.23: Displaying properties for files and folders

OR

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Modifying Folder Options
 Modifying folder options allows you to customize how folders
appear and function. Options include opening folders with a
single- or double-click, choosing the default folder view (details,
tiles, etc.), specifying a program to open certain file types, and
working with offline files and programs when not connected to a
network.
To modify folder options:
 Open the folder for which you want to modify options.
 From the main menu, select Tools > Folder Options:

Fig.7.24: Folder Tools options

 This opens the Folder Options dialog box.
 Make the folder modifications you want.
 Click OK.
OR
 Click Start > Control Panel.
 Click Appearance and Themes.
 Click Folder Options in the list or pick a Control Panel icon
area. This opens the Folder Options dialog box.
 Make the folder modifications you want.
 Click OK.
Modifying the Folder Window Toolbar
To show or hide folder window toolbars:
From the main menu, select View > Toolbars. This displays a list
of toolbars available. Toolbars with a check next to them are
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already displayed.

Fig.7.25: Hiding folder window toolbars

 Check or uncheck the toolbars you want to show or hide.
Using Task Panels
 A new feature to Windows XP, task panels provide an easy
way to access the most commonly used folder tasks. The task
panel displays a list of hyperlinked tasks to the left of the folder
contents:

Fig.7.26: Task Panels

 Several folders offer additional specialized hyperlinked tasks.
For example, the My Pictures and My Music folders offer links
that help you manage your picture and music files. The Recycle
Bin offers links to empty the Recycle Bin or restore items from
the Recycle Bin. The My Computer folder offers links to view
system information, add or remove programs, and change system
settings.
Using the Search Companion about the Search Companion
 Enhanced for Windows XP, the Search Companion is
designed to help you quickly find what you're looking for. The
Search Companion helps you find files, folders, printers,
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computers and people, information in the Help and Support
Center, and acts as a starting point to search the Internet.
Displaying the Search Companion
 Click Start >Search
OR click the Search button in a folder window:

Fig.7.27: Search icon

Searching for Pictures, Music, or Video

 Click the Pictures, music, or video link in the Search
Companion.

Fig.7.28: Searching for Pictures, Music, or Video

 Check the file type for which you are searching and/or enter a
filename.
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 Click Search.
Note: Use advanced search options to search on more specific
criteria.
Searching for Documents
 Click the Documents (word processing, spreadsheet, etc.)
link in the Search Companion.
 Select the criteria on which you are basing your search and/or
enter a filename:

Fig. 7.29: Searching for document

 Click Search.
Searching for all Files and Folders
 Click the All Files and Folders link in the Search
Companion.
 Select the criteria on which you are basing your search and/or
enter a file name or word or phrase in the file.
 Click Search.

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Using Windows Explorer or My Computer
 Windows Explorer and My Computer offer ways to
manually locate and manage files and folders within the
hierarchical structure of files, folders, and drives on your
computer.
To open Windows Explorer:
 Click Start > All Programs > Accessories > Windows
Explorer.
Creating Files
There are various ways files can be created depending on the type
of file intended to be created. A file is created using
a software program on the computer. For example, to create a text
file you would use a text editor, to create an image file you would
use an image editor, and to create a document you would use
a word processor, and so on. This section highlights the creation
of text file and document file only.
Creation of Text File
You can create a text file on your computer with a text editor. An
example of a text editor is Notepad, which is included
with Microsoft Windows.
Note: When we refer to a “text file” we are talking about a plain
text file without any text formatting (e.g., bold), images, different
fonts, font sizes, etc. If you need to create a richer document with
any of these features, below is a tip on how to create the
document.
Tip: The below recommendations are for programs included with
an operating system. You can also download and install a more
powerful and free text editor such as Notepad++ to create, view,
and edit text files.
 Open and use Notepad.

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 Save the file as a text file.
 Create a new text file from the Desktop.
 Create a text file from the Windows command line.
 Create a text file from within a Linux shell.
Open and use Notepad
The easiest way to create a text file in Windows is to open up
the Notepad software program on your computer. The Notepad is
a text editor included with Microsoft Windows.
Tip: A text file is considered a plaintext file and Notepad is only
capable of creating and editing plaintext files. Notepad saves any
text file with a .txt file extension, which means no special
formatting or fonts can be used.
The Windows Notepad program can be found by following either
of the steps below.
1. Click Start
2. In the Run or Search box, type Notepad and press enter.
OR
1. Click Start
2. Open All Programs > Accessories, then click on the Notepad
shortcut.
Save the file as a text file
You can also create a text file using any other word processing
software program, like Microsoft Word or WordPad. When
saving the file, change the file name or file type to Plain Text to
save it as a text file. In many of these programs, you'll also have
the option to save the file as a Rich Text Format.

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 Fig.7.30: Saving the file as a text file
After the file has been created and saved, it can also be edited
using Notepad or another word processing software program.
Create a new text file from the Desktop
Another way to create a text file is to right-click on your Desktop
screen and in the menu that appears, click New and then
click Text Document. Creating a text file this way opens your
default text editor with a blank text file on your Desktop. You can
change the name of the file to anything you want. You can edit
the file in the Notepad program or any other word processing
software program, like Microsoft Word.
Tip: These same steps can be used in any other location on your
computer, for example, you could do this in another folder on
your computer.

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Types of Computer Files
There are numerous types of files used for storing data needed for
processing, reference or back up. The main common types of
processing files include:
i. Logical Files
ii. Physical files
iii. Master files
iv. Reference files
v. Backup files
Logical Files: Logical files do not contain data. They contain a
description of records found in one or more physical files. A
logical file is a view or representation of one or more physical
files. Logical files that contain more than one format are referred
to as multi-format logical files. If your program processes a
logical file which contains more than one record format, you can
use a read by record format to set the format you wish to use.
Physical Files: Physical files contain the actual data that is stored
on the system, and a description of how data is to be presented to
or received from a program. They contain only one record format,
and one or more members. A physical file can have a keyed
sequence access path. This means that data is presented to a
program in a sequence based on one or more key fields in the file.
Each base relation in the database design becomes a physical file.
The physical file is made up of a set of physical records which are
in turn made up of a set of fields. The fields can be of fixed
length or variable length, and the record can consist of fixed
length fields, variable length fields or a mixture of both fixed and
variable length fields. The physical file can be then defined as a
named portion of secondary memory allocated for the purpose of
storing physical records.
Master Files: A collection of records pertaining to one of the
main subjects of an information system, such as customers,
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employees, products and vendors. Master files contain descriptive
data, such as name and address, as well as summary information,
such as amount due and year-to-date sales. A master file is the
main that contains relatively permanent records about particular
items or entries. For example, a customer file will contain details
of a customer such as customer ID, name and contact address.
Reference Files: A reference file is mainly used for reference or
look-up purposes. Look-up information is that information that is
stored in a separate file but is required during processing. For
example, in a point of sale terminal, the item code entered either
manually or using a barcode reader looks up the item description
and price from a reference file stored on a storage device.
Backup Files: A backup file is used to hold copies (backups) of
data or information from the computer’s fixed storage (hard disk).
Since a file held on the hard disk may be corrupted, lost or
changed accidentally, it is necessary to keep copies of the recently
updated files. In case of the hard disk failure, a backup file can be
used to reconstruct the original file.
File Formats and Filename Extensions
A file format is a standard way that information is encoded for
storage in a computer file. It specifies how bits are used to encode
information in a digital storage medium. File formats may be
either proprietary or free and may be either unpublished or open.
A Computer filename is a name used to uniquely identify a
computer file stored in a file system. Different file systems
impose different restrictions on filename lengths and the allowed
characters within filenames.
The Document File Format: In computing, DOC or doc is a
filename extension for word processing documents, most
commonly in the proprietary Microsoft Word Binary File Format.
Historically, the extension was used for documentation in plain
text, particularly of programs or computer hardware on a wide
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range of operating systems. Developed by Microsoft Corporation,
its type of format is document file format, extended to Microsoft
Office XML formats and Office Open XML. It is also a Container
for text, image and table.
Rich Text File format
The Rich Text Format is a proprietary document file format with
published specification developed by Microsoft Corporation from
1987 until 2008 for cross-platform document interchange with
Microsoft products. Developed by Microsoft Corporation (initial
release in 1987), type of format is Document file format.
PowerPoint Presentation File Formats
Developer by Microsoft Corporation, PPT is of data file category
and a binary format. A PPT file is an editable slide show.
PowerPoint or another presentation program, such as OpenOffice
Impress or Apple Keynote. It may include formatted text, bullet
points, images, movies, sound effects, and music. PPT files are
commonly built from one of many templates included with the
PowerPoint software, but may also be created from scratch.
PPT files are used for creating presentations in the home and
business environments. The PPT file was introduced in 1987 with
the release of PowerPoint. It was saved in a binary file format and
was the primary file type used to save PowerPoint presentations
until it was replaced in PowerPoint 2007 with the .PPTX file
extension, which is saved in the OpenXML format. Although the
PPT file was replaced by the PPTX file it is still supported by
PowerPoint.
XLS File Formats
XLS or xls may refer to:
 Microsoft Excel file format, a spreadsheet file format
 Cadillac XLS, a prototype Cadillac concept car

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 Exelis Inc. (NYSE symbol), a global aerospace, defense,
information and services company
 Lusitanian language (ISO 639-3 code), an Indo-European
Paleohispanic language
 Midwest Questar XLS, an American ultra-light aircraft design
 Saint-Louis Airport (IATA airport code), near Saint-Louis,
Senegal

Fig.7.31: MS Excel icons

The Image File Formats

Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and
storing digital images. Image files are composed of digital data in
one of these formats that can be rasterized for use on a computer
display or printer. An image file format may store data in
uncompressed, compressed, or vector formats. Once rasterized, an
image becomes a grid of pixels, each of which has a number of
bits to designate its color equal to the color depth of the device
displaying it.
According to Nichols (2018), working with images is a lot more
complicated than you would think at first glance. But hopefully,
this guide provides a better understanding of the standard file
types and which are most appropriate for your project.
Raster vs. Vector Image Files
It is pertinent that we do the first thing first: knowing the
difference between vector and raster.
Raster Image Files: In computer graphics, a raster graphics or
bitmap image is a dot matrix data structure that represents a

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generally rectangular grid of pixels, viewable via a monitor,
paper, or other display medium. Raster images are stored in image
files with varying formats. Raster images can be constructed by a
series of pixels, or individual blocks, to form an
image. JPEG, GIF, and PNG are all raster image extensions.
Every photo you find online or in print is a raster image. Pixels
have a defined proportion based on their resolution (high or low),
and when the pixels are stretched to fill space they were not
originally intended to fit, they become distorted, resulting in
blurry or unclear images.
In order to retain pixel quality, you cannot resize raster images
without compromising their resolution. As a result, it is important
to remember to save raster files at the exact dimensions needed
for the application.
Vector Image Files: Vector images are far more flexible. They
are constructed using proportional formulas rather than
pixels. EPS, AI and PDF are perfect for creating graphics that
require frequent resizing. Your logo and brand graphics should
have been created as a vector, and you should always have a
master file on hand. The real beauty of vectors lies in their ability
to be sized as small as a postage stamp, or large enough to fit on
an 18-wheeler!
If you’re not sure whether you have a vector version of your logo,
here is a little trick for you: Call the company that printed your
business cards or the vendor that embroidered your logo on a
shirt. Often they will have a vector file of your logo that they can
send to you for your records.
High Resolution vs. Low Resolution
Have you heard your designer talk about DPI or PPI? DPI stands
for “dots per inch” and PPI translates to “pixels per inch.” These
units of measure are essential for determining if the density of
pixels in an image is appropriate for the application you are using.
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The biggest thing to note when determining what DPI or PPI you
require is whether you are to use the image for print or web.
Websites display images at 72dpi, which is low resolution;
however, images at this resolution look really crisp on the web.
This is not the case for print. Best practices for printing an image
will require it to be no less than 300dpi.
Don’t try to trick the system. A lot of magic can happen in
Photoshop, but creating pixels out of thin air isn’t one of them.
Pulling an image off of the web and trying to get it to fit the
dimensions of your print project just won’t work. You will end up
with a pixelated image that appears stretched and distorted.
1. JPEG (or JPG) - Joint Photographic Experts Group
2. PNG - Portable Network Graphics
3. GIF - Graphics Interchange Format
4. TIFF - Tagged Image File
5. PSD - Photoshop Document
6. PDF - Portable Document Format
7. EPS - Encapsulated Postscript
8. AI - Adobe Illustrator Document
9. INDD - Adobe Indesign Document
10. RAW - Raw Image Formats
11. BMP - BMP format

JPEG (or JPG) - Joint Photographic Experts Group: JPEGs

might be the most common file type you run across on the web,
and more than likely the kind of image that is in your company’s
MS Word version of its letterhead. JPEGs are known for their
“lossy” compression, meaning that the quality of the image
decreases as the file size decreases. These files have the .jpeg or
.jpg file extension.

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 Fig.7.32: JPEG file icon
You can use JPEGs for projects on the web, in Microsoft Office
documents, or for projects that require printing at a high
resolution. Paying attention to the resolution and file size with
JPEGs is essential in order to produce a nice looking project.
PNG - Portable Network Graphics: Portable Network Graphics
is a raster-graphics file-format that supports lossless data
compression. PNG was developed as an improved, non-patented
replacement for Graphics Interchange Format. PNG supports
palette-based images, grayscale images, and full-color non-
palette-based RGB/RGBA images. Developed by PNG
Development Group (donated to W3C),initial release was on 1
October, 1996. This format is extended
to: APNG, JNG and MNG. PNGs are amazing for interactive
documents such as web pages, but are not suitable for print. While
PNGs are "lossless," meaning you can edit them and not lose
quality, they are still low resolution.

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 Fig.7.33: PNG file icon
The reason PNGs are used in most web projects is that you can
save your image with more colors on a transparent background.
This makes for a much sharper, web-quality image.
GIF - Graphics Interchange Format: GIFs are most common in
their animated form, which are all the rage on Tumblr pages and
in banner ads. It seems like every other day we have a
new Grumpy Cat or Honey Boo Boo animated GIF. In their more
basic form, GIFs are formed from up to 256 colors in the RGB
colors pace. Due to the limited number of colors, the file size is
drastically reduced.

Fig.7.34: GIF file icon

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This is a common file type for web projects where an image needs
to load very quickly, as opposed to one that needs to retain a
higher level of quality. These files have the .gif file extension.
TIFF - Tagged Image File: Tagged Image File Format,
abbreviated TIFF or TIF, is a computer file format for storing
raster graphics images, popular among graphic artists, the
publishing industry, and photographers. A TIF is a large raster file
that doesn't lose quality. This file type is known for using
“lossless compression,” meaning the original image data is
maintained regardless of how often you might copy, re-save, or
compress the original file.

Fig.7.35: TIFF file icon

Despite TIFF images’ ability to recover their quality after
manipulation, you should avoid using this file type on the web --
it can take forever to load. TIFF files are also commonly used
when saving photographs for print. These files are extended
to: Exif, DCF, TIFF/EP, TIFF/IT, TIFF-FX, GeoTIFF.
PSD - Photoshop Document: PSDs are files that are created and
saved in Adobe Photoshop, the most popular graphics editing
software ever. This type of file contains “layers” that make
modifying the image much easier to handle. This is also the
program that generates the raster file types mentioned above.

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 Fig.7.36: PSD file icon
The largest disadvantage to PSDs is that Photoshop works with
raster images as opposed to vector images. These files have the
.psd file extension.
PDF - Portable Document Format: The Portable Document
Format (PDF) is a file format developed by Adobe in the 1990s to
present documents, including text formatting and images, in a
manner independent of application software, hardware,
and operating systems. Adobe invented PDF with the goal of
capturing and reviewing rich information from any application, on
any computer, with anyone, anywhere. We would say they have
been pretty successful so far.
Based on the PostScript language, each PDF file encapsulates a
complete description of a fixed-layout flat document, including
the text, fonts, vector graphics, raster images and other
information needed to display it. PDF was standardized as
an open format, ISO 32000, in 2008, and no longer requires any
royalties for its implementation.
Today, PDF files may contain a variety of content besides flat text
and graphics including logical structuring elements, interactive
elements such as annotations and form-fields, layers, rich
media (including video content) and three dimensional objects
using U3D or PRC, and various other data formats. The PDF
specification also provides for encryption and digital signatures,
file attachments and metadata to enable workflows requiring these
features.
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 Fig.7.37: PDF file icon
If a designer saves your vector logo in PDF format, you can view
it without any design editing software (as long as you have
downloaded the free Acrobat Reader software), and they have the
ability to use this file to make further manipulations. This is by far
the best universal tool for sharing graphics. These files have the
.pdf file extension.
EPS - Encapsulated Postscript: EPS is a file in vector format
that has been designed to produce high-resolution graphics for
print. Almost any kind of design software can create an EPS.

Fig.7.38: EPS file icon

The EPS extension is more of a universal file type (much like the
PDF) that can be used to open vector-based artwork in any design
editor, not just the more common Adobe products. This
safeguards file transfers to designers that are not yet utilizing
Adobe products, but may be using Corel Draw or Quark. These
files have the .eps file extension.

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AI - Adobe Illustrator Document: AI is, by far, the image
format most preferred by designers and the most reliable type of
file format for using images in all types of projects from web to
print, etc.

Fig.7.39: AI file icon

Adobe Illustrator is the industry standard for creating artwork
from scratch and therefore more than likely the program in which
your logo was originally rendered. Illustrator produces vector
artwork, the easiest type of file to manipulate. It can also create all
of the aforementioned file types. Pretty cool stuff! It is by far the
best tool in any designer's arsenal. These files have the .ai file
extension.
INDD - Adobe Indesign Document: INDDs (Indesign
Document) are files that are created and saved in Adobe Indesign.
Indesign iscommonly used to create larger publications, such as
newspapers, magazines and eBooks.

Fig.7.40: IND file icon

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Files from both Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator can be combined
in Indesign to produce content rich designs that feature advanced
typography, embedded graphics, page content, formatting
information and other sophisticated layout-related options. These
files have the .ind file extension.
RAW - Raw Image Formats: A RAW image is the least-
processed image type on this list – it’s often the first format a
picture inherits when it’s created. When you snap a photo with
your camera, it’s saved immediately in a raw file format. Only
when you upload your media to a new device and edit it using
image software is it saved using one of the image extensions
explained above.

Fig.7.41: RAW file icon

RAW images are valuable because they capture every element of

a photo without processing and losing small visual details.
Eventually, however, you will want to package them into a raster
or vector file type so they can be transferred and resized for
various purposes.
As you can see from the icons above, there are multiple raw
image files in which you can create images – many of them native
to certain cameras (and there are still dozens more formats not
shown above). Here is a brief description of those four raw files
above:
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 CR2: This image extension stands for Canon RAW 2, and was
created by Canon for photos taken using its own digital
cameras. They are actually based on the TIFF file type, making
them inherently high in quality.
 CRW: This image extension was also created by Canon,
preceding the existence of the CR2.
 NEF: This image extension stands for Nikon Electric Format,
and is a RAW file type created by (you guessed it) Nikon
Cameras. These image files actually allow for extensive editing
without changing file types, provided the editing takes place
using a Nikon device or Nikon Photoshop plugin.
 PEF: This image extension stands for Pentax Electronic
Format, a RAW image file type created by Pentax Digital
Cameras.
BMP - Bitmap Image Formats: The BMP file format, also
known as bitmap image file or device independent bitmap file
format or simply a bitmap, is a raster graphics image file format
used to store bitmap digital images, independently of the display
device, especially on Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating
systems.
Open format: OSP for WMF
Type of format: Raster graphics
Developed by: Microsoft Corporation

Media File Formats (Audio and Video)

WAV File format: Developed by Microsoft & IBM, Waveform
Audio File Format is an audio file format standard for storing an
audio bit stream on PCs. WAV files are extended from: RIFF and
extended to: BWF, RF64.Supported types of format
include Audio file format, Digital container format. Its filename
extension is .wav or .wave.

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MP3 File format: MP3 is a coding format for digital audio.
Originally defined as the third audio format of the MPEG-1
standard, it was retained and further extended – defining
additional bit-rates and support for more audio channels – as the
third audio format of the subsequent MPEG-2 standard.
Developed by Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), the Type
of format is Audio file format and its filename extension is .mp3.
MPEG-4 Part 14 File format: Developed by International
Organization for Standardization, MPEG-4 Part 14 or MP4 is a
digital multimedia container format most commonly used to store
video and audio, but it can also be used to store other data such as
subtitles and still images. Like most modern container formats, it
allows streaming over the Internet. It is a container for audio,
video and text data. It has the Digital container type of format.
Extended from: QuickTime File Format and MPEG-4 Part 12, its
filename extension is .mp4.
Windows Media Video File format: Windows Media Video is a
series of video codecs and their corresponding video coding
formats developed by Microsoft. It is part of the Windows Media
framework.
Audio Video Interleave File format: Audio Video Interleave,
known by its initials AVI, is a multimedia container format
introduced by Microsoft Corporation in November 1992 as part of
its Video for Windows software. AVI files can contain both audio
and video data in a file container that allows synchronous audio-
with-video playback. Initial release was in November 1992; type
of format: Video file format. Filename extension is .avi.
Other File Formats
Zip File format: Developed by Phil Katz, PKWARE, Inc., ZIP is
an archive file format that supports lossless data compression. A
ZIP file may contain one or more files or directories that may
have been compressed. The ZIP file format permits a number of
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compression algorithms, though DEFLATE is the most common.
Its Type of format is Data compression and its filename extension
is .zip (and newer compression algorithms).
Comma-Separated Values (CSV) File Format: In computing,
a comma-separated values (CSV) file is a delimited text file that
uses a comma to separate values. A CSV file stores tabular data
(numbers and text) in plain text. Each line of the file is a
data record. Each record consists of one or more fields, separated
by commas. The use of the comma as a field separator is the
source of the name for this file format.
The CSV file format is not fully standardized. The basic idea of
separating fields with a comma is clear, but that idea gets
complicated when the field data may also contain commas or even
embedded line-breaks. CSV implementations may not handle
such field data, or they may use quotation marks to surround the
field. Quotation does not solve everything: some fields may need
embedded quotation marks, so a CSV implementation may
include escape characters or escape sequences.
In addition, the term “CSV” also denotes some closely
related delimiter-separated formats that use different field
delimiters, for example, semicolons. These include tab-separated
values and space-separated values. A delimiter that is not present
in the field data (such as tab) keeps the format parsing simple.
These alternate delimiter-separated files are often even given a
.csv extension despite the use of a non-comma field separator.
This loose terminology can cause problems in data exchange.
Many applications that accept CSV files have options to select the
delimiter character and the quotation character. Semicolons are
often used in some European countries, such as Italy, instead of
commas.
Binary File format: A binary file is a computer file that is not a
text file. The term “binary file” is often used as a term meaning
“non-text file”.A binary file is a computer file that is not a text file
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(LINFO, 2017). The term “binary file” is often used as a term
meaning “non-text file”. Many binary file formats contain parts
that can be interpreted as text; for example, some computer
document files containing formatted text, such as older Microsoft
Word document files, contain the text of the document but also
contain formatting information in binary form.
File Management/Organization
File organization refers to physical arrangement of data on storage
devices, such as magnetic tapes, magnetic disks, optical disks, etc.
There are basically four methods of organizing or accessing files
on storage media.
1. Sequential File Organization: In sequential organization,
record occurrences are referenced in the order that they are stored
physically. Data stored on cards and tapes are necessarily stored
sequentially. Direct access devices such as disks may be, but are
not necessarily referenced sequentially. Sometimes the processing
is best done through sequential access, even when direct access
devices are used. Such is the case when many records of a file
must be accessed to satisfy a request for data.
In a sequential file, records are maintained in the logical sequence
of their primary key values. The processing of a sequential file is
conceptually simple but inefficient for random access. However,
if access to the file is strictly sequential, a sequential file is
suitable. A sequential file could be stored on a sequential storage
device such as a magnetic tape.
In a sequential file update, transaction records are in the same
sequence as in the master file. Records from both files are
matched on the basis of one record at a time, resulting in an
updated master file as shown in the figures below.

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 Fig .7.42: Sequential file organization
Advantages:
1. Errors in files remain localized.
2. Loading a record requires only the record key.
3. Simple to understand approach.
4. Easy to organize, maintain and understand.
5. Relatively inexpensive input/output (I/O) media and device
may be used.
6. Files may be relatively easy to reconstruct since a good
measure of built in back up is usually available.
7. Efficient and economical if the activity rate, i.e. the
proportion of file records to be processed is high.
Disadvantages:
1. Transactions must be sorted and placed in sequence prior to
processing.
2. ‘Data’ redundancy is typically high since the same data may
be stored in several files sequenced in different keys.
3. Random enquiries are virtually impossible to handle.
4. Timeliness of data in file deteriorates while batches are
being accumulated.
5. Entire file must be processed even when the activity rate is
very low.
6. This method is suitable for the small records. If the record is
very big, so much time is consumed in arranging the file.

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2. Random File Organization: Records are arranged in any
particular order but could be scattered using the record key as an
address on the disc for its location or access. That is, a random file
has a predictable relationship between the record key and the
record location on disk. This is called direct addressing where the
key value of the record is also used as the physical address of the
record on disk. The storage media used in random file includes;
magnetic disc and optical disc.
3. Serial File Organization: Records are arranged one after the
other no particular order. That is, records are placed unto the
storage medium one after the other without following any
particular sequence. The common storage device used in the serial
file organization is the magnetic tape. Serial organization
maximizes the utilization of space on the storage medium because
records are placed in turn, from the beginning to the end of the
file, without leaving any gap.
4. Index Sequential File Organization: Records are first stored
in this file sequentially according to a primary key (or key field),
and the file management system creates an address for each
record. These addresses are now used as index to create or access
individual records at random. The primary key field allows the
records to be accessed sequentially, and the index allows the
records to be accessed at random. In other words, the retrieval of a
record from a sequential file, on average, requires access to half
the records in the file, making such enquiries not only inefficient
but very time-consuming for large files. To improve the query
response time of a sequential file, a type of indexing technique
can be added. The type of storage media used in indexed
sequential file organization includes the magnetic disks and
optical disk. This type of file organization cannot make use of the
magnetic tape.
An index is a set of <key, address> pairs. Indexing associates a set
of orderable quantities, which are usually smaller in number or
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their properties, provide a mechanism for faster search. The
purpose of indexing is to expedite the search process. Indexes
created from a sequential (or sorted) set of primary keys are
referred to as index sequential.
Although the indices and the Data blocks are held together
physically, we distinguish between them logically. We shall use
the term index file to describe the indexes and data file to refer to
the data records. The index is usually small enough to be read into
the processor memory.
A sequential (for sorted on primary keys) file that is indexed is
called an index sequential size. The index provides for random
access to records, while the sequential nature of the file provides
easy access to the subsequent records as well as sequential
processing. An additional feature of this file system is the
overflow area. This feature provides additional space for record
addition without necessitating the creation of a new file.
Advantages:
1. Permits Quick access to records in a relatively efficient way
when this activity is a small fraction of the work load.
2. Permits the efficient and economical use of sequential
processing techniques when the activity rate is high.
Disadvantage:
1. Less efficient in the use of storage space than some other
alternatives.
2. Relatively expensive hardware and software resources are
required.
3. Slow retrieval compared to random access as searching of
index requires time.
Methods of Accessing Files
There are various methods by which information stored on a file
can be accessed or located. The method of accessing a file will
largely depend on how the file is organized.
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1. Accessing Sequential Files: The method of access is serial
but of course the file is in sequence, and for this reason the term
sequence access is often used in describing this form of serial
access. It is a method of recalling records from the magnetic tape
following the sequence in which the records were stored in that
tape.
2. Accessing Random Files: This is the method of searching for
a record from a group of records and accessing it directly at its
location on disk through direct addressing based on the physical
address of the record. In random access, one can access a record
number 12 directly without having to pass through records 1 to
11.
The figure below shows the operation of sequential access in
comparison with the random access.

Fig.7.43: Sequential vs. Random access

3. Accessing Serial Files: This is the method of accessing files
where records are read from the storage medium into the memory
one after the other in the order they are stored in the magnetic
tape. If the record required is the seventh figure, one will need to
read the first six records, into the computer memory before the
read the seventh.
4. Accessing Indexed-Sequential files: In indexed-sequential,
there are three methods of access;
i. Sequential Access: where records are accessed in
succession in the order in which they stored using the record
key.
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ii. Selective Sequential Access: where selected group of
records are read sequentially skipping groups of unwanted
records. For example, if you want to update records in the
students’ master file, then only student records of a
particular class code can be selected.
iii. Random Access File: where any of the record could be
searched for and located or accessed directly using the index
and record key.

EXERCISE VII

1. In clear terms, juxtapose file organization and file

management.
2. Briefly distinguish between the following as elements of
computer file:
(a) Bit and Character
(b) Field and Record
(c) Computer File and Folder
(d) File Structure and Database
(e) File Manager and File Browser
3. Two or more files cannot be saved using the same name
in the same location; expound.
4. Highlight the steps involved in renaming a computer
file or folder.
5. Computer images cannot be converted from one format
to another; discuss.
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 CHAPTER EIGHT

DATA PROCESSING AND CONTROL

Data Processing
Data refers to the raw facts that do not have much meaning to the
user and may include numbers, letters, symbols, sound or images.
Information refers to the meaningful output obtained after
processing the data.
Data processing therefore refers to the process of transforming
raw data into meaningful output, that is, information. Data
processing can be done manually using pen and paper;
mechanically, using simple devices like typewriters or
electronically using modern data processing tools such as
computers.
Data processing cycle
It refers to the sequence of activities involved in data
transformation from its row form to information. It is often
referred to as cycle because the output obtained can be stored after
processing and may be used in future as input. The four main
stages of data processing cycle are:
 Data collection
 Data input
 Data processing
 Data output

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 Fig.8.1: Data processing cycle.
1. Data collection: Also referred to as data gathering or fact
finding, it involves looking for crucial facts needed for
processing.
Methods of Data Collection: They include; interviews, use of
questionnaires and observation. In most cases, the data is
collected after sampling.
Sampling is the process of selecting representative elements (e.g.
people, organizations) from an entire group (population) of
interest. Some of the tools that help in the data collection include
source documents such as forms, data capture devices such as
digital camera etc.
Stages of Data Collection: The process of data collection may
involve a number of stages depending on the method used. These
include:
 Data creation: This is the process of identification and
putting together facts in an organized format. This may be in
the form of manually prepared document or captured from the
source using a data capture device such as a barcode reader
and be inputted easily in a computer.
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  Data preparation: This is the transcription (conversion) of
data from source document to machine readable form. This
may not be the case for all input devices. Data collected using
devices that directly capture data in digital form do not
require transcription.
 Data transmission: This will depend on whether data need to
be transmitted via communication media to the central office.
2. Data input: This refers to the process where the collected
data is converted from human readable from to machine readable
form (binary form). The conversion takes place in the input
device.
 Media conversion: Data may need to be transmitted from
one medium to another e.g. from a floppy disk to a
computer’s hard disk for faster input.
 Input validation: Data entered into the computer is subjected
to validity checks by a computer program before being
processed to reduce errors as the input.
 Sorting: in case the data needs to be arranged in a predefined
order, it is first sorted before processing.
3. Processing: This is the transformation of the input data by
the CPU to a more meaningful output (information).Some of the
operations performed on the data include calculations, comparing
values and sorting.
4. Output: The final activity in the data processing cycle is
producing the desired output also referred to as information. This
information can be distributed to the target group or stored for
future use. Distribution is making information available to those
who need it and is sometimes called information dissemination.
This process of dissemination may involve electronic presentation
over the radio or television, distribution of hard copies,
broadcasting messages over the internet or mobile phones, etc.

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Description of errors in data processing
1. Computational errors: Occurs when an arithmetic operation
does not produce the expected results. The most common
computation errors include overflow, truncation and
rounding.
2. Overflow errors: Occurs if the result from a calculation is
too large to be stored in the allocated memory space. For
example, if a byte is represented using 8 bits, an overflow will
occur if the result of a calculation gives a 9-bit number.
3. Truncation errors: Result from having real numbers that
have a long fractional part which cannot fit in the allocated
memory space. The computer would truncate or cut off the
extra characters from the fractional part. For example, a
number like 0.784969 can be truncated to four digits to
become 0.784.
The accuracy of the computer output is critical. As the saying
goes garbage in garbage out (GIGO), the accuracy of the data
entered in the computer directly determines the accuracy of
the information given out. Some of the errors that influence
the accuracy of data input and information output include:
 Transcription,
 Computation and
 Algorithm or logical errors.
4. Transcription errors: Occurs during data entry. Such errors
include misreading and transposition errors.
5. Misreading errors: Are brought about by the incorrect
reading of the source by the user and hence entering wrong
values. For example, a user may misread a handwritten figure
such as 589 and type S89 instead, that is, confusing 5 for S.

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6. Transposition errors: This occurs as a result of incorrect
arrangement of characters i.e. putting characters in the wrong
order. For example, the user might enter 396 instead of 369.
These errors may be avoided by using modern capture devices
such as bar code readers, digital cameras etc which enter data
with the minimum user intervention.
7. Rounding errors: Results from raising or lowering a digit in
a real number to the required rounded number. for example, to
round off 30.666 to one decimal place we raise the first digit
after the decimal point if its successor is more than or equal to
five. In this case the successor is 6 therefore 30.666 rounded
up to one decimal place is 30.7. If the successor is below five,
e.g. 30.635, we round down the number to 30.6.
8. Algorithm or logical errors: An algorithm is a set of
procedural steps followed to solve a given problem.
Algorithms are used as design tools when writing programs.
Wrongly designed programs would result in a program that
runs but gives erroneous output. Such errors that result from
wrong algorithm design are referred to as algorithm or logical
errors.

Data Integrity
Data integrity refers to the accuracy and completeness of data
entered in a computer or received from the information system.
Integrity is measured in terms of accuracy, timeliness and
relevance of data.
Accuracy: It refers to how close an approximation is to an actual
value. As long as the correct instructions and data are entered,
computers produce accurate results efficiently. In numbers, the
accuracy of a real number depends on the number. For example,
72.1264 is more accurate than 72.13.

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Timeliness: This is the relative accuracy of data in respect to the
current state of affairs for which it is needed. This is important
because data and information have a time value attached to them.
If received late, the information may have become useless to the
user. For example, information in the newspaper that is meant to
invite people for a meeting or occasion must be printed prior to
the event and not later.
Relevance: Data entered into the computer must be relevant so as
to get the expected output. In this case, relevance means that the
data entered must be pertinent to the processing needs at hand and
must meet the requirements of the processing cycle. The user also
needs relevant information for daily operations or decision
making.
Threat to data integrity
Threats to data integrity can be minimized through the following
ways:
 Backup data preferably on external storage media.
 Control access to data by enforcing security measures.
 Design user interfaces that minimize chances of invalid data
entry.
 Using error detection and correction software when
transmitting data
 Using devices that directly capture data from the source such
as bar code readers, digital cameras, and optical scanners.
Data Processing Methods
As mentioned earlier, data can be processed manually,
mechanically and electronically.
1. Manual data processing: In manual data processing, most
tasks are done manually with a pen and a paper. For example, in a
busy office, incoming tasks (input) are stacked in the “tray”
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(output). The processing of each task involves a person using the
brain in order to respond to queries. The processed information
from the out tray is then distributed to the people who need it or
stored in a file cabinet.
2. Mechanical data processing: Manual is cumbersome and
boring especially repetitive tasks. Mechanical devices were
developed to help in automation of manual tasks. Examples of
mechanical devices include the typewriter, printing press, and
weaving looms. Initially, these devices did not have electronic
intelligence.
3. Electronic data processing: For a long time, scientists
have researched on how to develop machine or devices that would
stimulate some form of human intelligence during data and
information processing. This was made possible to some extent
with the development of electronic programmable devices such as
computers.
The advent of microprocessor technology has greatly enhanced
data processing efficiency and capability. Some of the micro
processor controlled devices include computers, cellular (mobile)
phones, calculators, fuel pumps, modern television sets, washing
machines etc.
Computer Files
A file can be defined as a collection of related records that give a
complete set of information about a certain item or entity. A file
can be stored manually in a file cabinet or electronically in
computer storage devices.
Computerized storage offers a much better way of holding
information than the manual filing system which heavily relies on
the concept of the file cabinet.
Advantages of computerized filing system include:
1. Information takes up much less space than the manual filing.
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2. It is much easier to update or modify information.
3. It offers faster access and retrieval of data.
4. It enhances data integrity and reduces duplication.
5. It enhances security of data if proper care is taken to secure it.
Elements of Computer File
A computer file is made up of three elements: characters, fields
and records.
1. Characters: A character is the smallest element in a
computer file and refers to letter, number or symbol that can
be entered, stored and output by a computer. A character is
made up of seven or eight bits depending on the character
coding scheme used.
2. Field: A field is a single character or collection of characters
that represents a single piece of data. For example, the
student’s admission number is an example of a field.
3. Records: A record is a collection of related fields that
Represents a single entity, e.g. in a class score sheet, detail of
each student in a row such as admission number, name, total
marks and position make up a record.
Types of Computer Files
Computer files are classified as either physical or logical.
 Logical files: A computer file is referred to as logical file if it
is viewed in terms of what data item it contains and details of
what processing operations may be performed on the data
items. It does not have implementation specific information
like field, data types, and size, and file type.
 Physical files: As opposed to a logical file, a physical file is
viewed in terms of how data is stored on a storage media and
how the processing operations are made possible. Physical

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 files have implementation specific details such as characters
per field and data type for each field.
Types of Computer Processing Files
There are numerous types of files used for storing data needed for
processing, reference or back up. The main common types of
processing files include;
 Master files,
 Transaction,
 Reference,
 Backup, report and
 Sort file.
1. Master file: A master file is the main that contains relatively
permanent records about particular items or entries. For
example, a customer file will contain details of a customer
such as customer ID, name and contact address.
2. Transaction (movement) file: A transaction file is used to
hold data during transaction processing. The file is later used
to update the master file and audit daily, weekly or monthly
transactions. For example, in a busy supermarket, daily sales
are recorded on a transaction file and later used to update the
stock file. The file is also used by the management to check
on the daily or periodic transactions.
3. Reference file: A reference file is mainly used for reference
or look-up purposes. Look-up information is that information
that is stored in a separate file but is required during
processing. For example, in a point of sale terminal, the item
code entered either manually or using a barcode reader looks
up the item description and price from a reference file stored
on a storage device.
4. Backup file: A backup file is used to hold copies (backups)
of data or information from the computers fixed storage (hard

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 disk). Since a file held on the hard disk may be corrupted, lost
or changed accidentally, it is necessary to keep copies of the
recently updated files. In case of the hard disk failure, a
backup file can be used to reconstruct the original file.
5. Report file: Used to store relatively permanent records
extracted from the master file or generated after processing.
For example, you may obtain a stock levels report generated
from an inventory system while a copy of the report will be
stored in the report file.
6. Sort file: It stores data which is arranged in a particular order.
Used mainly where data is to be processed sequentially. In
sequential processing, data or records are first sorted and held
on a magnetic tape before updating the master file.

Methods of File Organization

File organization refers to the way data is stored in a file. File
organization is very important because it determines the methods
of access, efficiency, flexibility and storage devices to use. There
are four methods of organizing files on a storage media. These
include:
1. Sequential;
2. Random;
3. Serial; and
4. Indexed-sequential.
1. Sequential file organization: Records are stored and
accessed in a particular order sorted using a key field.
Retrieval requires searching sequentially through the entire
file record by record to the end. Because the record in a file
are sorted in a particular order, better file searching methods
like the binary search technique can be used to reduce the
time used for searching a file.
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 Since the records are sorted, it is possible to know in which
half of the file a particular record being searched is located,
hence, this method repeatedly divides the set of records in the
file into two halves and searches only the half on which the
records is found.
For example, of the file has records with key fields 20, 30, 40,
50, 60 and the computer is searching for a record with key
field 50, it starts at 40 upwards in its search, ignoring the first
half of the set.
Advantages of sequential file organization
 The sorting makes it easy to access records.
 The binary chop technique can be used to reduce record
search time by as much as half the time taken.
Disadvantages of sequential file organization
 The sorting does not remove the need to access other records
as the search looks for particular records.
 Sequential records cannot support modern technologies that
require fast access to stored records.
 The requirement that all records be of the same size is
sometimes difficult to enforce.
2. Random or direct file organization: Here, records are stored
randomly but accessed directly. To access a file stored
randomly, a record key is used to determine where a record is
stored on the storage media.
Magnetic and optical disks allow data to be stored and
accessed randomly.
Advantages of random file access
 Quick retrieval of records.
 The records can be of different sizes.

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3. Serial file organization: Records in a file are stored and
accessed one after another. The records are not stored in any
way on the storage medium this type of organization is mainly
used on magnetic tapes.
Advantages of serial file organization
 It is simple
 It is cheap
Disadvantages of serial file organization
 It is cumbersome to access because you have to access all
proceeding records before retrieving the one being
searched.
 Wastage of space on medium in form of inter-record gap.
 It cannot support modern high speed requirements for
quick record access.
4. Indexed-sequential file organization method: Almost
similar to sequential method only that, an index is used to
enable the computer to locate individual records on the
storage media. For example, on a magnetic drum, records are
stored sequential on the tracks. However, each record is
assigned an index that can be used to access it directly.
Electronic Data Processing Methods
There are several ways in which a computer, under the influences
of an operating system is designed to process data.
Examples of processing modes are:
1. Online processing
2. Real-time processing
3. Distributed processing
4. Multiprogramming
5. Time sharing

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6. Batch processing
7. Multiprocessing
8. Multitasking
9. Interactive processing
Online processing: In online data processing, data is processed
immediately it is received. The computer is connected directly to
the data input unit via a communication link. The data input may
be a network terminal or online input devices attached to the
computer.
Real-time processing: Computer processes the incoming data as
soon as it occurs, updates the transaction file and gives an
immediate response that would affect the events as they happen.
This is different from online in that for the latter an immediate
response may not be required.
The main purpose of a real-time processing is to provide accurate,
up-to-date information hence better services based on a true (real)
situation. An example of a real time processing is making a
reservation for airline seats. A customer may request for an airline
booking information through a remote terminal and the requested
information will be given out within no time by the reservation
system. If a booking is made, the system immediately updates the
reservation file to avoid double booking and sends the response
back to the customer immediately.
Distributed data processing: Multiprogramming, also referred to
as multitasking refers to a type of processing where more than one
program are executed apparently at the same time by a single
central processing unit. Distributed data processing refers to
dividing (distributing) processing tasks to two or more computer
that are located on physically separate sites but connected by data
transmission media.

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Multiprogramming: This is a rudimentary form of parallel
processing in which several programs are run at the same time on
a uniprocessor. Since there is only one processor, there can be no
true simultaneous execution of different programs. For example, a
distributed database will have different tables of the same
database residing on separate computers and processed there as
need arises.
This distribution of processing power increases efficiency and
speed of processing. An example is in the banking industry where
customers’ accounts are operated on servers in the branches but
all the branch accounts can be administered centrally from the
main server as if they resided on it. In this case, we say that the
distributed database is transparent to the user because the
distribution is hidden from the user’s point of view.
Time sharing: In a time sharing processing, many terminals
connected to a central computer are given access to the central
processing unit apparently at the same time. However in actual
sense, each user is allocated a time slice of the CPU in sequence.
The amount of time allocated to each user is controlled by a
multi-user operating system. If a user’s task is not completed
during the allocated time slice, he/she is allocated another time
slice later in a round-robin.
Batch processing: Data is accumulated as a group (batch) over a
specified period of time e.g. daily, weekly or monthly. The batch
is then processed at once. For example in payroll processing
system, employees details concerning the number of hours
worked, rate of pay, and other details are collected for a period of
time say, one month. These details are then used to process the
payment for the duration worked. Most printing systems use the
batch processing to print documents.
Multiprocessing: This refers to the processing of more than one
task at the same time on different processors of the same

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computer. This is possible in computers such as mainframes and
network servers.
In such systems a computer may contain more than one
independent central processing unit which works together in a
coordinated way. At a given time, the processors may execute
instructions from two or more different programs or from
different parts of one program simultaneously.
This coordination is made possible by a multiprocessing operating
system that enables different processors to operate together and
share the same memory. The users of the distributed database will
be completely unaware of the distribution and will interact with
the database as if all of it was in their computer.

Data Protection and Security

Several attacks have been on system data as well as other vital
components of the computer, causing loss of data, damage to data
component, disruptions or damages to the operation of the entire
computer system.
Computer Viruses
The same way bacteria and fungi cause illnesses in human body;
computers can also get diseases (viruses) from other infectious
agents. A computer virus is a program, a block of executable
code, which attaches itself to the computer in order to overwrite
or otherwise replace or cause havoc to another program. Some
replicate themselves easily without the knowledge of the
computer user. Viruses are small programs written so that they
can jump from one computer to another (via disk or a network),
and which can cause disruption or damage to the computer
system.
Designed by a computer hacker, a virus is a piece of
programming code designed with harmful intent. If you open or
receive a virus, it can change your desktop settings, reassign file
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extensions, or erase your entire hard disk. Even data files such as
a Word document can contain a virus. As well as causing damage
to your data, or in some cases even destroying your data, viruses
can cause other effects; such as using your email system to email
all your email contacts and in the process infect other people’s
computers.
Viruses can be transmitted as an email attachment, an Internet
download, or be present on a CD or floppy disk you insert into
your computer. Hackers like to disguise these viruses so average
computer users open them and transmit them, whether they know
it or not. Many viruses are designed so that they automatically
spread to other computer users. The newer macro viruses send
infected documents over the Internet and spread them further than
ever.
A file-infecting virus is a type of malware that infects executable
files with the intent to cause permanent damage or make them
unusable. Such virus overwrites code or inserts infected code into
an executable file.
How Viruses infect Computers
Basically, if you access files that are virus infected, then that virus
may be transmitted to your computer. The following are ways in
which viruses can infect computers:
(i) A virus can infect a computer by accepting infected files.
(ii) Via email attachments.
(iii) By instant messaging.
(iv) During file downloads from the Internet.
(v) Upon a visit to contaminated websites.
(vi) Infected disks.
(vii) Illegal duplication of software.
Note: Never accept diskettes/CD-ROMs/DVDs that have not been
properly virus scanned first by your computer support team.
Never connect to the Internet without an active virus checker
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program scanning all the files you download. Be careful when
using your organization’s network, as one computer on the
network is capable of infecting all the other computers on the
network.
Categories of Virus
There are numerous categories of computer virus which
includes; boot sector viruses, parasitic viruses, multi-parasitic
viruses, link viruses, macro viruses and companion viruses. In
this book however, we shall limit ourselves to the following:
(i) Boot Sector Virus: This was created in January 1986 by
the Farooq Alvi Brothers (Basit and Amjad), in Pakistan. The
virus was called (c) Brain. The virus was created to fight the
piracy of the software they had developed. The aimed at it
against fraudsters who use pirated copies of their software. The
book sector contains a small program that is the first part of the
operating system that the computer loads. This tiny program
‘tells’ the computer how to load the rest of the operating
system.
Boot sector can put its code in the boot sector and get executed
as it loads itself into memory. It is able to run whenever the
computer is on. Boot sector viruses can infect the boot sector of
any floppy disk inserted in the already infected computer
system and the hard disk.
(ii) Executable Files Virus: In order for a virus to replicate
itself, this virus must be permitted to execute its code and write
to memory. This is why many viruses attach themselves to
executable files that may be part of legitimate programs. When
a user tries to start an infected executable file, the virus code
will be executed first. Executable file viruses are therefore
found attached to executable files.
(iii) Document Virus: Computer viruses that attack
documents are mostly macro viruses. These viruses spread from
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applications that use macro. Applications that use macros are
word processing packages, Microsoft Excel, Word Basic, and
Word for Windows NT. What most computer viruses do is that
they increase the size of the document by creating either space
or insert nonsensical code in the document. Sometimes these
documents will not open and if attempts are made to open
them, meaningless codes are displayed.
Examples of Viruses
There are various types of virus known and new viruses are
being written on a daily basis. An example is the CiaDoor
virus, which disables system restore and other tools like Task
Manager and Command Prompt. Some of the known viruses
are:
1. Tojan horse
2. Worms
3. Sleeper virus
4. Logic bomb virus
5. Alabama virus
6. Christmas virus
7. Data
8. Stone
9. Antiexe
10. November 17
11. Melissa
12. Downloader-W
13. Creeper virus
14. Jerusalem virus
15. Macro virus
16. CiaDoor virus
17. Resident viruses
18. Nonresident viruses
19. Cross-site scripting virus
20. Code Red
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 21. JS/No Close
22. I Love You
23. W32/Elkern.cav
24. W32/Bugbear@MM
25. W32/Bad Trans@MM
26. Stone
27. Macro virus
Handling Viruses (Virus Detection and Removal)
A. The moment a user detect or see any of the warning signs
that a system is infected with virus, it important to do the
following:
 Install the latest updates for Microsoft Update on the
computer
 Install the latest antivirus software and perform a full scan
of the computer.
 Download, install and run the Microsoft malicious
software removal tool to remove existing viruses on the
computer.
B. To protect a computer against viruses, do the following:
 On the computer, turn on the firewall.
 Keep the computer operating system up-to-date.
 Use updated antivirus software on your computer.
Some of the antivirus software packages that can be used to
remove virus from the computer system are:
1. Semantic Norton Antivirus
2. MCAfee Virus Scan
3. Dr. Solomon Toolkit
4. Pccillin Antivirus
5. AVG Antivirus
6. Scan Antivirus
7. Microsoft Antivirus
8. IBM Antivirus
9. ESass Thunder byte
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10. EliashinVirusafe
11. DataFellows F-Port.
12. Avast! Antivirus.
13. Panda Cloud Antivirus.
14. Microsoft Security Essentials.
15. Avira AntiVirPeronal Edition.
16. Comodo Antivirus.
17. Immunet Protect
18. PC Tools AntiVirus.
19. Esset
20. PC Tools Antivirus
21. Malwarebytes Antivirus
22. ClamWin Antivirus
23. Bitdefender
24. Lavasoft Ad-Aware
25. eScan Antivirus Toolkit
26. Trend Micro HouseCall
27. ZoneAlarm Free Antivirus

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 EXERCISE VIII

1. What is data processing?

2. What do you understand by the term, system security?
3. In tabular arrangement, compare and contrast the
concept of data and information.
4. Distinguish between multiprocessing and multi-user in
data processing.
5. What is a computer virus?
6. Highlight ten (10) virus warning signs that can confirm
that your computer system is infected with a computer
virus.
7. List twenty (20) examples each of computer virus and
antivirus.
8. With the aid of a diagram, explain data processing
cycle.
9. Discuss the methods of data collection.
10. Enumerate five disadvantages of computerized filing
system.
11. Differentiate between the following data processing
modes:
(a) Online processing and real-time processing
(b) Distributed processing and batch processing
(c) Multiprogramming and multitasking
(d) Time sharing and multiprocessing

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 CHAPTER NINE

AREAS OF APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Nowadays, the computer has infinitely served several purposes in

many areas of endeavour. Some of the major areas in which the
computing machine is applied include:
Application of Computers in Agriculture
Technology can be applied to investigate real-world problems.
Computers and the World Wide Web (WWW) could be used to
solve problems related to work-based experience programs in
natural resource management, locate, evaluate, and collect
information from a variety of sources related to natural resource
management, develop positive attitudes toward technology uses
that support lifelong learning, collaboration, personal pursuits,
and productivity.
Agriculturists can demonstrate skills in word processing and the
use of databases, spreadsheets, graphics and telecommunications
aids productivity in the world of agriculture. Use of Laser
discs/DVD to retrieve information to complete classroom
assignments related to natural resource management.Also, use of
TV/satellite, videocassette recorder (VCR), cameras and/or
camcorders to record and monitor farming activities and progress
of special projects in the area of natural resource management are
other essential application of ICT in agriculture.
According to Atsa’am (2020), there are various ways ICT
supports farming; they include:
 Smart farming:A concept that utilizes advanced technology –
including big data, robotics, the cloud, and the Internet of
Things (IoT) – for tracking, monitoring, automating and
analyzing agricultural operations.Smart farming, also known as
precision agriculture, involves the use of technology such as:
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  Sensors: for soil scanning, water, light, humidity and
temperature management;
 Telecommunications: advanced networking, GPs, etc;
 Satellites and drones: for gathering data on an entire
field. Information is forwarded to IT systems for
tracking and analysis. Remote monitoring;
 Data analytics: tools for decision making and
prediction. Data from crop yields, soil-mapping, climate
change, fertilizer applications, weather data, machinery
and animal health is vital in smart farming; and
 Hardware and software: for specialized applications
and for enabling IoT-based solutions, robotics and
automation.
Combination of these technologies facilitates machine-to-machine
derived data.The data is fed into a decision support system so that
farmers can see what is happening at a more granular
level(individualized).
By precisely measuring variations within a field and adapting the
strategy accordingly, farmers can increase the effectiveness of
pesticides and fertilizers and use them more judiciously
(individualized).
With smart farming techniques, farmers can monitor the needs of
individual animals and adjust their nutrition to prevent disease and
enhance quality of health.
Fig.9.1shows automatic watering and irrigation system, where
Subsurface Drip Irrigation (SDI) system can be paired with IoT-
enabled sensors. The system continuously monitor moisture levels
and plant health and rely on data from sensors to perform
irrigation as needed. It is completely autonomous. The banks of
rivers Benue, Katsina-Ala can be harnessed for automatic
watering and irrigation(Atsa’am, 2020).

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 Fig.9.1: Automatic watering and irrigation
Other practical examples of smart farming practices include:
 Seeding and planting: Non-smart seeding machines exist.
They however use scatter method. This is inaccurate and
wasteful when seeds fall outside optimal location. Hence, smart
seeding and planting equipment have been designed. They use
geo-mapping and sensor data to track soil quality, moisture,
density, nutrient levels, etc. This eliminates guesswork in the
planting process. It can plant seeds with precision in depths and
appropriate distance between seeds. Ensure optimal growth of
plants.
 Weeding and crop maintenance: The Bonirob robot (Fig.9.2)
can navigate autonomously through a farm. It is equipped with
video, LiDAR and satellite GPS. It uses advanced machine
learning to identify weeds before removing them and replaces
the need for humans to manually weed crops.

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 Fig.9.2: The Bonirob farming robot

 Harvesting from field and tree: A robot designed by

Panasonic (Fig.9.3) incorporates sophisticated cameras and
algorithms, and can identify tomato colour, shape and location
to determine ripeness. The robot picks tomato by the stem to
avoid bruising. A prototype robot for picking apples is also
being developed by Abundant Robotics (Atsa’am, 2020).

Fig.9.3: Tomato picking robot

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 Real-time monitoring and analysis: Drones perform remote
monitoring and analysis of fields, crops and animals. Imaging
technology and cameras enable drones to survey fields for
optimal land use and monitoring of crops/animals health. The
data generated by drones is reviewed by the farmer; then the
farmers could visit the farm only when there is need.
Hence, this is a good concept for monitoring farms from
adversaries, invasion by herds on crop farms, etc.

Fig.9.4: Drones monitoring farm

 Planting from air: DroneSeed and BioCarbon are examples of
companies currently building and testing drones that can plant
tree crops from the air. The drones carry a module that fires
tree seeds into the ground at optimal locations. This is currently
being designed for reforestation projects but can be modified to
fit into agricultural tree crops planting (Atsa’am, 2020).

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 Fig.9.5: A drone for tree planting
 Crop spraying: Drones can spray liquid fertilizers, herbicides,
and pesticides from air. A combination of GPS, laser
measurements and ultrasound positioning helps crop-spraying
drones adjust to variations in wind speed, topology, geography.
DJI developed a drone called Agras MG-1 with a tank capacity
of 2.6 gallons (10 litres) and a flight range of seven to ten acres
per hour.

Fig.9.6: DJI Agras MG-1 crop spraying drone

What will make a farm really “smart” is when agric robots,
drones, and sensors are integrated using IoT. Internet of things
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enables computers, machines, equipment, and devices exchange
data and communicate in a way that looks like a smart system.
Already, IoT has brought about smart factories, smart medical
devices, smart home devices, etc. A truly smart farm will have
sensors embedded throughout the farm and on the equipment.
Sensors will collect data on soil conditions, weather, irrigation,
etc and send to the farmer or directly to agricultural robots.
Robots will traverse the fields and work autonomously to respond
to the needs of crops, and perform weeding, watering, pruning and
harvesting functions guided by their own collection of sensors,
navigation and crop data. Drones will tour the sky, get
information about plant health and soil conditions, or generating
maps that will guide the robots, and help the human farmers to
plan for the next steps of farm operations.
Application of Computers in Business/Commerce
Computers have helped in diverse business successes. Today,
almost every type of business is possible online and generates
higher outputs when computer expertise is fully deployed. Forex
trading is also one of the many trending business avenues.
Application of Computers in Education and Research
A lot of educational services are accessible with the use ICTs.
Online studies, online registration at different categories and
ranges are now available. Nowadays, scholars at various levels
engage in e-learning, e-research, e-publishing and so on.
Application of Computers in Health/Medicals
In health services, computers have been found to be extremely
useful. Like in every other sector, hospitals, clinics, laboratories
and allied facilities are also faced with problems of inventory
control, patients’ recordkeeping, payroll, budgets and planning;
and these areas are highly susceptible to computerization.

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However, the health sector is not exactly like the other business
sectors, as it has peculiar attributes and goals. For example, while
the goal of an industrial or business venture is mainly to operate
efficiently in order to be economically viable, that of a medical
institution involves providing services which society cannot do
without and which cannot be easily quantified in economic terms;
and that is, caring for life.
Therefore, computers in addition to performing the administrative
functions of a hospital like patient billing, health care statistics,
patient histories, etc, are beginning to cater for the more advanced
medical services. Applications of computers are scheduling,
monitoring laboratory test, and preliminary diagnosis, among
other things. The Computed Axial Tomography or Computerized
Axial Tomography (CAT) scanner that x-rays patients for
tumours is an example of an advanced use of computer aided
diagnosis. Computed Tomography or Computer Tomography
(CT) is the recent up-to-date term for CAT; hence, the terms
(CAT and CT) are synonymously used to mean the same type of
diagnostic examination.

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 Fig.9.7: CAT scanners for tumour
The Computer Tomography (CT) scans can detect bone and joint
problems, like complex bone fractures and tumours. If you have a
condition like cancer, heart disease, emphysema, or liver masses,
CT scans can spot it or help doctors see any changes. They show
internal injuries and bleeding, such as those caused by a car
accident.
Application of Computers in Aerospace/Aviation
Computers have been gradually integrated into an aviation
curriculum in both pilot and maintenance training. Applications
cover a wide range from Computer-Managed Instruction (CMI)
through simulation, particularly in the area of maintenance,
troubleshooting and instrument flying. In aviation industry, ICT
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simulates airflow around an aircraft at different speeds and
altitude. This helps in producing an effective aerodynamic design
for superior performance.
The role of ICT in airline industry cannot be undermined. Every
layer of airline industry is heavily filled with Information
Technology. Airlines were early adopters of ICT and have a
history of technological innovation. This industry has fostered a
dependency on technology for their operational and strategic
management.
In aviation, airlines have realised the need of efficient, quick,
inexpensive and accurate handling of their list and records and
being one of the most independent organisations in travel
industry, they need internet, intranet and extranets to facilitate all
of this as these three features facilitates their operational,
administrative and competitive roles in the market thereby
bringing innovative support.
With the growing technology and demand and with the increase in
fleet and routes, it was realised that reservations could no longer
be on manual display boards, where passengers were listed. Up to
1970, airlines had to locate the best routes and fares for the
customer and publish it in a manual. They had to phone for
availability, reservation and conformation before booking the
tickets manually. Internet allows airlines to demonstrate their
competitiveness widely as well as directly communicate with their
customers.
Today, every airline has a website for the convenience of
passengers and it has all the information necessary for a
convenient travel booking. From checking tickets to booking them
to planning a multi-city travel and many more options. With the
help of a web portal, customers can plan or cancel with just a
click and in a very secure manner ensuring that data is not being
misused and neither is there any loss of money. Web check-in,
additional baggage, seat preference, car – rentals and hotel
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bookings are few more additional benefits that make travel more
comfortable. Computer Reservation System (CRS) was described
as a technical marvel when it was first launched. CRS allows
airlines to improve their internal organisation and also provide a
powerful tool to manage their inventory. A reservation system
like this also enabled airlines to communicate with travel agencies
and distributors. Availability of seats and fare updates were also
easy to check with the help of this.
Intranets are used to provide user-friendly access to employees of
the organization. Airlines aim at maximising their profitability, by
optimising their total yield and by minimising costs. This process
is facilitated by a number of integrated systems that operate in
parallel to coordinate a number of critical airline functions, such
as accounting, financial management, human resources, etc. In
addition, specialised software facilitates scheduling in order to
optimise crew, aircraft, and other resources and to maximise the
operational efficiency whilst keeping costs under control.
Airlines also have to co-ordinate various other organisations that
provide handling services at airport like maintenance, refuelling,
security, baggage handling, load and dispatch, lounge provision,
cabin crew and pilots, catering and cleaner services. All these
things to function at the same time when one aircraft lands and to
function with co-operation and co- ordination and to do all this in
a prescribed time is in itself a well functioned machine. All these
are facilitated with the help of extranet which assists them
develop reliable and direct connections and enhance efficiency.
Suitable extranets and inter-organisational systems are required to
facilitate airline interaction with their regular suppliers. Airlines
are customers of airports, air control systems, and other
authorities such as immigration and customs.
Airlines therefore, regularly exchange information with airport
authorities and air traffic control systems. These flows include
requests for landing slots and docking gates, informing about
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arrivals and departures, altering slots, declaring flight paths, and
coordinating operations. Handling a large amount of baggage on a
daily basis between a number of airlines and airports is also very
complex and all this is facilitated by extranet. This role of extranet
of interaction with customs, immigration, airport, Air Traffic
Control (ATC) and Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA) is very vital
and makes ICT a very important part of aviation commercial
activities.
Application of Computers in Other Transportation
Computers are very useful in transportation today. It is useful in
both land and air transportation. Following are the main uses of
computers in transportation.
 Car navigation: One important use of computer in
transportation is Global Positing System, or GPS. This
features a screen that shows a map which tracks your
vehicle’s movement through satellite’s signals. These
pinpoint your location between 100 feet. Some mobiles also
have this system.
 Positive train control: Positive Train Control (PTC) by
Federal Railroad Administration is the computer system that
tracks the movement of trains on various railways around the
country.PTC technology is capable of preventing train to
train collisions, derailments caused by excessive speed and
the associated death or injuries.

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  Mapping: Mapping system through computers is very useful
now. We can find the route of any location through this. We
input our address and destination address then computer will
give us visual map, distance, total driving time, traffic jams
etc.
 Online booking: Tickets for bus, train and airplanes could
be booked online. This saves our time. Websites give us all
information regarding tickets in few seconds.
Application of Computers in Manufacturing Industries
The use of ICT could have several impacts on productivity. For
example, it might help more productive firms gain market share.
In addition, the use of ICT may help firms expand their product
range, customise the services offered, or respond better to client
demand; in short, to innovate. Moreover, ICT may help reduce
inefficiency in the use of capital and labour, e.g. by reducing
inventories. All these effects might lead to higher productivity
growth.
Investment in ICT might also have benefits going beyond those
accruing to investors in ICT. For instance, the diffusion of ICT
may help establish networks, which produce greater benefits (the
so-called spillover effects) the more customers or firms are
connected to the network. Moreover, the spread of ICT may
reduce transaction costs, which could lead to a more efficient
matching of supply and demand, and enable the growth of new
markets. Increased use of ICT may also lead to greater efficiency
in the creation of knowledge for quality production (Bartelsman &
Hinloopen, 2002).
Application of Computers in Administration/Management
ICT plays an important role for enhancing administration in every
respect.ICT facilitates three vital areas of administration, namely;
internal administration, planning and decision-making as well as
service delivery.ICT enables administration to be efficient and
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effective by facilitating the three core areas of its functioning. It
helps administration perform its public functions by simplifying
the work processes and internal functioning via internal
computerisation and automation, thus fostering transparency and
accountability. Further, ICT facilitates policy formulation through
multi-stakeholders’ participation enabling administration to
incorporate the ideas and suggestions of professionals,
academicians, private sector, civil society organisations, media,
community and individuals in policy making. In addition, it
renders public goods and services to the people by making the
service delivery much more convenient, customer oriented and
cost-effective.
ICT Use in Government
There are data on the technologies available in the government
departments, but there are not many data on the electronic
services offered by the governments and on the uses of these
services by the public. According to (Robyn, 2001), in Australia it
was found that, by mid-1998, 89% of the federal departments had
a website; that 12% received and 33% placed orders via Internet.
The Survey of Electronic Commerce and Technology of Canada,
however, came up with data suggesting that in Canada the
government plays a lead role in Internet use. By 2000, 96% of the
federal and provincial government departments had a website and
these websites were reported to be more likely than their private
sector counterparts to offer interactivity with the public, digital
products, and online payments (Robyn, 2001).
According to Eru (2017), in Nigeria, it is observable that most of
the federal ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs) had a
website, as well as some states government. But the local
government areas rarely used one perhaps being mainly
dependent on their respective states. Even the existing ones for the
federal government, its agencies and commissions are seldom, not

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fully explored. ICT is yet to be maximally utilised in
governments, especially in Nigeria.
ICT and the Economy
The rapid rise of electronic computing in the 20th century
changed the course of modern civilization. Although, many of the
effects have been positive, PCs have also affected lives in
undesirable ways. As computer technology continues to advance
and new generations of machines grow faster and have greater
capabilities, the machines become more deeply fixed in daily life,
magnifying both the benefits and the downside risks. Computer is
playing a very important role in the economy of any nation.
Nowadays, computers are mostly used in school, college, banks,
etc. In all fields, computer works very easily because today’s
computer technology is excellent as compared to old computers,
like in speed and size due to which it reduces cost of labour and
extra expenses.
This day’s business hugely depends upon the computer and all the
transactions made in the business nowadays directly or indirectly
relate to the computer for their completion. Computer possesses
an edge over manual working due to its speed and reliable results.
Now days, computer has become very much important in each
field which include economy as well. Most transactions these
days are computerized in order to get the maximum output.
Computers are used as control systems for a wide variety of
industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special-
purpose devices like microwave, ovens and remote controls,
factory devices such as industrial robots, computer-aided design,
and general-purpose devices like personal computers and mobile
devices such as smartphones.
ICT is found to have a significant role in the process of
reallocation. Firms with high levels of ICT are more likely to
grow (in terms of employment) and less likely to exit.

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William, Jenkins and Katz (2007) conformed that, firms in the top
two quintiles of ICT intensity grow around 25–30% faster than
other firms and are 4% less likely to exit. Labour and product
market regulation are also found to have a role in blunting these
forces of selection. That is, low-tech firms in highly regulated
economies are more likely to grow and survive than firms in less
regulated countries.
The Social Media and other Communications
New technologies are changing the postal world. The ICT
revolution has had a considerable impact on the postal sector.
These include e-mail, voice and video calls, etc.
 Social media: Social computing is the use of computers and
digital vices such as smart phones to allow two or more people
to interact and collaborate via the internet. These are variously
referred to as ‘Web 2.0, online communication, etc’. Elements
of social computing include blog, wikis, Twitter, peer-to-peer
networks, photo and video networking, online business
networks, social networking, etc. Blogs are the most visible of
the social computing initiatives. They may be in the form of
online journals, which may regularly be published by an
individual or a small group through the web interface, and
focused either on a single topic or a variety of topics reflecting
interest of the authors. Entries are commonly displayed in
reverse chronological order. Many blogs provide commentary
or news on a particular subject; others function as more
personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images,
and links to other blogs, web pages and other media related to
its topic. The ability of readers to leave comments in an
interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Most
blogs are primarily textual, although some focus on art,
photograph, videos, music and audio. The activity of uploading
a blog is called ‘blogging’ and someone who keeps a blog is
referred to as a ‘blogger’.
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 Important blogs are blogger.com offered by Google, TypePad,
journalhub.com, wordpress.com, etc. The features that make
blogs different from other websites are as follows:
i. Content is published in chronological fashion, newest on
top. Often the articles are organized into categories.
ii. Content is updated more regularly.
iii. Readers have the possibility to leave comments as
feedback messages.
iv. Other authors can interact via trackbacks and pingbacks.
v. One or more ‘feeds’ like, Rich Site Summary (RSS) files
(which allows people to follow updates on the websites
such as news, music, blogs, etc), Atom or (Resource
Description Framework (RDF) files (used for conceptual
modeling of information on the web).
Benefits of social networking sites
1. Social networking sites help the people to interact with one
another.
2. They make good opportunities to find a job.
3. They are the perfect spot to meet new people who have the
same interests and passions.
4. They help to promote the business. E.g. Twitter.
5. They help to stay in touch with contacts.
6. These sites act as a platform to meet long lost friends and
classmates, etc.
Potential hazards of social networking sites
1. Security: The social networking sites display personal
information such as name, location and email address. But
there are some people who reveal their fake identity and use
the information for illegal activities. Therefore, it is always
advisable to avoid providing security threatening (sensitive)
information online.
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2. Scams: There are a number of scammers on social networks
who may try to steal or use personal information of others.
3. Breach: It is possible for hackers to intrude into profile
through client interface and to steal the information to use for
illegal purposes.
4. Fraud: Social networking is based in relationships of trust.
Unfortunately, about 25% of the users accept friend requests
from total strangers and it may be a fraud.
Other Areas of Application of Computer
Petroleum industry: To analyze volumes of seismic data which
are gathered during oil seeking explorations to identify areas
where there is possibility of getting petroleum products inside the
earth.
Weather forecast: Weather forecast information can be made
available through computers which is very useful for
transportation especially air transportation. We can travel
according to the weather forecast given by computers.
Automobile industry: To do crash simulation of the design of an
automobile before it is released for manufacturing – for better
automobile design.
Structural mechanics: To solve complex structural engineering
problems to ensure safety, reliability and cost effectiveness. E.g.
Design of a large bridge has to ensure that the bridge must be
proper in various atmospheric conditions and pressures from
wind, velocity etc and under load conditions.
Meteorological centers: They use super computers for weather
forecasting.
Biomedical research: Atomic nuclear and plasma analysis – to
study the structure of viruses such as that causing AIDS, human
corona virus, etc.

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For weapons research and development, sending rockets to
space, etc.

EXERCISE IX

1. The use of ICTs/Computer could be deployed in almost

every sphere of life, discuss.
2. Discuss the application of computer in your field of
study.
3. Write an essay on “ICT and its role in Government
Transparency and Citizens participation in Nigeria”.
4. Write an essay on “ICT and the Transformation in the
Education sector”.
5. Write an essay on “IoT: A veritable tool for smart
agriculture”.
6. The use of social media has done greater harm than
good to children, youth and the society; demystify!
7. Mention and discuss a computer device applicable in
your field of study.
8. Identify and discuss an area of endeavour in which
computer/ICT has no application.

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 CHAPTER TEN

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET
AND ELECTRONIC MAIL

Brief History of the Internet

In 1969, the US Department of Defense started a project to allow
researchers and military personnel to communicate with each
other in an emergency. The project was called ARPAnet and it is
the foundation of the Internet. Throughout the 1970’s, what would
later become the Internet was developed. While mostly military
personnel and scientists used it in its early days, the advent of the
World Wide Web (WWW) in the early 1990’s changed all that.
Today, the Internet is not owned or operated by any one entity.
This worldwide computer network allows people to communicate
and exchange information in new ways.
What is Internet?
The Internet is the largest computer network in the world,
connecting millions of computers. A network is a group of two or
more computer systems linked together.
Types of Computer Networks
There are mainly two types of computer network; Local Area
Network (LAN) and Wide Area Network (WAN). But several
other network types exist as their sub-categories, as discussed
herein.
Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is two or more connected
computers sharing certain resources in a relatively small
geographic location (the same building, for example). The size of
a LAN is limited to a few kilometers and usually privately owned.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16mbps range. These days,

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the speed is normally 100 or 1000mbps. Propagation delay is very
short in a LAN.

Fig.10.1: Local Area Network

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN covers a larger area
than that of a LAN and smaller than areas compared to WAN. It
consists of two or more LANs. MAN connects two or more
computers that are apart but resides in the same or different cities.
It covers a huge geographically area and may serve as an internet
service provider (ISP) connecting cities. MAN is designed for
customers who need a high-speed connectivity.
Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN typically consists of two
or more LANs/MANs. The computers are farther apart and are
linked by telephone lines, dedicated telephone lines, or radio
waves. The Internet is the largest Wide Area Network (WAN) in
existence.

Fig.10.2: Wide Area Network

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There are two types of WANs; switched WAN and point-to-point
WAN. WAN is difficult to maintain. There is more congestion in
the network. A communication medium used for WAN is Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or Satellite Link. It is a
computer network that extends over a large geographical area,
although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or
country. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting two
other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves, and maybe
limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or
accessible to the public. The technology is high speed and
relatively expensive.
Servers: All computers on the Internet (a wide area network, or
WAN) can be lumped into two groups: servers and clients. In a
network, clients and servers communicate with one another. A
server is the common source that provides shared services (for
example, network security measures) with other machines and
manages resources (for example, one printer many people use) in
a network.
The term server is often used to describe the hardware
(computer), but the term also refers to the software (application)
running on the computer. Many servers are dedicated, meaning
they only perform specific tasks.
For example;
 An email server is a computer that has software running on it
allowing it to “serve” email-related services.
 A web server has software running on it that allows it to
“serve” web-related services.
Clients: Recall that, all computers on the Internet (a wide area
network, or WAN) can be lumped into two groups: servers and
clients, which communicate with one another.

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Independent computers connected to a server are called clients.
Most likely, your home or office computer does not provide
services to other computers. Therefore, it is a client.
Clients run multiple client software applications that perform
specific functions.
For example;
 An email application such as Microsoft Outlook is client
software.
 Your web browser (such as Internet Explorer or Netscape) is
client software.
Relationship between servers and clients
 Your computer (client hardware) is running a web browser
such as Internet Explorer (client software).
 When you want to surf the web, your browser connects to a
remote server and requests a web page.
 The remote server (server hardware) runs web server software
(server software).
 The web server sends the web page to your computer's web
browser.
 Your web browser displays the page.

Fig.10.3: Server and client machine communication

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The World Wide Web (WWW)
WWW is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed
via the Internet. It is also called the Web. The Internet is the
physical computer network (computer, monitor, modem, cables,
phone lines, etc). Tim Berners-Lee, a software engineer, invented
the World Wide Web in 1991.The Web is a system of Internet
servers that support specially-formatted documents. These
specially formatted documents are text documents created in
HyperText Markup Language (HTML), a formatting language. In
conjunction with the World Wide Web, your web browser
interprets these text documents so they become web pages. Web
pages contain formatted text, graphics, sound, animation, and
video, allowing point and click navigation.
Before the Web, the Internet was mostly text-based. To use it, you
had to know lots of keyboard command prompts, making it
largely unusable to the average person. The World Wide Web
changed all that. These days, graphical user interface (GUI) has
taken over the day in the world of ICT, such that one can relate
with the computer (even on the web) interactively. Certain
terminologies related to the operations of the internet other than
the ones earlier discussed require explanation.
Basic Internet Vocabulary
Browser: Along with a computer equipped with a modem, you
need a piece of software called a web browser to navigate the
Web. A browser is a software program that allows you to view
and navigate through Internet pages. Internet Explorer, Mozilla
Firefox and Google Chrome are popular examples.
E-mail: E-mail means Electronic mail. Through the e-mail, one
can send and receive messages in various formats (letters, forms,
pictures, audios, videos, etc) once there is connection to the
Internet. Chatting is as well possible through email links.

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Internet Service Provider (ISP): If you want to access the
Internet from anywhere you must have an ISP. An ISP is an
Internet Service Provider, a company that you pay to provide you
with a connection to the Internet. ISPs are in categories. Nextech,
AT&T and Cox are all examples of ISPs. In Nigeria, some of the
ISPs with high speed include; Cyberspace Limited, iPNX Nigeria
Ltd, Netcom Africa Ltd, Spectranet, MTN Group, and Glo.
To access the Internet, a user needs a computer equipped with a
modem and web browser, but the user also needs an ISP. For a
monthly fee (and an initial activation fee), one can purchase a
software package from an ISP. These packages feature different
levels of Internet access. Flat-rate service could buy one unlimited
hours, whereas a less-expensive hourly package buys limited
Internet access. In either case, the speed with which you access
the Internet factors into how much you pay per month.
The ISP software package usually includes:
 Username: A unique name used to gain access to a computer
system.
 Password: A combination of keyboard characters, used in
combination with a username, passwords allow access to
restricted computer information. It is important to keep
passwords secret.
 Access phone number: For example, (+234) 902-210-1910.
If you connect to the Internet at work, you may be part of a LAN
(local area network) that shares network resources. To gain
Internet access, your employer contracted with an ISP.
DSL: A Digital Service Loop/Line connects your computer to the
Internet via a faster method of dial up.
Cable: Cable companies often offer high-speed access along with
cable TV. Cable Internet is a shared connection to the Internet
with the rest of your neighborhood. The more people have Cable
Internet, the more potential for slower access.
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Wireless Fidelity (WiFi): This uses a receiver to connect your
computer to the Internet without any wires. Among other places,
libraries, some hotels and coffee shops offer wireless access to
people who bring their laptops.
Link or Hyperlink, which is a reference or navigation element
within a document or web page that leads you to another
document (visualize links on a chain connecting each other).
Search engine: A program that indexes millions of websites to
help users find relevant information by searching with keywords
and phrases. Popular search engines include Google, Ask, Yahoo,
Bing and Dogpile.
Web page: A single page/document found within a website. Just
like a book with pages, a website has web pages. Each webpage
serves a specific purpose.
Web address: Each web page has its own address on the Internet,
which is called a URL. You may type in a web address to search
the Internet. Like your home address, a web address is unique. For
example, just as there is only one 1409 Williams Great Bend, KS
67530, or 15, Katsina Ala Street, High Level, Makurdi, there is
only one www.google.com or www.gcflearnfree.org.
To recognize one another over the Internet, computers convert
human-friendly addresses like www.gcflearnfree.org to numerical
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses. You may type in either
216.119.102.26 (which is the GCFLearnFree.org’s IP address) or
www.gcflearnfree.org (a human-friendly domain name) to get to a
free learning website homepage.
Website: A website is the holistic web pages linked together to
form a single entity, which could be connected to the internet. It is
simply the collection of a website’s homepage and all other pages
of the site. It is also called web or site.

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Graphical User Interface (GUI): A GUI (mostly pronounced
GOO-ee) takes advantage of your computer’s graphics (picture)
capabilities to increase ease of use. For example, the buttons you
point and click to surf the web is part of your web browser’s GUI.
Most operating systems include a GUI, such as Windows and Mac
OS. In the past, there was no pointing and clicking; rather, the
user had to know a command language to operate the computer.
As such, not everyone could use the computer as it is these days.
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language): The formatting
language used to create web documents.
Hypertext: The system of electronically linking words or pictures
to other words or pictures.
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): You may have noticed
the http:// preceding URLs. For example:
http://www.gcflearnfree.org. The first part of the URL, usually
http, indicates the file type. HTTP, the system for transferring web
documents, defines how messages are formatted and transmitted
over the Internet.
Today, many people use the terms Internet and World Wide
Web interchangeably. For example, “I need to get on the Web.”
Or, “I need to get on the Internet.”
Connecting to the Internet
You start the browser (program for connecting to the Internet) by
clicking or double-clicking an icon on the desktop or taskbar, or
by opening the Start Menu and choosing Programs and then
choosing Mozilla Firefox (or other browser). The World Wide
Web can be thought of as a form of publishing. Instead of
publishing documents in a book, magazine, or newspaper, the web
publishes documents on a computer screen.
Anatomy of a URL (web address): Looking at the URL can give
you many clues as to the type of website you might be visiting.

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For example, www.greatbendpl.info is a website for
GreatBendPublic Library majorly responsible for information
dissemination.
Domain name and extensions: Every website URL (or domain
name) has an extension. The extension indicates the type of the
website and perhaps the primary domicile of the website. For
instance, http://mimtech.edu.ng is the URL for Marvel Institute of
Management and Technology, an educational institution located
in Nigeria. www.inec.gov.ng is the web address for Independent
National Electoral Commission, Nigeria’s highest electoral body,
a government parastatal. Most popular website extensions are
highlighted below.
Examples of domain name extensions
The .com extension: Used for a commercial website.
The .net Extension: used for a network website (can also be a
commercial or personal site).
The .gov Extension: Used for a website belonging to government
ministry, agency or parastatal.
The .org Extension: Usually used for a non-profit organization
website.
The .mil Extension: Used for US military website.
The .edu Extension: Used for registered/recognized educational
institution’s website (e.g., college or university).
The .info Extension: Used for informative Internet sources.
The .int Extension: Used for internet.
The .biz Extension: Used for business.
The http:// part of a website URL indicates that you are dealing
with web pages instead of other Internet services (usually you
don’t have to type it). The http stands for Hypertext Transfer
Protocol. The www indicates World Wide Web. Taking the
example of the Great Bend Plc above, the greatbendpl is the
organization operating the server (publishes the information), and

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 the info indicates an informative source. Each web document is
known as a web page. Often you can’t see the whole page at one
time on your screen. That is why we have different web pages
linked together. One can open and navigate a page of a particular
website by scrolling. Scrolling lets you move up and down to see
the rest of your page. You can also get to another web page by
clicking a link (pointer will become a hand or link will change
color). For example, under Services, then click on Adults (notice
it becomes a hand when it can be clicked). The title bar appears at
the top of the browser, displaying the name of the program and
the name of the current web page. Below the title bar, you will
find the Menus.

Title Bar

Menu Bar Address

Bar

Fig.10.4: Example of internet title bar and menus

(Adapted from: Jennifer King, 2017)

From the above figure, the name of the program in this case is
Mozilla Firefox and the name of the current web page is Free

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Downloads Encyclopedia - Softpedia). The website address is
http://softpedia.com.
Each menu provides a list of commands to modify the browser’s
operation. Below the menu bar, you will find the address box.
This is where the URL can be typed. Just left click once inside the
long box and press backspace to delete the current address. When
you see the flashing cursor you can type there (or you can just
type over the current URL once it is completely highlighted).
Once the address is entered, click the search or Go icon to the
right-hand side of the address bar, or simply hit the Enter key on
the keyboard.
Tool buttons appear in various places. Some buttons are dim or
freeze, indicating the buttons are not available because the
conditions are not right for them to operate. Once the user is in the
environment where the condition is appropriate for their
operations, such buttons will automatically become activated. On
your screen it is possible that the Forward button is dim. If so,
why do you think it’s not available for clicking? Sometimes you
get as far as you want by clicking links and want to return to
where you started. Click the Back button as many times as it takes
to get back to a particular website's home page (you will notice
that now your Forward button is no longer dim, but your Back
button is).
To find out what a tool button does, you can place your mouse
cursor (without clicking any buttons) and let it hover over a
particular button. In a matter of seconds, a small text box will
appear telling you the function of the button.
Typing in a New URL: You can visit a website by typing the
address. For example, you can read many newspapers online. For
example, the Topeka Capital-Journal is available online. To view
the paper, begin by clicking the address line near the top of the
screen. The address turns dark to indicate it has been selected,
once the current address is selected (or highlighted), you can type
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over it. Now, type www.cjonline.com and then press Enter (on
the keyboard). If you don’t know an address, you can use a
search engine like Google or Yahoo to confirm the correct URL.
Click on the View menu. Slide the pointer down over the words
Text Size. A blue bar leads to a submenu displaying a choice of
text sizes. Think of the blue bar as a bridge. Slide your mouse
along the blue bar to choose a new size.
Be careful to keep your mouse steady on the blue bar. (You don’t
want to fall off the bridge!) Adjust the size until you find the size
most comfortable for you to read (this may not help for every
website). Once you have reached the Topeka Capital-Journal
website, note the subjects near the top (e.g., News, Sports, Life,
and Opinion). Many newspapers have a similar setup. Find the
Mars pages by clicking News.
Performing a Search with Yahoo: Search engines like Yahoo
and Google can help you find websites when you don’t know the
address. Click on the address box so that it is selected and type
www.yahoo.com then press enter. To search for Benue State
University Makurdi, type Benue State University Makurdi in the
search box, and press enter or click Search. The results in blue
are links that you can click, but you may notice that the first of the
results are “sponsor results.” Skip those and try to find the official
website for Benue State University Makurdi.
Using Google
Google, much like Yahoo, is another search engine that is used as
a tool for finding resources online. Google scans web pages to
find instances of the keywords you have entered in the search box.
It is also the most popular search engine and indexes the most
web pages, which means you will get more results when you
search.
Searching for Newspapers: Go to www.google.com and try to
find other online newspapers (e.g. New York Times, Nigeria’s
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Daily Times, Sun, or Wall Street Journal). Once you have entered
a keyword or words click enter. Google also offers the I’m
Feeling Lucky option that automatically takes you to the website
it thinks you want (based on the keyword you entered) without
returning a list of results.
Maps: There are many different map services available online,
including MapQuest, Yahoo maps, and Google Maps. Click on
the Maps links at the top and click Get Directions.

Fig.10.5: Get Directions on the Internet

You can search for directions By Car, By Public Transit, By
Walking or By Biking.
Image Search: Google can also be used to search for images.
Click on the Images link at the top. In the search box, type
“labradoodle” as a sample search and click enter. To view the
images in full size, click the thumbnail of the image.
Modems: To connect to the Internet, your computer requires a
modem and a web browser. A modem is a device that converts
a computer’s outgoing data to a format that can be transferred via
telephone lines. Modems can also convert incoming data so the
computer can read it. A modem can be located inside or outside
your computer. Some of the different types of modems are
internal, external, voice/data, and fax modems.
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The Need for Speed
If one surfs the Web frequently, such person is probably used to
waiting, and waiting, and waiting some more. Slow Internet
access means some users are unable to access certain web pages,
especially those loaded with graphics, sound, and video. So, to
access the latest web technologies, users need more speed.
In response to the need for speed, modems (a device used to
access the Internet) were built that were capable of faster data
transmission rates.
Faster data transmission means:
 Faster web pages;
 Faster email services;
 Music, animation, and video play smoothly.

Data Transmission Rates

At higher speeds, modems are measured in terms of bits per
second (bps). A bit is a unit of measurement that measures the
transfer of data, or information. For example, if you have a 56K
modem, your modem may be capable of transferring 56,000 bits
per second.
Did You Know? Eight bits of data is roughly the amount that you
enter each time you tap a key on your keyboard.
Data Transmission Rates:
Early 90’s
 19.2K bits per second
 28.8K bits per second
 33.6K bits per second
1998 – Present
 56K bits per second
 Almost 10 Million bits per second (Asymmetric Digital
Subscriber Line, (ADSL), Cable modems)
The Bandwidth: A fast modem doesn’t ensure fast transmission
rates. Fast data transmission often depends on bandwidth.
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Bandwidth is the amount of data actually being sent through a
network circuit per time.
Example: Think of bandwidth in terms of the road system. Let’s
say you want to estimate the time it takes for you to commute
from home to work. You have to travel through a physical
network of roadways to travel from home to work.
To estimate your commute, consider the following:
i. What is the speed limit?
ii. Where are you located (big city or rural setting)?
iii. How big (wide) is the road (2-lane roads, 4-lane roads,
or a 6-lane interstate)?
iv. How much traffic will be on the road at any given time?
v. Is there any ongoing construction?
The Internet is similar to the roadway example. Remember, the
Internet is a physical network (phone lines, etc). Data has to travel
through that physical network. Too much traffic on the network
means you may be unable to connect at a fast rate, or at all. The
more open and wider your network is, the faster you can connect
and surf.
The next time the Internet is creeping, the quality of bandwidth
may be to blame. Then the question is “What type of access is
available to you?” Your answer to this question determines the
quality of your bandwidth; in other words, your speed of access.
Many ISPs offer different levels of Internet access.
The Levels of Internet Access
1. The 56K Dial-up: The pros of this include, the use of
existing phone lines and lower cost. The cons of this however, are
that the use of existing phone line makes it impossible to receive
phone calls unless another line is installed. Dial-up is also slow;
can be limited to speeds of 28.8K to 33.6K. Upload speeds can be
limited to as low as 28.8, with download speed approaching 56K

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under only perfect conditions. Again, service can be somewhat
unreliable (busy signals, spontaneously terminated sessions, etc).
2. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network): This is faster
than 56K dial-up, but every ISP does not support ISDN. Other
advantages include:
i. Can provide 2-4 times the speed of a 56K modem.
ii. Uses digital rather than analog signals to transmit data.
Disadvantages:
i. Requires special equipment that can drive up your cost.
ii. Data is not compressed so transmission rates can be
comparable to 56k-at more cost.
iii. May be replaced by other technologies.
3. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line): Newer technologies such as
DSL use an ISP to connect to the Internet and allow faster
connections.
Advantages:
i. Can fall back to slower speeds if the line cannot handle the
modem’s fastest speed.
ii. Uses the existing phone line in most cases.
iii. Does not tie up existing phone line, leading to “always on”
access.
iv. More bandwidth results in improved streaming
audio/video, online games, application programs, telephone
calling, video conferencing and other high-bandwidth
services.
v. Can connect multiple computers on a single line.
vi. Faster than a 56K dial-up modem.
Disadvantages:
i. Availability - limited to homes/businesses with a dedicated
copper wire running between it and the phone company's
nearest central office.
ii. Cost - includes installation fees and monthly charges.

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iii. Need a firewall to ensure home network security
(additional cost).
iv. Service is not infallible.
4. Cable Modem: Cable modems, another newer technology
that uses an ISP to connect to the Internet, allows faster
connections.
Advantages:
i. Uses coaxial and/or fiber-optic cable rather than phone
lines for data transmission, so performance doesn't depend
on your distance from a central cable office.
ii. Can fall back to slower speeds if the line cannot handle the
modem’s fastest speed.
iii. Convenient for homes already wired with cable access.
iv. Does not tie up existing phone line, leading to “always on”
access.
v. More bandwidth results in improved streaming
audio/video, online games, application programs, telephone
calling, video conferencing and other high-bandwidth
services.
vi. Can connect multiple computers on a single line.
vii. Faster than a 56K dial-up modem.
Disadvantages:
i. Availability - limited to homes/businesses with cable
access.
ii. Cost - includes installation fees and monthly charges.
iii. Often requires commitment to a cable TV package.
iv. A firewall is necessary to ensure home network security
(additional cost).
v. Service is not infallible.
Browser Basics
Every Internet user is supposed to be familiar with basic tools
such as the Back button, Forward button and Address bar among
others.

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Quick review of web browser basics:
 To return to the last page you viewed, click your Back

button.
 To return to the page you visited before you clicked the
Back button, click the Forward button.
 Click the drop down menu to the right of the back and
forward buttons to view and select from a list of recently
visited sites.
 To visit a web page, type the URL in the address bar and
click the Go button or simply hit the Enter (Return) key on
your keyboard.

Cache
Have you ever started typing your favorite website’s address,
and the entire address displays? Or, have you tried clicking the
address bar’s dropdown menu to display a list of sites you have
recently visited?

Fig.10.6: Function of cache on the address bar

What about the Back and Forward button’s dropdown lists of
recently visited sites?

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 Fig.10.7: Back and forward button’s dropdown lists of recently
visited websites
If you have used any of the methods listed above to surf the Web,
you are using your web browser’s cache.
Your web browser stores recently visited sites (as temporary
Internet files) on your computer's hard disk. When you revisit
your favorite sites, the browser displays the pages from the cache
instead of requesting them from the web server. This makes
surfing the web faster and easier.
Refreshing and Stopping Web Pages
While using your browser’s cache may increase ease of use, you
may not be getting the most up-to-date information a site has to
offer. To do so, you need to refresh, or reload, a web page.
Refreshing requests fresh pages from the web server rather than
from the cache stored on your machine’s disk.

Most browsers include a Refresh button on the toolbar (F5).

Refresh a web page when:
i. You want to view the latest version of the page. For
example, when viewing a discussion forum, or a news-
driven website.
ii. You get a message that a web page cannot be displayed.
For example, “Error 404, File Not Found.”
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Most browsers include a Stop button on the toolbar (Esc).
Stop a web page when:
i. You want to stop a web page from loading.
ii. A page is taking too long to load.
iii. You mistyped a URL.
Search Engines
Instead of trying to guess where certain information may be
located on the Web, search engines allow you to search both the
Web and newsgroups.
A search engine searches for keywords and returns a list of
documents where the keywords can be found. Most search
engines allow you to search using plain language relevant to the
topic of interest, meaning you don't have to know any special
programming tricks to effectively search the Web. Examples
include; Yahoo, Google, Excite, and AltaVista.
Important Tips on Internet Search
There is tons of information available on the Web; you just have
to know how to find it fast for effective searching.
Beware of using slang or partial words. If you use slang or parts
of words, you may have some luck, but your results may not be
specific but too broad. For example, the use of flick instead of
movie or Macs instead of Macintoshes may yield different
results.
Correct Spelling, Pluralization and Capitalization. Be aware of
pluralizing your words, and spell them correctly. For example,
good will, goodwill, Goodwill, Goodwills, and Good Will may
yield different results during search.
The Use of AND Connector. Use AND (all caps) to search for
multiple words that must appear in a web page. Some search
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engines support a plus sign (+) in place of AND. For example,
free AND coupon, or free + coupon.
The Use of NOT Disjoint. Use NOT (all caps) to exclude certain
words or phrases. For example, casserole NOT chicken NOT
beef.
The Use of OR Connector. Use OR (all caps) to include any of
the search words (rather than most.) For example, George
Washington OR Bush.
Wildcards. The percentage symbol (%) can be used to replace
only one character. The asterisk (*) can be used to replace
multiple characters. For example, post* could produce postwar,
postgame, or postmarital.
Phrases. Put quotes around a phrase so that each word in the
phrase is not searched for separately. For example, if you put
quotes around “free online computer training,” the search
engine searches for that entire phrase in a web page. However, if
you simply type, free online computer training, the search
engine searches for each of the words individually in a web page.
Get Help. Go to your search engine’s Help page for more
specific information on a particular engine.
Try Something New. There are many different search engines on
the Web. If you cannot find what you are looking for using your
favorite engine, you can try another.
Bookmark it. Add your favorite search engines to your Favorites
to increase ease of use.
Toolbars. Internet Explorer features customizable toolbars to
help you navigate the Web.
The Standard buttons bar displays commonly used buttons such
as the Back, Forward, Stop, Refresh, Home, Search, Favorites,
History, and Print buttons.

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 Fig.10.8: The Standard buttons bar
The Address bar displays the address, or URL, of the web page
you are currently visiting. Type new URLs or search terms into
the Address bar.

Fig.10.9: The address bar

The Links bar is a convenient place to add frequently used links.

Fig.10.10: The Links bar

The Radio bar, available when Windows Media Player is
installed, includes a radio station guide and control button such as
“play” and “volume.”

Fig.10.11: The Radio bar

Status bar and Explorer bar
Internet Explorer’s (IE) Status bar and Explorer bar offer
additional web navigation methods.

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The Status bar, located at the bottom of the IE window, indicates
when a website is found, loading, waiting for reply, or if you have
a secure connection. It is always a good idea to display the Status
bar, particularly for security reasons.

Fig.10.12: The Status bar

The Explorer bar is a sidebar located in the left side of the IE
window. It is a convenient way of accessing the Favorites list,
History list, and Search function.

Fig.10.13: The Explorer bar

Show and Hide Toolbars, Status bar and Explorer bar
In newer versions of Internet Explorer (IE), you can show and
hide the toolbars, Status bar and Explorer bar.
To show or hide the toolbars:
 Choose View Toolbars from the IE menu bar.
 Click the clear or show the checkmark for each item.
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 Fig.10.14(a): Showing items on the toolbars
OR
 Right-click the toolbar and click to clear or show the
checkmark for each item.

Fig.10.14(b): Hiding items on the toolbars

To show or hide the Status bar:
 Choose View and click to clear or show the checkmark.

To show or hide the Explorer bar:

 Choose View Explorer bar.
 Choose from Search, Favorites, History, or Folders.
OR

 Click on the Standard

button toolbar.
 Click button again to hide the Explorer bar or click the X
in the upper right corner or the Explorer bar.
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Customizing Toolbars
In newer versions of Internet Explorer, you can move and resize
the toolbars.
To move a toolbar:
 Look for the resize/move toolbar handle.
 Hover your mouse pointer over the resize/move toolbar
handle.
 The mouse pointer becomes a double-headed arrow.
 Click and drag a toolbar up, down, left, or right.
 When moved, toolbars “snap” to the outer edge of the IE
window.
To resize a toolbar:
 Look for the resize/move toolbar handle.
 Hover your mouse pointer over the resize/move toolbar
handle.
 The mouse pointer becomes a double-headed arrow.
 Click and drag until toolbar is desired size.

Fig.10.15: Resizing Toolbar

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Customizing the Standard Button Bar:
You can further customize the Standard button toolbar by
adding or removing Standard buttons. You can even change
the appearance of your buttons.
Add or remove a button from the Standard button bar:
 Choose View Toolbars Customize from the IE menu
bar.
OR
 Right-click the toolbar and click Customize.
 The Customize Toolbar dialog box opens.
 In the left-hand scroll box, there is a list of Available
toolbar buttons.
 In the right-hand scroll box, there is a list of Current
toolbar buttons.
 In either scroll box, click to select a button you would like
to add or remove.
 Click the Add or Remove button.
 The button is now added or removed from the toolbar.
 Click Close to display new options.

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 Fig.10.16: Options for customizing Toolbar
To change the text options featured on your buttons:
 With the Customize Toolbar dialog box open, click the
Text Options drop down box to select No text labels,
Show text labels, and Selective text on right.
 Click Close to display new options.
To change the size of your button icons:
 With the Customize Toolbar dialog box open, click the
Icon Options drop down box to select Small icons or
large icons.
 Click Close to display new options.
Setting a Home page
Your home page is the first page you see when you start Internet
Explorer (IE). Change your home page to make surfing the Web
easier and more convenient.
For example, if you want to start each Internet session with
GCFLearnFree.org, http://www.gcflearnfree.org should be your

200
home page. If you like to check the weather every time you log
on, you might prefer http://www.weather.com as your home page.
To change the Home Page:
 Choose Tools Internet Options from the IE menu bar.
The Internet Options dialog box opens.

Fig.10.16(a): Changing the IE Home Page

 If not already selected, click the General tab.
 Type a new URL in the home page section of the General
tab.
 Click OK.
OR
 If you like the current page and want to set it as your new
home page, click the Use Current button.
 The Use Default button sets www.microsoft.com as your
home page.
 The Use Blank button sets a blank page as your home
page. This option is beneficial to those who don't want to
begin each Internet session waiting for a home page to
load.
 Click OK.

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 Fig.10.16(b): Changing the IE Home page
Access Favorites
When surfing the Web, you have probably found a number of
sites you'd like to return to in the future. You can keep track of
your favorite sites without having to remember long URLs using
the Favorites feature.
This feature comes with some pre-existing Favorites you may or
may not find useful. You can access, add to, find, and organize
your Favorites.
To access Favorites from the IE menu bar:
 Choose Favorites from the IE menu bar. (Ctrl + I)
 A Favorites list appears. You may need to click the double
arrow at the bottom of the list to expand your choices.
 Click a Favorite to go to that web page.

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 Fig.10.17: Accessing Favorites from the IE menu bar
To access Favorites from the IE Explorer bar:
 Choose View Explorer bar Favorites or click the
Favorites button on the toolbar.
 The Explorer bar opens and the Favorites list appears.
 Click a Favorite to go to that web page.
To hide the Explorer bar’s Favorites list:
 Click the Favorites button again to hide the Explorer
bar. (Ctrl + I)
OR
 Click the X in the upper right of the Explorer bar.

203
 Fig.10.18: Hiding the Favorites list of Explorer bar
Add to Favorites
To add to Favorites using the IE menu bar:
 Go to the page you want to add to your Favorites. For
example: http://www.gcflearnfree.org.
 Choose Favorites Add to Favorites from the IE menu
bar.
 The Add Favorite dialog box opens.
 The page title appears in the Name text box. For example:
"Welcome to GCFLearnFree.org Community Center."
Change the page title if you wish. For example, "GCF"
may be adequate.
 Click OK to add it to your Favorites list.

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 Fig.10.19: Add to Favorites
To add to Favorites using the IE Explorer bar:
 Click the Favorites button on the toolbar.
 The Explorer bar opens and the Favorites list appears.

 Click the Add button.

 The Add Favorite dialog box opens.
 The page title appears in the Name textbox. Rename the
page if you wish.
 Your new Favorite appears in the Favorites list.
Organizing Favorites
Once you add several Favorites, you may want to organize them
in folders. There are several methods of organizing your
Favorites.

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To Organize Favorites:
 Click the Favorites button.
 The Explorer bar opens and the Favorites list displays.
 Click a Favorite you want to organize.
 Drag and drop any Favorite into a pre-existing folder.

Fig.10.20(a): Organizing Favorites

OR
 Click the Favorites button (the Explorer bar opens) and
click the Organize button.
 The Organize Favorites dialog box opens. Use this dialog
box to Create a New Folder, Rename, Move to Folder,
and Delete.
 Drag and drop Favorites into folders.
OR
 Working in the Organize Favorites dialog box, click the
Move to Folder button and drag and drop Favorites into
folders.

206
 Fig.10.20(b): Organizing Favorites
Creating New Folders
You may need to create new folders in order to keep your
Favorites organized.
To Create a New Folder:
 Click the Favorites button. The Explorer bar opens and
the Favorites list displays.

 Click the Add button.

 The Add Favorite dialog box opens.

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 Fig.10.21: Adding Favorite
 Click the New Folder button.
 The Create New Folder dialog box opens.
 Name the folder and click OK.

Fig.10.22(a): Creating New Folder

 Click OK again to close the Add Favorite dialog box and
add the new folder to your Favorites list.

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OR
 Click the Favorites button on the toolbar and click the
Organize button.
 The Organize Favorites dialog box opens.
 Click the Create Folder button.
 A new folder is created, ready to be renamed.

Fig.10.22(b): Creating New Folder

Renaming and Deleting Favorites
You may need to rename or delete Favorites.
To Rename a Favorite:
 In the Explorer bar’s Favorites list, right-click a
Favorite. Choose rename from the shortcut menu.
 The name is now highlighted, ready to be changed.

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 Fig.10.23: Renaming a Favorite
OR
 Use the Organize Favorites dialog box.
OR
To Delete a Favorite:
 In the Explorer bar’s Favorites list, right-click a
Favorite. Choose delete from the shortcut menu.
 A confirmation message appears. Choose Yes.
OR
 Use the Organize Favorites dialog box.

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History
Using the History feature, you can find pages you have recently
visited in the last few days.
To see a list of pages you’ve recently visited:
 Click the down arrow at the end of the Address bar.
 To view, click any site from the list.

Fig.10.24: Using the History feature

OR
To access your History using the IE Explorer bar:
 Choose View Explorer bar History or click the
History button on the toolbar. (Ctrl + H)
 The Explorer bar opens and the History list appears in the
left side of the window.
 Click a week or day.
 Click a folder to display individual pages.
 Click the web page icon to display the web page.
To hide the Explorer’s bar’s History list:
 Click the History button again to hide the Explorer bar’s
History list.
OR
 Click the X in the upper right.

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 Fig.10.25: Hiding the History list of Explorer’s bar
Customizing your History List
You can specify how many pages are saved in your History list.
To specify how many pages are saved in the History list:
 Choose Tools Internet Options from the IE menu bar.
 Click the General tab
 In the History area, change the number of days that the
History list keeps track of your pages.
 Click the Clear History button to clear your history and
temporarily free up disk space on your computer.

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 Fig.10.26: Clearing History and specifying its duration
Search
You can also look for web pages using the Search function.
For ease of use, IE offers a couple of ways to search.

Searching with the Explorer bar:

 Choose View Explorer bar Search click the Search
button on the toolbar.
 The Explorer bar's Search function displays. (Ctrl + E)
 Choose a category for your search. (Find a web page,
Find a person’s address, Find a Business, Previous
Searches, or Find a Map radio buttons)
 Plug in any key words you think the page contained in the
Find a web page containing text box.
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  Click Search.
 Results display in the bar. Click links that interest you.

Fig.10.27: Explorer bar’s search function

OR
 Click the History button. The History list opens. Access
the Search function by clicking Search (located at the top
of the History list).
To hide the Explorer's bar's Search function:
 Click the Search button again.
OR
 Click the X in the upper right of the Search function.
Search
You can also perform a web search by typing search terms
directly into the Address bar.
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Searching from the Address bar:
 Type in any key words you think the page may contain.
 Click the Go button or press Enter on the keyboard.
 MSN Search results display in a web page.
 Choose a link that interests you.

Fig.10.28: Searching from the Address bar

Saving Pictures
It’s easy to return to previously visited web pages using tools such
as Favorites and History.
You can also save specific pictures, text, or links from web
pages for later reference.

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 Fig.10.29: Saving a picture from Internet
To save pictures:
 Go to the web page that features a picture you want to
save.
 Right-click the item you want to save. The shortcut menu
opens.
 Choose Save Picture As from the shortcut menu.
 The Save Picture dialog box opens.
 The default save location is My Pictures. Click the Save
in drop down box arrow to navigate to a new save location.
 Rename the image in the File name text box if needed.
 Click Save.

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 Fig.10.30: Saving a picture to a My Picture folder
To set a web page image as desktop wallpaper:
 Go to the web page.
 Right-click the image, choose Set as Wallpaper from the
shortcut menu.
 It will be saved in the list as Internet Explorer wallpaper.
 Minimize the window. Your new wallpaper should display.
 Each new graphic you set as wallpaper will replace the
old one.
To edit wallpaper:
 Choose Start Settings Control Panel.
 Double-click the Display icon to open the Display
Properties window.
 Click the Background tab and adjust image settings.

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Copying and Pasting Text
You can save specific text from web pages for later reference. For
example, if you want to save content from a site that features
regularly changing content, (an online newspaper, for example);
you might want to copy and paste text.
To copy and paste text from a web page:
 Go to the web page.
 Select the text you want to copy.
 Choose Edit Copy from your web browser's menu bar or
right-click the text and choose Copy from the shortcut
menu.
 Open another application, such as Word, for example.
 Choose Edit Paste from the menu bar or right-click and
choose Paste from the shortcut menu to paste the text into
the document of choice (for example, a Word document).

Fig.10.31: Copying and pasting text from a web page

Emailing Links
While surfing the Internet, you may come across an interesting
site you want to share with friends or family. There are several
different methods of sending a web page via email.
To cut and paste a link:
 Go to the web page.
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  In the Address box, select the URL. For example:
http://www.gcflearnfree.org.
 Right-click and choose Copy from the shortcut menu.
 Open your email program.
 Compose your email message.
 Right-click the body of the email message, and choose
Paste from the shortcut menu.
 Send the message.

Fig.10.32: Cutting and pasting a link

Some web pages include a “Tell A Friend” or “Email this Article”
feature. This may be convenient, but you may want to be wary of
who you give your email address to.
OR
To send a link in email:
 Go to the web page.
 Choose File Send.
 Click Page by Email or Link by Email.
 Compose your email message, and then send the message.

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 Fig.10.33: Sending a link in e-mail
You need to specially configure your e-mail program for the send
a link in email method to work.
Print a Web Page
Let’s say you need to print a web page, such as a map, for offline
reference.
To print a web page:
 Choose File Print. The Print dialog box opens.
 Set printing options as you normally would.
To print a frame or item in a web page:
 Right-click the frame or item. The shortcut menu opens.
 Choose Print, Print Frame, or Print Target.
 The Print dialog box opens.
 Set printing options as you normally would.

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 Fig.10.34: Printing a web page
For a full explanation of printing and the Print dialog box, see our
self-paced Office 2000 course.
Work Offline
You can revisit useful web sites whether or not you have an
Internet connection available. Using the Work Offline feature,
you can view web pages without connecting to the Internet.
To View Web Pages Offline:
 Go to the site you want to visit later.
 Add it to Favorites.
 Before you disconnect from the Internet, choose Tools
Synchronize from the menu bar.
 The Items to Synchronize dialog box appears.
 Click Synchronize.

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When you want to work offline:
 Choose File Work Offline.
 Open Favorites.
 View the pre-set page offline.

Fig.10.35: Viewing web pages offline

IE synchronizes when you shutdown and reboot your machine.
Highlighting. Internet Explorer includes some accessibility
features.
As you move around a web page, you have probably noticed the
mouse pointer’s various states: the insertion point, the mouse
pointer (arrow), and the finger.

Insertion Point: Displays when you roll your mouse over

text that is not linked.

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 Mouse Pointer: Displays when you roll your mouse over
images that are not linked.

Finger: Displays when you roll your mouse over text and
images that are linked.
When your mouse pointer becomes the insertion point, you can
double-click any text or image to highlight it. You can highlight
text if you have difficulty seeing the insertion point.

Changing Text Size

Changing text size can improve readability.
To increase text size:
1. Choose View Text Size from the menu bar.
2. A cascading menu appears.
3. The default is Medium.
4. Choose Smallest or Largest as needed.
5. The text size decreases or increases, depending on your
selection.
6. Repeat steps 1-3 and choose Medium to return to the
default.

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 Fig.10.36: Increase text size
Changing Font
Sometimes, changing the font can increase readability.
To display text in a different font:
 Choose Tools Internet Options from the menu bar.
 Click the General tab.
 Click the Fonts button.
 In the Web page font and Plain text font lists, click the
fonts you want.
Note: Graphics cannot be resized or changed in any way using a
web browser. For example, the GCFLearnFree.org logo is a
graphical image. It cannot be changed using the browser.

Fig.10.37: Example of unedittable text

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Changing Color
While changing text size and font can increase readability, so can
the use of color. Those with low vision and/or color blindness
may have difficulty viewing certain colors. However, web
designers don't always take this into account when determining
font colors, sizes, and background colors.
To change how page colors are displayed:
 On the Tools menu in Internet Explorer, click Internet
Options.
 On the General tab, click Colors.
 The Colors dialog box appears.
 Change the color settings as needed.

Fig.10.38: Changing page color

Note: Graphics cannot be resized or changed in any way
(including color) using a web browser.
The Importance of Being Safe (Online Safety)
If you are a user of the Internet, you are probably concerned with
Internet security. There is a lot to know regarding Internet
security. In this unit, you will learn some of the basic things you
can do to ensure that your computer, and the sensitive data stored
in your computer, will remain safe and secure.
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Think for a moment: What kind of data do you have stored on
your computer (finances or other sensitive personal information)?
Have you ever purchased anything over the Internet? Do you do
your banking online?
Unfortunately, there are criminals (sometimes referred to as
“hackers” or “crackers”) who would like to break or "hack" into
your computer for a variety of reasons. How do you make sure
that www.onlinestore.com will not sell, loan, rent, lease, barter or
publish your personal information? One of your first lines of
defense against potential hackers is password protection.
Password Do’s
Computers, programs, and files are often password-protected. A
password (along with a username) grants you access to protected
computers, programs, or files.
 Do passwords protect computers, accounts, programs,
files, etc? Whenever possible, add this basic level of
security.
 Do change your password on a regular basis. Your local
administrator and/or ISP may recommend when it's best to
change your password. Many people change their password
once every three to four months. However, if you notice
your account has been compromised in any way, change
your password immediately. For example, if the date and
time of your last login doesn't match the date and time that
you remember last being logged in, change your password.
 Do use a password that is at least eight to ten characters
long. Use a combination of numbers and letters. A longer
password provides greater security. Remember, some
passwords are cAse-SeNSitiVE.
 Do memorize your password. While you may find it
convenient to keep a list of your user names and passwords

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 beside your computer, this is a blatant security risk. Don't
keep an electronic list of passwords on your computer,
particularly if you use a laptop.
Password Don’ts
 Don't let anyone look over your shoulder while you type
in your password. Think the woman standing behind you
while you use the ATM is too close for comfort? She may
be. Also, don't knowingly give your password to anyone.
The purpose of a password is that no one but you can log in
and start using your account.
 Don’t use a “one size fits all” password. Don’t use the
same password for your separate accounts. For example,
use different passwords for your employer’s computer
network, voicemail, ISP, web mail, etc, for security
reasons.
 Don’t choose a password that can be easily traced to
you. For example, using your birth date, social security
number, phone number, the name of your spouse, child,
relative, pet, etc is a bad idea.
 Don’t use well-known abbreviations. For example,
ASAP (as soon as possible) or NATO (North Atlantic
Treaty Organization) is far too familiar (and short, for that
matter) to make a solid password.
 Don’t use words that can be found in the dictionary.
Hackers use dictionaries as a tool to discover passwords.
That goes for foreign dictionaries as well.
 Never use your username as your password. Or your
name, for that matter. This is the easiest password to crack.

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Creating a Good Password
By now, you already know a lot about creating a password, but
you may be at a loss for what password you will use next. Using
the following steps, create a good password.
 First, create a sentence or phrase.
For example: In Tallahassee Playing Piano for Grandpa
March 4.
 Next, base your password on that phrase.
Your password would look like this:itpp4gpa34
 It is easy to remember, ten characters, a combination of
letters and numbers based on a phrase, cannot be found in
the dictionary, is not a common acronym, and the
information is not personal. (I do not live in Tallahassee,
and cannot play piano for anyone including my grandpa, in
March or any other time).
 Do not use the example just given as your password.
Remember, it is on public display, available to anyone.
E-Commerce
These days, you can buy books, clothing, toys, tickets, and more
on the Internet. Online shopping is called e-commerce. You
usually buy goods and services online using a personal credit card
or debit card. An electronic purchase form may look something
like what is shown on Table 10.1.

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Table 10.1: Sample of an Electronic Purchase Form

First Name

Last Name

Email

Password

Confirm Password

Street Address

City

State

Zip

Shipping Address

City

State

Zip

Credit Card Type

Credit Card Number

Expiration Date

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Have you ever wondered what happened to that information once
you click “send” after completely filling it? Is the information
secure as it travels over the Internet?
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
Most security measures involve passwords and data encryption.
Data that is “encrypted” is just a fancy way of saying that data is
turned into secret code. To read an encrypted file, you have to
have access to a secret key or password.
What is SSL Technology?
Many e-commerce websites use SSL technology, an encryption
method and industry standard, to protect the security of your
credit card.SSL transfers information securely across the Internet.
Once your browser connects to the web server, sensitive
information is “scrambled,” or “encrypted”, while being
exchanged. This way, a third party can’t intercept the data.
How can you be sure SSL is in effect?
First, check your browser window. Depending on your
browser, if you see an unbroken key or lock symbol , SSL is
active, or in effect. If you are using a Netscape browser, look at
the lower left corner after accessing the server. For Internet
Explorer, look at the lower right corner after accessing the
server.
You can also make sure SSL is in effect by looking at your
browser’s URL address box. When accessing a secure web server,
the first part of the URL will change from http:// to https//:.
Next, check the Certificate. Double-click on the lock symbol
to view the security certificate. Make sure the certificate is
“Issued to” the Website and the “Valid from” dates are current.

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 Fig.10.39: Viewing security certificate
128-bit and 40-bit Encryption
What is the difference between 128-bit and 40-bit encryption?
Without getting technical, the main difference is that 128-bit
encryption provides a significantly greater amount of protection
than 40-bit encryption. Roughly speaking, 128-bit encryption is
millions of times stronger than 40-bit encryption. Your web
browser should have at least “128-bit encryption.”

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Verify your security level
 For Netscape, choose View Page Info from the menu
bar.
 For Internet Explorer, choose File Properties from the
menu bar.
 For Mozilla Firefox, choose Menu Privacy
Protections.
With the increasing computing power of potential criminals,
greater level of security is becoming more necessary. 128-bit
encryption remains a very strong method of security for the
foreseeable future. If you have any doubt about a website’s
security level, consider placing your order by phone.
Privacy Tips
While you shouldn’t be afraid to make an online purchase, you
should be informed on how the online retailer will use your
personal information.
When filling out an online order form, don't blindly fill in
every blank field. Instead, look for the fields that are required to
make the purchase. (Sometimes marked by an *asterisk* or
different color.)
Read the order form. Watch out for areas that are “pre-
selected” for your convenience (such as checkboxes); you may
end up with a lot of unwanted email. Ever wondered how those
“spammers” got your email address?
Create a free web mail account and use it as for “junk
mail.”(Yahoo and Hotmail are just two examples of sites that
offer free web mail.) When retailers require an email address, use
your junk mail account rather than your personal ISP email
account. That way, if you receive a lot of spam, you can simply
create another junk mail account.

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 Look for links such as Help, FAQ, About Us, Customer
Service, Privacy Policy, or Privacy and Security.
 Ensure that the site has the prefix “https://” and not the usual
“http”//”. The letter “s” in the earlier implies security. Not all
websites are secure for supply of your account credentials.
When you arrive at that page, look for answers to questions
such as:
 What kind of information do they collect?
 How do they use my information?
 Do they share my information with third parties?
 How do I access my information? How do I update or
delete my information?
 How do I remove my information from email, phone, and
postal mailing lists?
 Do they use cookies? (Learn more about cookies in the
next lesson.)
Cookies
Many e-commerce websites use cookies. A cookie is a small file
that a web site puts on your hard drive so it can remember
something about you at a later time. For example, a cookie may
contain information (such as a unique user ID) that is used to
track the pages of the sites you have visited.
While cookies may seem like an invasion of privacy, they can
improve your online experience. Cookies allow you to
“personalize” web sites, such as a personalized MSN or Apple
start page. They may also save you some time. You don't have to
type the same information into a frequently used site over and
over again. Cookies help keep track of your order, and certain ads
or products display because of what you've purchased in the past,
etc.
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Controlling Your Cookies using Netscape or IE
Depending on your web browser, you may turn cookies on or off,
or alerted when a cookie is placed on your hard drive. See your
browser’s Help menu for more information.
To turn cookies on:
Netscape Navigator/Communicator 4.7:
 Choose Edit Preferences from the menu bar.
 Select Advanced from the left-hand menu.
 Select Accept All Cookies.
 Click OK.
For Netscape 6.2:
 Choose Edit Preferences Privacy & Security
Cookies Enable all cookies.
Internet Explorer 5.0 for PC:
 Choose Tools Internet Options from the menu bar.
 Click the Security tab.
 Click Custom Level at the bottom of the window.
 Scroll down to Cookies.
 Two options display: “Allow cookies that are stored on
your computer” and “Allow per-session cookies (not
stored)”
 Select Enable for both.
 Click OK.

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Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
Most people use the Internet primarily to email and surf the Web.
Simply put, e-mail is the process of sending and receiving
messages over the Internet. While email is similar to a traditional
mail system, or “snail mail,” it is also very different.
Table 10.2: Snail Mail vs. E-mail

Option “Snail” Mail Email

Letter,Card, Postcard, Larger Electronic Text Message, electronic

What is mailed?
packages pictures, etc.

Packet:
In what is it
Envelope, etc A piece of text delivered over the
delivered?
Internet

Sender: Sender:
Who is it from?
Simon Ayegba Simon Ayegba

Recipient: Recipient:
Who is it for?
Nathaniel Eru Nathaniel Eru

123 Something Street,

Address? [email protected]
Somewhere, Mkd, NG.

Mail Server and Email client

software:
Who/What delivers it? Mail Carrier/Mailman
Rely on one another to both send and
deliver email

Email client software’s INBOX:

Where is it delivered? Mailbox (e.g. P.O. Box) Text editor used to compose, send,
receive and manage email

A few seconds or minutes unless

Delivery Time? Varies (depending on location)
technical problems

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After reading your email, you can save it, forward it to others, or
delete it. If you want paper copies, you can print your email
messages.
Anatomy of an Email Address
An email address is required to send and receive email. Email
addresses are different from “snail mail” addresses. They usually
consist of three parts: a user name, an “at” symbol (@), and a
domain name. Using the e-mail address, [email protected], for
example;
1. User name: erunatty located to the left of the @ symbol, a
user name identifies your account on the email server that
handles the email. For example, Eru Nathaniel might
choose “erunatty” as his username. However, someone
may have already chosen erunatty, so have some other
choices ready. Choose a username that sounds professional
and is easy to remember.
2. He symbol “@” means “at” and separates your account
name and the name of the mail server. For example,
erunatty “is located at”gmail.com.
3. Domain Name: gmail.com. The domain name usually
consists of two pieces of identifying information. The first
piece is the name of the email server and is located to the
right of the @ symbol. For example, gmail is the name of
the email server (Google mail server). The second piece,
usually a three-letter extension, indicates the top-level
domain (.com). They are separated by periods, called
“dots.”
Consider choosing a username that protects your identity instead
of your first and/or last name.

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Top Level Domain
Top-level domains may help you figure out the type of
organization the recipient is associated with. If there is a two-
letter extension, it is usually a country code. For example, Nigeria
uses “ng”, Malaysia uses “my”, Canada uses “ca”, Australia uses
“au”, and so on.
Table 10.3: Examples of Domain Names and Extensions

Extension Meaning Examples

A company or www.microsoft.com,
.com
business www.yahoo.com

A non-profit or not- www.GCFLearnFree.org,

.org
for-profit institution www.goodwillenc.org

Nigerian www.nitda.gov.ng,
.gov
Governmental agency www.statehouse.gov.ng

.mil US Military www.army.mil, navy.mil

Educational www.uam.edu.ng,
.edu
institution www.bsum.edu.ng,

ISP or Network
.net www.earthlink.net
Provider

Since not everyone uses top-level domains correctly, they are not
always a reliable way to determine an organization’s association.

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Email Clients
To send and receive email, both the sender and recipient must
have the right tools: an Internet connection, an email client, and
an email address.
An email client (sometimes referred to as a composer) is
software that runs on a personal computer, and relies on an
Internet connection to perform some of its operations.
Email clients work with any ISP (Internet Service Provider) that
uses standard Internet email protocols. These protocols make it
possible for people using different email client software to
communicate with one another. For example, if one uses
Microsoft OutlookTM, he/she can send and receive email with
someone who uses QUALCOMM EudoraTM.
To set up your email client correctly, you need:
 POP3 (Post Office Protocol, version 3) server address
 SMTP (Standard Mail Transfer Protocol) server address
Your Internet service provider gives you this information.
Free web mail accounts, such as Hotmail or Yahoo, rely on an
Internet connection and use an email client that appears in a web
page. Additional email client software is not required.
Difference in Email Clients
Most email client software allows you to:
 Display a list of received messages. Each message header
shows you who sent the mail, the subject line, the time and
date it was sent, and at times, the size of the message.
 Select the message header and read the message.
 Create new messages.
 Reply to, forward, and delete messages.

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  “Attach” files (called attachments) to messages you send.
 Save the attachments you receive.
Some email clients offer:
 Address book/Contacts: Use the electronic address book
to track personal information such as name, title, email
addresses, home and work addresses, phone numbers, and
much more.
 Newsgroup functionality: You can use your email client
to access Usenet, an online public bulletin board system
(BBS). Usenet features a broad range of discussion topics
called newsgroups.
 Calendaring: Schedule important dates, appointments,
tasks, and electronic reminders.
The E-mail Client Window
Today’s powerful email clients feature a user-friendly interface.
The colorful icons and drag-and-drop capability can help manage
email and improve your experience.
The first time you open your email client, many items you see will
look familiar. A few things are specific to your email client, so be
sure to read the Help file. Pictured below is the Microsoft
OutlookTM window.

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 Fig.10.40: Outlook Express Inbox
Main features of an e-mail client window
The e-mail client window is endowed with so many bars and other
functions.
Menu Bar
The menu bar contains a list of options to manage and customize
email. Using the View menu, you can change the display of the
email client window. For example, you can sort email messages
(most recent messages, by sender, by unread messages, and more)
and show/hide toolbars.
Toolbar
Toolbars may be customized to display most commonly used
tools.
Inbox
The INBOX displays a list of received messages. Each message
header shows you who sent the mail, the subject line, the time
and date it was sent, and at times, the size of the message.

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Preview Pane
Click a message header once to preview a message without
opening it. Many email clients let you show, hide, or resize the
folder list and panes.
The Email Message Window – Sending a New Message
We use the email message window to compose and send email
messages.
To send a new message:
 Once you have opened your email client's window, click
the New Mail or Compose button.

 The email message window appears.

 Look for a menu bar and toolbar to help compose and
format your message.
 Below the menu bar and toolbar, there are several fields.
These fields may include To, CC, BCC, Subject, some
formatting tools, and the message body area.

Fig.10.41: Example of E-mail window

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To and From
In the email message window, type the recipient’s email address
in the To: field. This tells the email server where to send the
email message.

Fig.10.42: Recipient’s email address bar

The person who is composing the email is called the sender.
When the recipient receives a message, a message header
(sender’s email information, subject line, and time received,
usually) appears in the recipients INBOX, as shown in Fig.10.43.

Fig.10.43: The E-mail Inbox

Carbon Copy (CC) and Blind Carbon Copy (BCC)
CC: (short for Carbon Copy) and BCC: (short for Blind
Carbon Copy) are additional fields used to send multiple copies
of a message.
To send copies of your message:
 You can type multiple email addresses into the To: field.
OR
 Type additional email addresses into the CC: field.
 Typing additional email addresses into the BCC: field
allows you to send a copy to someone else without the
main recipient knowing you have done so. The BCC:
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 recipient sees the main message and all intended recipients,
while the main recipient whose e-mail addressed is
supplied in the To: field is uninformed about this.

Fig.10.44: The New Message dialog

In any case, separate email addresses with a comma or semicolon.
The subject line and body of the message
When sending an email, the sender has the option to write the
subject of the message. When the recipient checks their email, the
subject line appears in the message header. Make sure your
subject line describes the topic of your email message. A well-
written subject line helps recipients prioritize their email
responses.
The body of the email message is typed directly into the large
blank space (message area). Most email clients support cut, copy,
and paste functions, so you don’t need to retype information
needlessly.
The sender could decide to type the text in MS Word (especially
when such massage is lengthy), then copy and paste it in the e-
mail body field. Text may be formatted using the formatting tools
available on the bar just before the message body field.

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 Fig.10.45: Sending a New Message with e-mail body
Send and Receive
Now that you can compose a new email message, you may want
to send your message. That is easy; just click the Send button.

To receive new messages (known as “checking your email”), you

may need to click the Send and Receive button to display new
email. To automate this process, some email clients let you set up
a schedule. Others display a graphical or audio notice.
Sending new e-mail with attachment:
You could decide to attach documents (files, images, etc) to an e-
mail that is being composed.
 Follow procedure as in composing a new message.

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  Click on “Attach” on the Toolbar.
 Specify the location of the file and select it; this process can
be repeated for multiple attachments.
 Wait until the file(s) are successfully attached on the new e-
mail window.
 The select “Send” to send the message to the recipient(s)
after entering recipients’ details correctly.
Usually, sent e-mails are delivered to the recipients’ Inbox folder.
The messages are normally arranged in chronological order of
arrival (the last message is the first and on top of the list – This is
called the Last-In First-Out (LIFO) procedure).
Replying to an e-mail message
Now that you can check your email, you will need to know how
to reply to a message.
To reply to an email message:
 Check your email.
 Open the (new) message.
 Read the message.
 Click the Reply button. (Or, click Reply All to send a copy
to everyone who received the original message).

 A new email message window opens.

 You may see a message such as, “on 5/23/02 10:46 AM,
Wiz Kid at [email protected] wrote:” followed by the
text of the message you are answering.
 Notice that the text from the original message is “quoted,”
or preceded by carat symbols (>).
 Type your reply, and/or attach your relevant field(s).
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  Click the Send button.

Fig.10.46: Replying an e-mail message

Some email clients include a “Sent Mail” folder or “Outbox”. If
you are uncertain your message was sent, check these areas before
you resend your message.
When to Reply
Email is reliable, immediate, and often informal. However, there
are some email “do’s and don’ts” you should be aware of.
When replying, you have a couple of options:
1. Include all text: Include all quoted text from the previous
message, type your response, and click Send.
2. Delete all text: Delete all text from the previous message,
type your response, and click Send.
3. Quote the text (delete some text): Delete additional text
that is not relevant to your response. Add additional
information as needed. This way, you do not have to
needlessly retype information, and the recipient knows you
understood their initial message.
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Forwarding an E-mail Message
The abilities to compose a message, check your email and reply to
a message are basic email skills. It is also helpful to know how to
forward a message. Forward when you want to send email
message that you have received to co-workers, friends, or family.
To forward an email message:

 Open the email message you want to forward.

 Click the Forward button.
 A new email message window opens.
 You may see a message such as, “----------Forwarded
Message”
Followed by “from, date, and to” and the original message.
 The text from the original message may be “quoted,” or
preceded by carat symbols (>).
 Type any new information at the top of the message.
 Click Send.

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 Fig.10.47: Forwarding an e-mail message
When to Forward E-mail Message
Email is reliable, immediate, and often informal. However, there
are some email “do’s and don’ts” you should be aware of.
When forwarding, you have a few options:
1. Include all text: Include all quoted text from the previous
message, type your response, and click Send.
2. Quote the text (delete some text): Delete additional text
that is not relevant to your response. Add new information
at the top of the message as needed. This way, you don't
have to needlessly retype information, and the recipient
knows you understood their initial message.
3. Copy and Paste text into a new email message window:
Instead of forwarding, you can copy and paste a message
(or its part) into a new email message window.

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Newsgroups
Besides the WWW, there are other sources of information on the
Internet. USENET is an international bulletin board system
(BBS) that features discussions on any topic imaginable. These
discussion topics are called newsgroups.
A newsgroup is an online “place” where people chat about
anything and everything. There are over 14,000 newsgroups used
by millions of people each day. Want to meet others who have
hiked the Appalachian Trail? Are you a fan of a particular
television program? Chances are, you will find a newsgroup that
suits your interests.
Newsgroups can be a great resource. Anyone can read and post
questions/answers, thoughts, and opinions. In many cases, no one
moderates the discussions. Be forewarned, anyone can say
anything. That does not mean you should, though. Professionals
often use newsgroups to network electronically.
Accessing Newsgroups
To view and post messages to a newsgroup, you need a
newsreader. A newsreader is a program that connects you to a
news server on the Internet.
 Your email client may be a newsreader.
 Some web browsers, such as Internet Explorer and
Netscape, come with newsreaders.
 There are freeware, shareware, or commercial software
newsreaders available.
You can configure your system to handle USENET newsgroups.
Follow the instructions appropriate to your system and software.
Unlike e-mail, which is usually “one-to-one”, the Usenet is
“many-to-many”. Usenet is the international meeting place, where
people gather to meet their friends, discuss the day’s events, keep

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up with computer trends or talk about whatever maybe on their
minds.
Mailing Lists
Much like bulletin boards, mailing lists are a great way to share
knowledge and information with a group. However, mailing list
messages are accessed using an email client. Professionals often
use mailing lists to network electronically with other professionals
in their field.
For instance, you are the head of a committee and oversee 15
volunteers. You need to communicate with your volunteers once
or more times a week, but only meet once a month. Volunteers
often need to contact one another.
You decide to set up a mailing list to help your group
communicate more efficiently. A mailing list is a list of email
addresses identified by a single email address called a mailing
list name.
For example, [email protected] (the mailing list name)
consists of members’ email addresses (your email address and
each volunteer’s email address). To receive mailing list email,
members subscribe to the list.
Mailing list members include:
1. Moderators “own” the mailing list. They often start the
mailing list. A good moderator not only reads and regulates
messages, but also prompts members with discussion
topics and questions when needed.
2. List members subscribe to the mailing list. They can read
and post messages to the mailing list, and unsubscribe at
any time.
When email is sent to that mailing list name, the message is sent
to a server that handles the mailing list. The server sends copies

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of a message to all the members. They check their email, read
new messages, and post replies to the mailing list.
Mailing List Advantages and Disadvantages
There are many advantages and disadvantages associated with
mailing lists.
Advantages:
 There are mailing lists available on almost any topic.
 Learn and share information.
 Read about tips, tricks, opinions, and events that interest
you.
 Meet others who share your interests, are in your same line
of work, etc.
 Some lists are moderated, meaning there is someone
appointed as moderator to keep the discussion on topic.
 Some lists are sent in a “digest” format. Periodically, you'll
receive an email message containing several messages.
Disadvantages:
 If a mailing list has even 100 members, it can generate a lot
of email. Do you have time to read it all?
 Some lists are not moderated, and discussion can quickly
get off-topic.

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 EXERCISE X

1. In your own words, define the term “Internet”.

2. The use of Computer and Internet has done greater
harm than good to man and the society; demystify.
3. Write the step-by-step procedure to sign up a Gmail
account.
4. Itemize the stages to protect your WhatsApp account
from hacker’s intrusion on an Android phone?
5. Highlight the steps involved in posting an image
accompanied by text to the public while restricting
certain friends from viewing the post on your
Facebook account.
6. Write the full meaning of each of the following:
(a) URL
(b) WWW
(c) ISP
(d) HTTP
(e) HTML
(f) LAN
(g) MAN
(h) WAN
(i) WiFi
(j) GUI

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7. Write short note on the “impact 0f social media on
young people of today”
8. Juxtapose the following with relevant examples in
each case:
(a) Website and Internet
(b) Webpage and Home page
(c) Intranet and Extranet
(d) Web browser and Search engine
(e) Online and Real-time processing.

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 CHAPTER ELEVEN

THE COMPUTING PROFESSION

In every profession, there are professionals. Computing

professionals perform a variety of tasks: They write specifications
for new computer systems, they design instruction pipelines for
superscalar processors, they diagnose timing anomalies in
embedded systems, they test and validate software systems, they
restructure the back-end databases of inventory systems, they
analyze packet traffic in local area networks, and they recommend
security policies for medical information systems, among other
things. Computing professionals are obligated to perform these
tasks conscientiously because their decisions affect the
performance and functionality of computer systems, which in turn
affect the welfare of the systems’ users directly and that of other
people indirectly. For example, the software that controls the
automatic transmission of an automobile should minimize
gasoline consumption and, more important, ensure the safety of
the driver, any passengers, other drivers, and pedestrians. Hence,
these Computer Professionals must have certain qualities and
skills.
Qualities of a Good Computer Professional
The major qualities of any Computer Professional are:
1. Certification – must have acquired professional certification
of academic training; basically, a degrees as highlighted in
the subsequent subsection.
2. Multitasking ability – must have the ability to perform
several tasks simultaneously, if the condition so demands.

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3. Adaptability – should be malleable and flexible, as well as
accommodating. Can adjust (adaptable) to variety of work
environments.
4. Analytical Skills – Computer professionals are scientists
and must possess logical ability; methodical and meticulous.
5. Attention to details/Accuracy – should have precision
ability, paying attention to details (even when requirements
seem unnecessary).
6. Commitment to learning/Abreast with current trends –
should always be ready to, and follow developmental trends
in the profession and perhaps, other disciplines.
7. Communication Skills – should be able to communicate
and relate concepts well with people/audience.
8. Problem-solving/Troubleshooting capabilities – must be
able to diagnose system faults, errors and failures, then
analyse and troubleshoot them.
9. Competence – must be proficient and effective in his chosen
area of the professional.
10. Technical Writing Skills – should have practical industrial
and technological abilities in proposal designs, project plans,
contracts and scripts writing.
11. Aptitude for Mathematics – a major prerequisite for
candidates admitted to study any course in the profession is a
minimum of credit pass in Mathematics amidst other criteria;
thus, mathematics is a fundamental criterion for the
profession. The mathematical skills enable critical analytic
and ease programming ability among others.
12. Ability to memorise – should not have memory failures;
should have retentive memory, not volatile.

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13. Trustworthy – should show reasonable level of
dependability and uprightness. Veracity is the key here.
14. Reliability – should acquire the attributes of trustworthiness,
thus should be relied upon.
15. Disciplined – must be principled/ethical, not irrelevant but
follow standards in executing tasks
The Computer Professionals
Computer professionals are individuals who have acquired
necessary mental and charactertraining. The entry level for all
computer professionals is a bachelor’s degree (B.Sc., B.Sc.(Ed.),
B.Tech., B.Eng., or a Higher National Diploma (HND). Suitable
fields of study for this career include:
(i) Computer Science;
(ii) Computer Engineering;
(iii) Software Engineering;
(iv) Computer Information Systems;
(v) Information Technology;
(vi) Management Information Systems (MIS);
(vii) Hardware Engineering;
(viii) Web Design;
(ix) Multimedia Technology;
(x) Networking;
(xi) System Security; and other allied specializations.
Additional IT certification may be required for some positions.
It is however, unfortunate that quackery has taken over the IT
profession, nowadays. This was why Eru (2020a) in a piece
reported the NCS Benue State Chapter’s call for a renewed
collaboration among IT firms to eliminate quackery in the
profession in the Benue state. Collaboration between all the IT
firms, which ensures that only registered members of the
profession are allowed to practice, discourages quackery.

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Hence, to avoid quackery and demarcate boundaries within the
profession and among other professions, the following are
computer professionals and their basic responsibilities:
1. Computer Systems Analyst: The computer systems analyst,
also known as business technology analyst, is an IT professional
who specializes in analyzing, designing and implementing
information systems. He is a person who uses analysis and design
techniques to solve business problems using IT. As such, he
assumes the position of the system project manager. Although, he
may be familiar with a variety of programming languages,
operating systems, and computer hardware platforms, he may not
normally involve himself in the actual hardware or software
development.
The systems analyst works in collaboration with the business
analyst, as they share some overlapping responsibilities. While a
business analyst will evaluate the business need and identify the
appropriate solution and, to some extent, design a solution without
delving too deep into its technical components, relying instead on
a systems analyst to do so. Some dedicated professionals possess
practical knowledge in both areas (business and systems analyses)
and manage to successfully combine the tasks of both
occupations, effectively blurring the line between business
analysis and systems analysis.
Other functions of a Systems Analyst include:
(i) Assessment of suitability of information systems in terms
of their intended outcomes;
(ii) Liaison with end-users, software vendors and
programmers in order to achieve the outcomes;
(iii) Systems analysts may serve as change agents who
identify the organizational improvements needed, design
systems to implement those changes;
(iv) Developing cost analysis, design considerations, staff
impact amelioration and implementation timelines.
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 (v) Involvement in the modification of codes and review of
scripts;
(vi) Preparation and coordination of the stages of system
development life cycle (SDLC);
(vii) Training of others to use the new system.
2. The System Architect: Computer systems analysts research
the hardware and software that are part of an organization’s
computer systems in addition to the ways in which the systems are
being used. They need to as well analyze the work been done by
an organization to identify the ways in which it can best be served
by a computer system.
3. Programmer: Also referred to as the software developer,
software engineer, systems programmer, or computer
programmer, this is a computer professional tasked with designing
and creating software programs, integrating systems and software,
training end-users, analyzing algorithms, modifying source-code,
writing system instructions, debugging, and maintaining operating
systems. In addition to his degree certification, a Programmer
should have the following skills:
(i) End user-oriented.
(ii) Expert IT skills.
(iii) Strong aptitude for mathematics.
(iv) Advanced knowledge of operating systems.
(v) Analytical and problem-solving skills.
(vi) Java, C++, SQL, C#, and HTML experience.
(vii) Aptitude for learning new technology.
(viii) Deadline driven.
(ix) Superior communication skills.
The basic responsibilities of a Computer Programmer include:
(i) Coding and debugging;
(ii) Designing and testing computer structures;
(iii) Troubleshooting system errors;

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 (iv) Writing computer instructions;
(v) Managing database systems;
(vi) Maintaining operating systems;
(vii) Editing source-code;
(viii) Profiling and analyzing algorithms.
4. Testing Engineer: He is also called the software tester,
system tester or simply tester. The role of a software test engineer
is to coordinate the process for analyzing software programs. This
process will involve creating and implementing testing methods,
recording the test results, and providing recommendations to
improve software programs based on the results. As a software
test engineer, you can work for a variety of companies. If you
work for a government agency or contractor, you may need to
obtain a security clearance level.
The basic skills required of a Testing Engineer include:
(i) Thorough understanding of creating, implementing, and
maintaining software programs.
(ii) As a technical position, he will also need a sense of
creativity.
(i) When faced with a programming issue, he must be able
to develop an alternate solution.
(ii) He should have strong communication skills in order to
serve as part of a technology team.
The duties of a Software Test Engineer include:
(i) Excellent technical skills in areas such as programming
languages;
(ii) Collaborating with organizational management to
streamline operations;
(iii) Utilizing programming languages to create testing
scripts;
(iv) Documenting software testing procedures;

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 (v) He is tasked with evaluating the organization’s technical
infrastructure for security issues;
(vi) He could also be tasked with working with team
members to develop software programs that meet
business needs;
(vii) He is responsible for interfacing with end users to
ascertain areas of improvement, such as cost reduction
solutions and automation solutions.
5. Computer Design Engineer: This is also called the graphic
designer (not graphics artiste).His competencies include; technical
knowledge, hardware design, software design. The specialties of a
computer design engineer are; hardware engineering, software
engineering and software programming. Usual tasks involving
Computer Engineers include:
(i) Writing software and firmware for embedded
microcontrollers;
(ii) Designing very large scale integrated circuit (VLSIC)or
chips;
(iii) Designing analog sensors, designing mixed signal circuit
boards;
(iv) Designing operating systems.
6. Database Designer and Administrator: Though, the
position of a Database Designer could be combined with the
Database Administrator (DBA), this is a computer professional
basically responsible for the design, management and
maintenance of databases. While the system administrator works
collaboratively with them, the database designer creates databases
and the DBA manages the databases.
The key responsibilities of a Database Designer include:
(i) Creation of databases, as a primary responsibility;
(ii) In-depth understanding of the organization or system for
which a database is to be designed;

260
 (iii) Training of support staff in the areas of design
language/tools.
Key responsibilities of a Database Administrator include:
(i) To ensure that data is available, protected from loss and
corruption, and easily accessible as needed;
(ii) Software installation and maintenance: DBA usually
collaborates on the initial installation and configuration
of a new database server (Oracle, SQL Server, etc);
(iii) The DBA installs the database software and configures
it for use, after the system administrator sets up
hardware and deploys the operating system for the
database server;
(iv) As updates and patches are required, the DBA handles
this on-going maintenance;
(v) If a new server is needed, the DBA handles the transfer
of data from the existing system to the new platform;
(vi) Data extraction, transformation, and loading
(ETL):This refers to efficiently importing large
volumes of data that have been extracted from multiple
systems into a data warehouse environment;
(vii) Cleaning up and transformation of the external data to
fit the desired format so that it can be imported into a
central repository;
(viii) Specialized data handling: Handling of unstructured
data types such as images, documents, or sound and
video files, additional monitoring and tuning to
maintain efficiency;
(ix) Database backup and recovery: DBAs create backup
and recovery plans and procedures based on industry
best practices, then make sure that the necessary steps
are followed;
(x) He may persuade management to take necessary
precautions to preserve data, since data backups cost
time and money;
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(xi) In the case of a server failure or other form of data loss,
the DBA will use existing backups to restore lost
information to the system. With recent changes in
technology, it is becoming more typical for a DBA to
backup databases to the cloud; Oracle Cloud for Oracle
databases and MS Azure for SQL Server;
(xii) Data security: A DBA needs to know potential
weaknesses of the database software and the company’s
overall system and work to minimize risks. In the case
of a security breach or irregularity, the DBA can
consult audit logs to see who has done what to the data.
Audit trails are also important when working with
regulated data;
(xiii) Authentication: DBA controls who has access and what
type of access they are allowed, as well as what data
each user can have accessed to. For instance, a user
may have permission to see only certain pieces of
information, or they may be denied the ability to make
changes to the system;
(xiv) Capacity planning: The DBA needs to know how large
the database currently is and how fast it is growing in
order to make predictions about future needs. Storage
refers to how much room the database takes up in
server and backup space. Capacity refers to its usage
level. If the company, for instance, is growing quickly
and adding many new users, the DBA will have to
create the capacity to handle the extra workload;
(xv) Performance monitoring: Monitoring databases for
performance issues is part of the on-going system
maintenance a DBA performs. If some part of the
system is slowing down processing, the DBA may need
to make configuration changes to the software or add
additional hardware capacity. Many types of
monitoring tools are available, and part of the DBA’s
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 job is to understand what they need to track to improve
the system. Third-party organizations can be ideal for
outsourcing this aspect, but make sure they offer
modern DBA support;
(xvi) Database tuning: Performance monitoring shows where
the database should be tweaked to operate as efficiently
as possible. The physical configuration, the way the
database is indexed, and how queries are handled can
all have a dramatic effect on database performance.
With effective monitoring by DBA, it is possible to
proactively tune a system based on application and
usage instead of waiting until a problem develops;
(xvii) Troubleshooting: DBAs are on call for troubleshooting
in case of any problems. Whether they need to quickly
restore lost data or correct an issue to minimize
damage, a DBA needs to quickly understand and
respond to problems when they occur.
7. Website Designer: Web designer is an IT professional
primarily saddled with the responsibility of designing websites
and perhaps, hosting of same. The position requires strong
proficiency in graphic design and computer programming.
The duties of a Web Designer include:
(i) Writing and editing web contents, designing layout,
understanding technical requirements, updating sites,
backing up information and troubleshooting or fixing
problems;
(ii) He develops and creates the look, layout and features of
websites and associated applications;
(iii) Web designers work closely with development managers to
keep sites up-to-date and relevant to their audience;
(iv) He should have knowledge of web design software, such as
Dreamweaver, Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, and Paint
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 Shop Pro, JavaScript, and basically, hypertext markup
language (HTML);
8. Hardware Engineer: Computer hardware engineers
research, design, develop, and test computer systems and
components such as processors, circuit boards, memory devices,
networks and routers. In addition, a Computer Hardware
Engineers typically do the following:
(i) They design and oversee the production of computer
hardware equipment;
(ii) They design and develop the software systems that control
computers;
(iii) They design and test circuits and other electronic
components, test work and refine processes, test and re-test
parts to ensure they work properly;
(iv) They identify and isolate defects;
(v) Designing new computer hardware, creating schematics of
computer equipment to be built;
(vi) Analysis of the test results and modification of the design
as needed;
(vii) Updating existing computer equipment so that it will work
with new software;
(viii) Many hardware engineers design devices used in
manufactured products that incorporate processors and
other computer components and that connect to the
Internet. For example, many new cars, home appliances,
and medical devices have Internet-ready computer systems
built into them;
(ix) Computer hardware engineers ensure that computer
hardware components work together with the latest
software. Therefore, hardware engineers often work with
software developers. For example, the hardware and
software for mobile phones and other devices frequently
are developed at the same time.

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9. Quality Control Engineer: Also called Quality Assurance
(QA) Engineer, the system quality control engineer is an IT
professional with the following proven skills:
(i) Work experience in software development, software
quality assurance, and strong knowledge of software QA
methodologies, tools and processes;
(ii) Experience in writing clear, concise and comprehensive
test plans and test cases;
(iii) Hands-on experience with both white box and black box
testing as well as with automated testing tools;
(iv) Solid knowledge of SQL and scripting;
(v) Experience working in an Agile/Scrum development
process;
(vi) Experience with performance and/or security testing is a
plus.
The QA Engineer is tasked with the following responsibilities:
(i) Reviewing quality specifications and technical design
documents to provide timely and meaningful feedback;
(ii) Creating detailed, comprehensive and well-structured test
plans and test cases;
(iii) Estimating, prioritizing, planning and coordinating quality
testing activities;
(iv) Design, develop and execute automation scripts using open
source tools;
(v) Identify, record, document thoroughly and track bugs;
(vi) Perform thorough regression testing when bugs are
resolved;
(vii) Develop and apply testing processes for new and existing
products to meet client’s needs;
(viii) Liaise with internal teams (e.g. developers and product
managers) to identify system requirements;
(ix) Monitor debugging process results;
(x) Investigate the causes of non-conforming software and
train users to implement solutions;
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 (xi) Track quality assurance metrics, like defect densities and
open defect counts;
(xii) Stay up-to-date with new testing tools and test strategies.
10. Production Engineer: Also called manufacturing or
industrial engineers, production engineers focus on improving
how companies manufacture their products with the use of
technology. The production engineers’ role serves to help the
company produce its products at an affordable cost without
negatively impacting quality. They work closely with
manufacturing personnel and may focus on a particular area, such
as repairs. This work requires a technical degree and the ability to
use design software and work with various production systems.
The duties of Production Engineer include:
(i) To investigate the company’s current manufacturing
processes to make things faster;
(ii) Determining how many people to put on an assembly line,
configuring and adjusting the software that runs plant
equipment and assisting with training production workers;
(iii) Production engineer’s implement automation and quality
control measures;
(iv) Deciding how to produce new products.

Computer Professional Bodies

Like in every other profession, computing is regulated by legal
bodies. In Nigeria, there exist several bodies regulating the
operations of the various areas of the computing profession. The
registered Computer Professional Bodies in Nigeria include:
1. Computer Professionals [Registration Council] of Nigeria
(CPN)
2. Nigeria Computer Society (NCS)
3. Nigeria Internet Group (NIG)
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Computer Professionals [Registration Council] of Nigeria
The Computer Professionals Registration Council of Nigeria
(CPN) was established by Decree No. 49 of 1993, promulgated on
June 10, and gazetted on August 9, of that year. The Computer
Professionals Registration Council of Nigeria (CPN), simply
referred to as the ‘Council’ in the Decree, is a body corporate with
perpetual succession and common seal, a legal entity charged with
the control and supervision of the Computing Profession in the
country. The CPN was assigned some specific duties, and its
duties were to supervise and also control the computing
profession in the country. In regard thereof, according to CPN
(n.d.), its duties include:
1. To determine what standards of knowledge and skills are to
be attained by persons seeking to become members of the
computing profession and improving those standards from
time to time as circumstances may permit;
2. To secure, in accordance with the provision of the Decree,
the establishment and maintenance of a register of persons
seeking to be registered under the Decree to practise the
computing profession, and the publication from time to time,
of the list of these persons;
3. To perform any other functions as bestowed on it by the
provisions of the decree Consequent upon the foregoing, the
Council has responsibilities for the following among others.
4. Organisation of computing practice in the country control of
the practice of computing in the country supervision of the
practice of computing in the country;
5. Screening individuals seeking to be registered as computer
professionals;
6. Screening corporate bodies seeking to be registered to
engage in the sale or use of computing facilities and/or the
provision of professional services in computing in the
country;

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7. Ensuring high computing professional ethics and
professionalism - standards, discipline etc;
8. Determining academic standards in computing – computer
science, computer engineering, information science, etc;
9. Accreditation of institutions, courses and programmes and
the evaluation of certificates in computing;
10. Conducting professional examinations in computing by
liaising with associations/bodies external to the Council;
11. Publicizing activities of the Council;
12. Publication of the register of Computer Professionals and
other computing professional works – journals, books,
magazines, newsletters, etc.
Computer Professionals [Registration Council] of Nigeria (CPN)
works in partnership with the Nigerian Computer Society (NCS),
Federal Ministry of Education (FME), Nigerian Information
Technology Practitioners in America (NITPA) in order to bring
about an International dimension to the nation’s quest for IT
development. Additionally, CPN is in partnership with the
Nigerian Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA)
for the realization of the comprehensive implementation of the
Nigerian Information Technology policy as well as several other
bodies, ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs).
Functions of the CPN
1. To determine standards of knowledge and skills: As a
professional body, it is expected from the CPN to determine
the standards of knowledge and standards of skills that is
needed to be possessed by all the persons, who are willing to
go into the profession of computing. The standards are being
reviewed and improved upon as the need arises.
2. To maintain register of registered professionals: The
establishment of a register that contained the names of all the
registered professionals in computing is a function of the
CPN. Only those Professionals registered under Degree No.
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 49 are permitted to practice computing profession in the
country. The Computer Professionals Registration Council
of Nigeria is also mandated to make sure that every name of
every registered computing professional is published
regularly.
3. To carry out other functions assigned to the council: Apart
from the statutory functions of the Council, it is expected of
CPN to carry out other functions granted to it, provided, such
functions will assist the Council in actualizing its mandate.
4. To organize and control practice of computing: Every
professional organization has its sole responsibility of
monitoring the activities of the professional body, as well as,
regulating the conducts of its members. The CPN is not
exempted. The Council organizes, as well as, controls the
computer practice in Nigeria.CPN must make sure that every
practising member complies with the ethics of the
profession.
5. To supervise computing profession in the country: Apart
from controlling the activities of the professional body, CPN
was also saddled with the responsibility of supervising the
profession of computing in the country. The reason why this
supervision is necessary is obvious. It is to handle issue
regarding computing professionals derailing from the actual
ethics of practising the computing profession in Nigeria.
6. To screen persons who intend to register as professionals in
computing profession: As a professional body, the CPN also
sees to it that every person who intends to register as
professional in computing profession with the professional
body are qualified to practice the profession in Nigeria, by
way of proper screening. Such individuals must get the
needed credentials to qualify them for the registration.
7. To screens and registers every corporate organization: CPN
is to also screen all the corporate organizations. These
organizations screened by the CPN must be those corporate
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 organizations that may want to take part or involved in the
selling of computing facilities or want to even use these
facilities. In screening these corporate organizations, the
CPN must also make sure that these corporate organizations
screened are registered too. It is also expected of the CPN to
offer these corporate organizations computing professional
services within the country.
The Nigeria Computer Society
The Nigeria Computer Society (NCS), simply called the ‘Society’
is the umbrella organization of all information technology
professionals, interest groups and stakeholders in Nigeria. Formed
in 1978 as Computer Association of Nigeria (COAN), and
transformed into NCS in 2002 as a result of harmonization with
other stakeholder and interest groups, NCS is the national
platform for the advancement of information technology science
and practice in Nigeria.
Functions of the NCS
While establishing the NCS, the Society was assigned with a
number of functions as follows:
1. To promote education and training of computer: Although
the NCS promotes education and training of computer, it
also promotes information scientists, computer engineering,
and information architects. NCS also promotes IT as well as
IT system professionals.
2. To encourage research in order to advance computer and
information sciences: NCS functions in the area of
encouraging research work for the purpose of advancing
computer and information sciences, information technology
and system, as well as, practices. NCS also encourages the
dissemination of results of scientific works that are carried
out within Nigerian industries, and the Nigerian military and
education sector in the country.
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3. To promote interchange of information about sciences and
information processing: This is another area by which, the
NCS takes responsibility. NCS must make sure that there is
the promotion of the interchanging of information, provided
it has to do with sciences and also the arts of information
processing and information management among members of
the public, as well as specialists in the field.
4. To develop competent members and encourage integrity:
Competence and integrity on the part of staff members of an
organization are the strength of such an organization. It is
also the duty of the NCS to ensure that, members uphold the
very ethics of the profession, just as it is contained in the
Code of Conduct of the Nigeria Computer Society and the
Code of Practice of the Nigeria Computer Society.
5. To promotion and protection of professional interest: It is
incumbent on the part of every profession to promote its
professional interest, as well as, protection of the interest of
its members. This, however, has been one of the functions of
the NCS. It always makes sure that it promotes the
professional interest of the profession, and also protects its
members’ interest.
6. To advise governments and members and other competent
authorities: The NCS also undertakes advisory services. The
NCS will have to advise its professional members, the
government, other competent authorities within its
jurisdiction of power, as well as, the general public. The
NCS’s advice must relate to computing. Therefore, the
Society advice is always on the local and international policy
matters, which have to do with computing, and information,
as well as, system technology industry. This was why Eru
(2020b)quoted the Chairman, NCS Benue State Chapter as
advising the Benue State government, saying; “For
sustenance of the project, you need to ensure that everyone

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 working with you on the BenGIS project and other IT
projects in your ministry is licensed”
7. To build global affiliation to corporate with professional
organizations: Building global affiliation is another area of
function. The purpose of building this affiliation is to
cooperate with other professional bodies with similar
professions across the globe. The NCS also receives and
renders services, and as well, reciprocate these services,
provided these services are beneficial to it and are being
consistent with the aims of the NCS.
8. To position itself to represent members of the Society: NCs
is meant to serve as representative of its members. In most
cases, however, the NCS positions itself to represent the
members of the public. This is true for the NCS because they
always served as a representative of the members of the
public, while in every negotiation and every consultation
with the federal government of Nigeria or the state
government, even the local government, including their own
agencies on some matters or policies that have to do or that
affect the conduct of computing and the practice of
computing. Other areas that such policies may affect are
information technology and also system profession as well
as, industry.
9. To contribute to the formulation of policies related to
computing: Every policy that relates to computing and
information technology and also relates to system profession,
calls for the NCS to make some inputs. Therefore, the NCS
will make a contribution any time there is a need for policy
formulation relating to computing. The other area of
contributions made by the NCS is that it contributes when
there is a need to develop and assess educational, as well as,
training curricula, provided they relate to the profession of
computing.

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NCS Interest Groups
Interest groups are recognized bodies registered under the NCS to
deliver services on behalf of the Society, following its mandate, as
applied in diverse areas that IT professionals are represented.
According to NCS (2020), the following are the NCS interest
groups:
1. Information Technology Industry Association of Nigeria
2. Internet Service Providers Association of Nigeria
3. The Institute of Software Practitioners of Nigeria
4. Nigeria Women In Information Technology
5. Nigerian Information Technology Professionals in the Civil
Service
6. Information Technology Systems and Security Professionals
7. Academia Information Technology Profession

Information Technology Industry Association of Nigeria

Information Technology Industry Association of Nigeria (ITAN)
is an association of over 350 Information Technology driven
companies in Nigeria. It was founded in 1991 to promote IT
literacy and penetration in Nigeria; and to promote members’
interest in the area of trade, public policy formulation and
negotiations with government on IT policy matters. Our vision is
to engender a new Nigeria powered by Information Technology;
while our mission is to pursue with vigor and accomplish an
Information Society in Nigeria using diverse and cutting-edge
tools and means.
Internet Service Providers Association of Nigeria
The Internet Service Providers Association of Nigeria (ISPAN) is
an independent body and a voluntary association acting in the
interests of Internet service providers in Nigeria and generally
dealing with matters related to the provision of Internet service in
Nigeria. ISPAN’s mission is to provide a non-profit forum in

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which Internet service providers can address issues of common
interest and interface with industry stakeholders so that end-users
receive world-class service and industry participants earn a fair
return on their investments.
The Institute of Software Practitioners of Nigeria
Institute of Software Practitioners Of Nigeria (ISPON) is the apex
body of computer software and related services industry
inNigeriagrowthofthesoftware-
drivenITindustryinNigeria.Although, the ISPON is non-profit
making organization, the organization was established in the year,
1999. ISPON is the industry professional body for indigenous
software developers and practitioners in Nigeria. Established in
1999 with the aim of creating an enabling environment for local
content developers,she has been in the forefront of championing
the advocacy for the application and utilization of locally
developed software in order to boost the country’s economy and
gross domestic product (GDP).The ISPON was formed with a
particular purpose in the hearts of those who founded the
organization. That is why some specific functions were assigned
to the organization.
Membership of the association cuts across different categories
tailored to fit a diverse range of software developers, software
testers and software users.Among the numerous functions of
ISPON are:
(i) Engendering and promoting trade in software in
Nigeria.Benefits of professional associations go both ways,
what members can come together to do for the profession
and what the association can offer to members. What
ISPON offers to its members include but are not limited to:
information (access to cutting edge information on the
local and international software industry),certification
(opportunity for certification to be a preferred vendor or
technology contractor with MDAs or organizations in the
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 private sector), career placement (providing information on
jobs in top information systems companies and corporate
recruiters as well as allow members to post their resumes),
education discounts (information on select programmes
with our partner tertiary institutions and professional
certification bodies), networking (opportunity to deepen
existing business relationships and make new contacts with
others who have common interests and similar business
concerns), speaking/presentation (ISPON members have
opportunity to speak at various ISPON events, and serve
on the board of various government policy bodies).
(ii) ISPON promotes software technology and research.Every
organization that that intends to fly and make headway in
its business and must promote its business, and advertises
its business within the jurisdiction of its influence, and that
is exactly what ISPON stands for.The major aim and object
of the ISPON is to make sure that it works, whichever way
it can to promote technology, and also promotes research.
The research work promoted by the ISPON must have
direct relations to software development, and other aspects
of technology, provided it helps in driving the mandate of
ISPON.
(iii) Promotes and supports Nigeriantrade interest and
exportation. ISPON does this by way of promoting
exportation business in Nigeria; that is, where the Nigerian
made products are being exported to other countries of the
world.In this case, we are talking about the promotion of
exportation of software products that are made in Nigeria
and other services to the international markets.
(iv) Collaborates with relevant agencies and NGOs.The ISPON
is involved in the process of making sure that it sought for
supports and collaboration from renowned agencies such as
United Nations (UN) and other related agencies. This is for
the purpose of attracting software researchin software and
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 for the purpose of bringing in some level of developmental
projects into the country.
(v) Encourages educators in developing innovative techniques
in training programmes. It is the primary function of the
ISPON to encourageeducators in the area of developing
innovative techniques in education and training
programmes.This actually ties to another major aim of the
ISPON, which of course, is for the purpose of ensuring
that, the Nigerian software, including technology education
allows students in this area to acquire quality training, such
that will help them or make them compete favourably, with
equal footing at a world class level.
Nigeria Women In Information Technology
Nigerian Women In Information Technology (NiWIIT) is a
special interest group of the Nigeria Computer Society
(NCS).NiWIIT is positioned to be a premier organisation known
to successfully cultivate mutually beneficial networks between
industry, academic and government with a focus on women
working in the information technology across the nation, Nigeria.
NiWIIT is evolutionary, visionary and acknowledged as an
industry peak body that delivers a high standard of value to all its
members.
Nigerian Information Technology Professionals in the Civil
Service
Nigerian Information Technology Professionals in the Civil
Service (NITPCS)is an NCS interest group that promotes
professionalism, provides conducive environment for continuous
career development and progression, as well asprotection of
member’s interest and condition of their practice. Its mission isto
enable the government to drive the IT, components of IT polices
and professionalize “IT” practice in Nigerian civil/public service.

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Information Technology Systems and Security Professionals
Information Technology Systems and Security Professionals
(ITSSP)is an interest group of the NCS that works as an advocacy
group on information security. By focusing on security awareness,
company education and training, crime and faults tracking,
structure development, capacity building, collaboration and
affiliation, man power compliance and enforcement.
Academia Information Technology Profession
Academician in Information Technology Profession (AITP) is a
coordinating group for all those who are involve in teaching and
research in the field of Information Technology (IT) working in
tertiary intuitions within and outside Nigeria who are ready to
associate with the group.AITP is an association of academia with
the common goal of fostering research and development in
addition to promoting interest of members. It is an interest group
of the NCS. The National Executive of NCS approved the
creation of the interest group on June 3, 2015.
Nigeria Internet Group
The Nigeria Internet Group (NIG) was established in the year
1995 with the sole aim of promoting online transactions; that is,
the Internet in Nigeria. The NIG is as a non-governmental
organization (NGO), and as such, it is non-profit organization.The
mandate of the NIGwas to promote internet in Nigeria.To achieve
this mandate, the NIG has to engage itself in numerous activities,
and some of these activities were the policy advocacy, and
awareness creation, including education awareness creation.The
NIG carried out its activities through seminars and conferences
and exhibitions, other ways of carrying out its education programs
include, workshops as well as publication of newsletters.

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Functions of the Nigeria Internet Group
Based on then above mandate, the Nigeria Internet Group (NIG)is
saddled with numerous responsibilities as highlighted thus:
1. The NIG carries out education awareness programmes about
internet in Nigeria.
2. The NIG contributes to government’s policies related to
internet. Some of the government policies and legislation
that NIG has made contributions to include; the NITDA Act,
the EFCC amended Act, the Cyber-security bill, and the
National policy on Telecom, as well as, the Telecom Acts.
3. Promotion of Internet as a tool for development: The NIG is
also saddled with the responsibility of promoting Internet as
a medium for development. The NIG has reasoned that,
Internet could serves as a tool for development, and such
development include, personal development and national
development. Hence, it is poised to promote Internet in the
country, given the import of Internet or information and
communication technology to individual or a nation
development. The truth however, remained that, for any
nation to advance in this technology era, Internet or ICT
must be embraced by such nation and its citizenry.
4. Makes provision or all Nigerians to access internet. Internet
has remained a veritable tool for development in every
country of the world, and so, for Nigerian citizens to
embrace such tool for their personal development and the
development of Nigeria. It becomes incumbent on the part of
the NIG to promote and as well, make provision for every
Nigerian citizen to access Internet and understand the
working of the ICT to the development of the Nigerian state.
5. Sensitization of government about the numerous potentials
of internet to development. It has been one of the functions
of the NIG to ensure that the government of the Federal

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 Republic of Nigeria is well sensitized about those potentials
Internet can offer for the development of Nigeria.
6. Promotes and champions the development of local internet
content and the promotion of same in the country. The NIG
achieved this objective by adopting services, such as,
Internet services. The services include; e-Entertainment, and
e-Government and e-Commerce, e-Health, and e-Learning
among others.
7. Promotes formulation of appropriate legislation and policies
for the growth of internet in Nigeria. It has been the function
of the NIG to ensure that, formulation of appropriate policies
are promoted, and that include appropriate legislation too for
the purpose of developing internet in the country. The NIG’s
aim behind this function is to help drive the growth of
Internet in Nigeria.
8. Creates and adopts appropriate standards and enforces
compliance. Besides the NIG’s function of promoting the
creation and adoption of best standards in the operation of
Internet in the country, it is its duty to ensure that, these set
out standards are adhered to; in other words, it is the
responsibility of the NIG to enforce compliance to these set
out standards.
Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct
Every profession has ethical codes of practice, which herein is
referred to as code of ethics and professionalconduct.Eru (2020a)
quotedDr. Simon Yange to have said that the only way to
eliminate quackery in the IT Profession was to adhere strictly to
the code of ethics and practice of the profession.
The scope of the term “computer ethics” varies considerably. It
can include such social andpolitical issues as the impact of
computers on employment, the environmental impact
ofcomputers, whether or not to sell computers to totalitarian
governments, use of computersby the military, and the
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consequences of the technological and thus economic
divisionsbetween developed countries and poor countries. It can
include personal dilemmas aboutwhat to post on the Internet and
what to download.
In a presentationon “Ethics andcode of conduct for IT
professionals”, Dr. Onyeukwu Charles Chijiokecharged members
of the profession to uphold the ethical behaviors as published by
both the NCS and theCPN.Dr. Chijiokefurther stressed the
importanceof work ethics in any given profession;
saidorganizations can only excel when thegiven ethical principles
regulating theconduct of members are adhered (Eru, 2020a).
The Computer Professionals (Registration Council of Nigeria)
sets and enforces the standards of competences, conduct and
ethical practice for the Information Technology Profession in the
Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Council so established by
Decree 1993, promulgated as Decree No. 49 on June 10, 1993,
promulgated and circulated the code of ethics and professional
conduct.
Furtherance to the above, CPN (n.d.) stated that,the impact of the
use of computational machinery and techniques related thereto on
the public, employees and clients, and the professionals in the use
of such machinery themselves is well known and need no further
expatiation.It is such that there are now expectations, and
justifiably so, of standards of competence and conduct from the
Profession as exist in the older professions of law, medicine,
architecture and pharmacy. This is exemplified by this except
from the address of the Honorable Minister of Science and
Technology at the 7th Annual General Meeting of persons, who
have been registered to practice the Profession in the country, by
the Computer Professionals (Registration Council of Nigeria),
held on September 27, 2001.
“…knowing how to drive a car is not enough for one to
call himself a driver. In order not to constitute a risk to
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 himself, as well as other road users, a driver should be
appropriately licensed before he could be allowed to
drive.”
The message here is clear, that it should be ensured that those
who intend to live by the use of computational machinery and
techniques related thereto meet some set standards of
competence and conduct.
The Computer Professionals (Registration Council of
Nigeria) as well as members of the Profession recognize this
as well as the effect it could have on the advancement of the
knowledge of Computer Science and the use of
computationalmachinery and techniques related thereto. This
is why they have adopted a two pronged approach, usual in a
situation of this nature; set standards of technical capability
(knowledge and skills) which members much satisfy, and
prescribe standards of conduct to which members must
conform or be held accountable for any lapse.
The Computer Professionals (Registration Council of
Nigeria) in the course of its duty as contained in the Decree
establishing it, Computer Professionals (Registration Council
of Nigeria) Decree 1993 section 2 (1) (a), has set standards of
competence that must be met by members, reviewing these
from time to time as circumstances permit. This takes care of
the first aspect of the approach. As to the second, the
members of the Profession, like their counterparts in other
professions, have formulated rules to define the behaviour
expected of each and every member in everyday professional
life. These they have put together as a Code of Ethics and
Professional Conduct, and adopted at the 7th Annual General
Meeting of members, held on September 27, 2001.
The Code of Ethics and Professional conduct is a product of
hard work, consultation, and reference to works and similar
codes from several bodies, local and international, relating to
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the computing and other professions. These include the
following:
1. British Computer Society Code of Conduct;
2. British Computer Society Code of Practice;
3. Association of Computer Machinery Code of Ethics and
Professional Conduct;
4. Association of Information Technology Professional
Code of Ethics of Engineers (USA);
5. National Society of Professional Engineers Code of
Ethics of Engineers (USA);
6. Institute of Electric and Electronic Engineers Code of
Ethics of Engineers;
7. Australian Computer Society Code of Ethics;
8. Computer Association Of Nigeria (COAN), now Nigeria
Computer Society (NCS) Code of Ethics, Conduct and
Practice for Computer Professional (Draft);
9. Proposed International Federation of Information
Processing International Code of Ethics;
10. Harmonization of Professional Standards;
(http://www.ifip.or.at/minutes/C99/C99_harmonization.
htm);
11. Code of Conduct for the Nigeria Institute of Architects;
12. The Art of Computer Programming I: Fundamental
Algorithms; D. Knuth.
It therefore deserves recognition not only on its own merit but
also on the basis of the fact that it is now, by its endorsement by
the Council, the Code of Conduct that every member of the
Profession is under obligation to observe.
As provided in the Decree, the Code of Ethics and Professional
Conduct is enforceable in that continued membership of the
Profession depends on strict adherence to it, and not being a
member of the Profession implies forbiddance from practicing the
Profession in the country.
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The Code of Ethics of Computing Profession
The Profession that uses computerized machinery and other
techniques related thereto is a learned one, of which members are
expected to exhibit the highest standards of competence, honesty
and integrity. The tremendous impact of the use of computational
machinery and techniques related thereto on the quality of life is
now common knowledge, to the extent that it has become difficult
to imagine a contemporary would without these means. It is
imperative, therefore, that services provided by members of the
Profession be carried out under a criterion of excellence in
professional behaviour requiring the adherence to the highest
standards of ethical conduct, and that they be dedicated to the
safety, health and well-being of the public.
Every IT professional is expected to recite this; In recognition of
this state of affairs, and having being registered and licenced to
practice the Profession, in the country, I acknowledged that I have
an obligation to:
1. The public, therefore I shall have utmost regard for its safety,
health, and well-being.
2. My employer or client whose trust I hold, therefore, I shall
serve him faithfully and loyally, endeavouring to discharge
this obligation to the best of my ability, guarding his interest
and advising him wisely and honestly.
3. Fellow members of the Profession, therefore I shall uphold the
ideals of the Profession cooperating with fellow members and
treating them with honesty and respect at all times.
4. The Profession, therefore I shall acquire, maintain and
improve professional competence, promote the advancement
of Computer Science as well as the understanding, effective
and efficacious deployment of computational machinery,
computerized machinery and techniques related thereto, and
enhance the prestige of the Profession.
5. My country, therefore, in my personal, business and social
contacts, I shall at all times uphold my nation, respect and
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 honour the chosen way of life of fellow citizens, be law
abiding, transparently honest, of unquestionable integrity, and
utmost responsibility and reliability.
CPN Code of Professional Conduct
Following the code of ethics as highlighted,an IT professional is
obligated to the public, the employer, fellow members, the
Profession, and the country.
Obligation tothe public: In recognition of his obligation to the
public, theprofessional shall:
(i) To the best of his ability ensure that the products of his
efforts will be used in socially responsible ways, will meet
social needs and will avoid harmful effect on life and
property;
(ii) Be alert to and make others aware of any potential damage
to the local or global environment by developments in his
area of expertise;
(iii) Ensure that within his area of expertise he has knowledge
and understanding and conform to, relevant standards and
recognized good practice, and encourage his subordinates
to do likewise. He shall approve only those professional
documents that are in conformity with applicable standards
and shall not complete forms, sign or seal plans, designs or
specifications that do not conform. Should his employer or
client insist on such unprofessional conduct, he shall notify
the proper authorities and withdraw from further
participation in the endeavour;
(iv) Give comprehensive and thorough professional
evaluations, stating where relevant impacts of related
endeavour, products, systems or services including analysis
of possible risks. He shall strive to be perceptive, thorough,
and objective when evaluating recommending and
presenting product descriptions and alternatives, and hence
provide objective, credible evaluations to employers,
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 clients, users, and the public and not take advantage of the
lack of knowledge and experience of others;
(v) If his judgement, after thorough assessment of the issue
under consideration including seeking second opinion
where necessary, is overruled under circumstances that the
alternative course of actionendangers life or property, he
shall notify his employer or client. Should such employer
or client not act to mitigate the danger,he shall notify such
other authority as may be appropriate, to help correct the
problem and eliminate or at worst reduce the risk;
(vi) Not reveal data or information entrusted to him without the
prior consent of the client or employer except as authorized
or require by law or this Code;
(vii) Not permit the use of his name or associate in business
ventures with any person or firm that he believes is
engaged in fraudulent or dishonest enterprise;
(viii) Be objective and truthful in professional reports,
statements, or testimony and shall include all relevant and
pertinent information in such reports statements or
testimony which should bear the date indicating when it
was current;
(ix) Subject to (4) (ii) of CPN (n.d.), issue public statements
only in an objective and truthful manner, and express
publicly only technical opinions that are founded upon
knowledge of the facts and competence in the subject
matter, and where appropriate after being duly authorized
to do so, and shall have due regard to the likely
consequences of any such statements on others;
(x) Issues to statements, criticism or arguments on technical
matters that are inspired or paid for by interested parties,
unless he has prefaced such statements, criticisms, or
arguments by explicitly identifying the interest parties on
whose behalf heis speaking, and by revealing the existence
of any interest he may have in the matters;
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 (xi) At all times strive to serve the public interest seek
opportunities to participate in civic affairs and career
guidance for youths, work for the advancement of safety,
health and well-being of my community;
(xii) Avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public. He
shall not misrepresent or withhold information that is
germane to a problem, an issue or a situation of public
concern nor will he allow any such known information to
remain unchallenged. He shall ensure that should he
prepares articles for the lay or technical press, such articles
shall not imply credit to him for work performed by others;
(xiii) Articulate and support policies that protect the dignity of
users and others affected by computational or
computerized machinery.
Obligation to employer or client
In recognition of the professional’sobligation to the employer or
client; he shall act for each employer or client as faithful agent or
trustee. Therefore, he shall:
(i) Carry out work with due care and diligence in accordance
with the requirements of the employer or client, endeavour
to complete work on time and to budget and advice his
employer or client as soon as practicable of any overrun
foreseen;
(ii) Seek to avoid being out in a position where he may become
privy to or party to activities or information concerning
activities which would conflict with his responsibilities,
and to not be influenced in the course of his professional
duties by conflicting interests; disclose all known or
potential conflicts of interest that could influence or appear
to influence my judgement or the quality of his service;
(iii) Not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from
more than one party for services on the same project or
endeavour, or for services pertaining to the same project or

286
 endeavour, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed and
agreed to by all interest parties;
(iv) Not offer or provide, or receive in return, any inducement
for the introduction of business from a client unless there is
full prior disclosure of the facts to that client, and not
solicit or accept financial or other valuable consideration,
directly or indirectly, from outside agents in connections
with the work for which they are responsible;
(v) Not accept financial or other consideration, including free
professional designs from materials or equipment suppliers
for specifying their product;
(vi) Not accept commissions or allowances, directly or
indirectly, from contractors or other parties dealing with
his clients or employers in connections with work for
which he is responsible;
(vii) Not, if heis in public service as member, advisor or
employers of a government or quasi-governmental body or
department, participate in decisions with respect to services
solicited or provided by him or any organization in private
or public professional practice in which he has interest;
(viii) Not, except where specifically so instructed, handle client’s
monies or place contracts or orders in connection with
work on which he is engaged when acting as an
independent consultant and shall not purport to exercise
independent judgement on behalf of a client on any product
or service in which he knowingly has any interest, financial
or otherwise;
(ix) Not solicit or accept a contract from a governmental body
on which a principal or officer of my organization serves as
a member;
(x) Not accept outside employment to the detriment of his
regular work or interest. Before accepting any outside
employment, he will notify his employers and obtain their
consent;
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(xi) Not attempt to attract a fellow member of the Profession
from another employer by false or misleading pretenses;
(xii) Not actively participate in strikes, picket lines or other
collective coercive action;
(xiii) Not disclose, authorize to be disclosed, use of personal
gain, or benefit to a third party, confidential information
acquired during the course of professional practice,
including those concerning the business affairs or technical
processes of any present or former client or employers or
public body on which he serves, unless with the consent of
the employer or client or at the directive of a court of law;
(xiv) Not, without the consent of all interested parties, promote,
or arrange for new employment or practice in connection
with a specific project or endeavour for which hehas
gained particular and specialized knowledge;
(xv) Not, without the consent of interested parties, participate in
or represent an adversary interest in connection with a
specified project or proceeding in which he has gained
particular specialized knowledge on behalf of a former
client or employer;
(xvi) Not, without consent of his employer or client, use
equipment supplies laboratory, or office facilities or his
employer or client to carry out outside private practice;
(xvii) If in a salaried position, accept part-time professional work
only to the extent consistent with policies of my employer
and in accordance with ethical consideration;
(xviii) If using designs supplied by a client, recognize that the
designs remain the property of the client and may not
duplicate them for others without express permission of the
client;
(xix) Treat designs, data, records, and notes referring exclusively
to work of an employer as the property of the employer and
shall obtain an indemnity of the employer for use of the

288
 information for any purpose other than the original
purpose;
(xx) Articulate social responsibility of members of an
organizational unit and encourage full acceptance of those
responsibility;
(xxi) Create opportunities for members of his organization to
learn the principle and limitations of the use of
computational or computerized machinery and techniques
related thereto.
Obligation to fellow members or professionals
In recognition of his obligation to fellow members of the
Profession, the professional shall:
(i) Not injure or attempt to injure maliciously or falsely,
directly or indirectly, the professional reputation,
prospects, practice, or employment of other members of the
Profession.Ifhe believes others are guilty of unethical or
illegal practice,he shall present such information to the
proper authority for action. In particular if he knows of any
allege violation of this Code, he shall report thereon to
appropriate professional bodies and, when relevant, also to
public authorities and cooperate with the proper authorities
in furnishing such, information or assistance as may be
required;
(ii) If in private practice, not review the work of another
member of the Profession for the same client, except with
the knowledge of such member of the Profession, or unless
the connection of such member of the Profession with the
work has been terminated;
(iii) If in governmental, industrial or educational employ,
review and evaluate the work of other members of the
Profession when so required by his employment duties, and
if in sales or industrial employ, make professional or
technical comparisons of represented product with products
of other suppliers;
289
 (iv) Accept personal responsibility of his professional
activities, provided, however that he may seek
indemnification for services arising out of his practice for
other than gross negligence, where his interests cannot
otherwise be protected;
(v) Give proper credit for intellectual property, protect the
integrity of intellectual property; that is, give credit for
professional work to those to whom credit is due, and
recognize the propriety interest of others. Specifically, he
shall not take credit for other’s idea or work, even in cases
where the work has not been explicitly protected, for
example by copyright or patent;
(vi) Whenever possible, name the person or persons who may
be individually responsible for designs, inventions,
writings or other accomplishment;
(vii) Before undertaking work for others in connection with
which he may make improvements, plans, designs,
inventions or others records that may justify copyrights or
patents, enter into a positive agreement regarding
ownership;
(viii) Not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or
professional engagements by untruthful criticizing other
members of the Profession, or by other improper or
questionable methods;
(ix) Encourage and support fellow members in their
professional development and, where possible, provide
opportunities for the professional development of new
entrants to the Profession.
Obligation to the Profession
In recognition of his obligation to the Profession,the professional
shall:
(i) Uphold the reputation of the Profession and not promote
his own interest at the expense of the dignity and integrity

290
 of the Profession or do anything that will adversely affect
the good standing of the Profession.
(ii) Exercise care to not misrepresent the Profession or the
Council, or positions and policies of the Profession or the
Council or any of its units;
(iii) Strive for excellence, to achieve the highest quality,
effectiveness and dignity in both the process and products
of his professional work, at all times be cognizant of the
serious negative consequences that may result from poor
quality work;
(iv) Acquire and maintain professional competence, seek to
improve professional standards through participation in
their development, use and enforcement, he shall maintain
awareness of technological developments, procedures and
standards relevant to his field and encourage subordinates
to do likewise;
(v) Advance public knowledge and understanding of the use of
computational machinery and techniques related thereto
and their achievement and counter false or misleading
statements thereon that are detrimental to the Profession;
(vi) Subject to (3) (ii) of CPN (n.d.), accept and provide
appropriate professional or critique of the work of others;
and whenever appropriate, seek and utilize peer review or
critique of his work as well;
(vii) Uphold and promote the principles of this Code of Ethnic
and Professional Conduct and treat violations thereof, as
inconsistent with membership of the Profession;
(viii) Act with integrity towards fellow members and to members
of other professions with whom he is concerned in a
professional capacity and shall avoid engaging in any
activity, which is incompatible with professional status.

291
Obligation to the country
In recognition of the obligation to the country, he shall:
(i) Be guided in all my relations by the highest standards of
honesty and integrity.
(ii) Ensure that he has knowledge and understanding of
existing local, state, national and international laws and
regulations relating to the practice of the Profession, and
that he obeys, unless there is a compelling ethical basis not
to do so if he decides to violate law or rule because he
views it as unethical, of for any other reasons, he shall fully
accept responsibility for his actions and for the
consequences;
(iii) Acknowledged his errors, not distort or alter the facts, and
not make deliberately false or deceptive claims about a
product or service but shall instead provide full disclosure
of all pertinent product or service limitations and problems;
(iv) Not use association with a non-member of the Profession, a
corporation, or partnership as a “cloak” for unethical acts;
(v) Notify the appropriate organ of Government through
appropriate channels when in his judgement a policy,
project or an endeavour especially in his area of expertise
may be detrimental to the country, harmful to the citizenry
– individual or corporate – or lead to personal or social
damage. Should the organ of government not act to curtail
or mitigate the danger, he shall notify the supervisory
authority to the organ of Government or any other
appropriate authority to help correct the problem or at
worst reduce the risk;
(vi) Perform services only in the areas of his competence,
undertaking assignments only when qualified by education
or experience in the specific technical fields involved;
(vii) Not affix his signature to any plans, designs, specification
or documents dealing with subject matter in which he

292
 lackscompetence, nor to any play, design, specification or
document not prepared under my direction and control;
(viii) If he accepts assignments and assumes responsibility for
coordination of an entire project, signs and seals the
professional or technical documents for the entire project,
provided that each technical segment is signed and sealed
only by the qualified professional who prepared the
segments;
(ix) Avoid deceptive acts and shall not falsely or misrepresent
his qualification or permit misrepresentations of his
qualifications or those of his associates. He shall not
misrepresent or exaggerate his responsibility in or for the
subject matter of prior assignment. He shall ensure that
brochures or other presentations incident to the solicitation
or employments shall not misrepresent pertinent facts
concerning present or previous employers, employees,
associates joint ventures, or past accomplishments;
(x) Not offer, give, solicit or receive, either directly or
indirectly, contribution to influence the award of a contract
by public authority, or which may be reasonably construed
by the public as having the effect of intent to influence the
awarding of a contract; he shall not offer any gift or other
valuable consideration in order to secure work, and shall
not pay a commission, percentage or brokerage fee in order
to secure work, except to a bona fide employee of bona
fide established commercial or marketing agencies retained
by him;
(xi) Not request, propose or accept a commission on a
contingent basis under circumstances in which his
judgement may be compromised;
(xii) Strive to maintain the values of equality, tolerance, respect
for others, and the principles of equal justice. He shall have
regard to legitimate rights of third parties and to human
rights, and shall avoid any actions that adversely affect
293
 such rights. He shall not practice the professionally
intolerance act of discrimination on the basis of race, sex,
religion, age, disability, national origin, or other such
factors;
(xiii) Honour property rights including copyrights and patents,
and not violate copyrights patents, trade secrets and the
terms of license agreements;
(xiv) Respect the privacy of others and maintain the integrity
and privacy of data describing individuals, treating such
data of which he happens to have knowledge with strictest
confidentially, except in cases where it is evidence for the
violation of law organizational regulations, or this code, in
which cases, he shall disclose the nature or contents of that
information only to proper authorities;
(xv) Honour contracts, agreements and assigned responsibility.

Every IT professional is expected to declare this; “I commit

myself to these aforementioned obligations, in fulfillment of my
professional duties, as a personal responsibility and as a member
of the Profession. I shall actively discharge these obligations, and
I dedicate myself to that end.”
Information and Communications Technology Department
The Information and Communications Technology Department
(ICT) Department provides a cross-cutting functions that address
the optimal connectivity and operations of Computers, harness the
emerging technology to enhance training, research and
information dissemination capability of an Institute through,
backup upgrade, disaster recovery, troubleshooting, maintenance
and repairs of system with the provision of technical support, and
also to conduct series of Computer and ICT-related training for
education planners and managers for effective service delivery.
According to NIEPA (2019), the Department has four Units, as
follows:

294
1. Technology in Education;
2. Application Support;
3. Systems Support; and
4. Information Dissemination.
Fig.11.1 shows the hierarchical arrangement of the Department as
indicated in the organogram.

Fig. 11.1:Organogram of the ICT Department

Functions of Head of ICT Department

The Head of Department of ICT performs the following functions:
1. Advices the DG/CE and Management on ICT-related
matters.
2. Overseas the overall operations of the department.
3. Implements approved organizational programmes.
4. Manages the human resources of the Unit in accordance with
the approved personnel policies and procedures.
5. Manages effectively the financial and physical resources of
the department.
6. Formulates policies and plans, and makes recommendations
to the Management.
7. Decides/guides courses of action in department’s operation
by staff.
8. Interfaces between Management and ICT Team Members.
9. Interfaces between the Organization and its public,
stakeholders and community.
10. Motivates staff of the department.

295
11. Looks into the future for change opportunities related to the
Organization’s mission.
12. Implements the strategic goals and objectives of the
department.
13. Gives direction and leadership towards the achievements of
the Organization’s philosophy, mission and goals.
14. Makes recommendations to Management on critical matters.
15. Oversees the design, marketing, promotion and delivery of
quality programmes and services.
16. Recommends yearly departmental budget for Management’s
approval and prudently manages the department’s resources
within the approved budget guidelines.
17. Ensures that the Institute, its mission, programmes and
services are consistently presented in strong and positive
image to relevant stakeholders.
18. Assists the DG/CE and Management to fulfill its governance
function.

296
 EXERCISE XI

1. Explain the term, profession.

2. Assuming you have been employed to work as a Software
Engineer in a College, highlight thequalities you are
expected to possess.
3. Compare and contrast the duties of a Database
Administrator with a Database Designer.
4. The Computer Systems Analyst could be referred to as
the Systems Project Manager; debunk.
5. What are the core duties of CPN as a body?
6. As a member of the NCS, highlight your responsibilities to
your employer.
7. Briefly discuss your responsibilities to your country, as an
IT professional.

297
 CHAPTER TWELVE

SHORTCUTS ON THE COMPUTER KEYBOARD

Some computer users are usually confused with the use of

shortcuts on Computer, basically due to lack of adequate
knowledge and understanding of how the keys are combined to
execute tasks in different applications, hence, this chapter. It
serves as a quick reference guide for computer users on basic
shortcuts.

Fig.12.1: The QWERTY computer keyboard

The Computer Keyboard is one of the input devices (a hardware
component) of the Computer that has keys (otherwise referred to
as buttons). The keyboards are of different types; however, the
standard (and most commonly used) is called The US Standard
Keyboard with 104 keys. According to InComputerSolutions
(2020)however,there are three different types of PC keyboards:
the original PC keyboard and the AT keyboard each with 84 keys,
and the enhanced keyboard with 101 key.These keys are for
specific purposes.However, a combination of some (two or three)
keys could adequately execute another task, though, depending on
the application/package in use. This implies that, a combination of
certain keys used in one application could perform different
function in another application, although, there are basic
combination of keys that performs or executes the same task
across many applications.
298
Types of keyboard
1. Multimedia Keyboard.
2. Mechanical keyboard.
3. Wireless Keyboard.
4. Virtual Keyboard.
5. USB Keyboard.
6. Ergonomic Keyboard.
7. QWERTY Keyboard.
Functions of computer keyboard
A keyboard is an input device used to input functions and
characters into the computer by pressing on switches, keys or
buttons. It is the principal device used to input text into the
computer system. A computer keyboard generally contains keys
for individual letters, numbers and special characters, in addition
to keys for particular functions.
Most interactions with a computer involve using a keyboard and a
mouse. The keyboard allows the user to type letters and numbers
and the mouse allows the user to position the cursor, draw and
execute program functions by clicking mouse buttons.
Components of the computer keyboard
The computer keyboard keys are categorized into:
1. Function keys– Range from F1 to F12 respectively). The
Escape key (Esc) allows the user to stop a function or action.
2. Numeric keypad/Numberkeys –Contains numbers, 0 – 9,
special symbols like asterisk (*), hash (#), at (@), percentage
(%), etc. These are usually on the second row of the
keyboard after function keys.However, on a standard PC
keyboard, there is usually another numeric keypad to the
right-hand side of the keyboard containingthe number keys,
directional keys, etc.
3. Navigation keys –Contains directional keys, Page
Up/Down, Home, End,Print Screen, Scroll Lock,
Pause/Break and Delete keys.
299
4. Special-purpose keys – Comprises of keys usually used in
combination with other keys for specific purposes (e.g., Ctrl,
Shift, Alt, Caps, Enter, etc).
5. Typing keys – Comprises ofnumeric keys, alphabetic keys,
some special keys, etc. (usually central on the keyboard).

Fig.12.2:Components ofcomputer keyboard

The shortcuts on the Computer keyboardhave been summarized in
Table 12.1 showing thecomputer shortcuts, indicating the
command name, its identifier and the key(s) responsible for
carrying out the action.

300
Table 12.1:Computer keyboard shortcuts

Command Name Modifiers Key

All Caps Ctrl+Shift+ A

Annotation Alt+Ctrl+ M

App Maximize Alt+ F10

App Restore Alt+ F5

Apply Heading1 Alt+Ctrl+ 1

Apply Heading2 Alt+Ctrl+ 2

Apply Heading3 Alt+Ctrl+ 3

Apply List Bullet Ctrl+Shift+ L

Auto Format Alt+Ctrl+ K

Auto Text F3

Auto Text Alt+Ctrl+Shift+ V

Bold Ctrl+ B

Bold Ctrl+Shift+ B

Bookmark Ctrl+Shift+ F5

Browse Next Ctrl+ Page Down

Browse Prev Ctrl+ Page Up

Browse Sel Alt+Ctrl+ Home

301
Command Name Modifiers Key

Cancel Esc

Center Para Ctrl+ E

Change Case Shift+ F3

Char Left Left

Char Left Extend Shift+ Left

Char Right Right

Char Right Extend Shift+ Right

Clear Del

Close or Exit Alt+ F4

Close Pane Alt+Shift+ C

Column Break Ctrl+Shift+ Return

Column Select Ctrl+Shift+ F8

Copy Ctrl+ C

Copy Ctrl+ Insert

Copy Format Ctrl+Shift+ C

Copy Text Shift+ F2

Create Auto Text Alt+ F3

302
Command Name Modifiers Key

Customize Add Menu Alt+Ctrl+ =

Shortcut

Customize Keyboard Alt+Ctrl+ Num +

Shortcut

Customize Remove Menu Alt+Ctrl+ -

Shortcut

Cut Ctrl+ X

Cut Shift+ Del

Date Field Alt+Shift+ D

Delete Back Word Ctrl+ Backspace

Delete Word Ctrl+ Del

Distribute Para Ctrl+Shift+ J

Do Field Click Alt+Shift+ F9

Doc Close Ctrl+ W

Doc Close Ctrl+ F4

Doc Maximize Ctrl+ F10

Doc Move Ctrl+ F7

Doc Restore Ctrl+ F5

Doc Size Ctrl+ F8

303
Command Name Modifiers Key

Doc Split Alt+Ctrl+ S

Double Underline Ctrl+Shift+ D

End of Column Alt+ Page Down

End of Column Alt+Shift+ Page Down

End of Doc Extend Ctrl+Shift+ End

End of Document Ctrl+ End

End of Line End

End of Line Extend Shift+ End

End of Row Alt+ End

End of Row Alt+Shift+ End

End of Window Alt+Ctrl+ Page Down

End of Window Extend Alt+Ctrl+Shift+ Page Down

Endnote Now Alt+Ctrl+ D

Equation Toggle Alt+ =

Extend Selection F8

Field Chars Ctrl+ F9

Field Codes Alt+ F9

304
Command Name Modifiers Key

Find Ctrl+ F

Font Ctrl+ D

Font Ctrl+Shift+ F

Font Size Select Ctrl+Shift+ P

Footnote Now Alt+Ctrl+ F

Formatting Pane Alt+Ctrl+Shift+ S

Formatting Properties Shift+ F1

Go Back Shift+ F5

Go Back Alt+Ctrl+ Z

Go To Ctrl+ G

Go To F5

Grow Font Ctrl+Shift+ .

Grow Font One Point Ctrl+ ]

Hanging Indent Ctrl+ T

Header Footer Link Alt+Shift+ R

Help F1

HHC Alt+Ctrl+ F7

305
Command Name Modifiers Key

Hidden Ctrl+Shift+ H

Highlight Alt+Ctrl+ H

Hyperlink Ctrl+ K

Indent Ctrl+ M

Italic Ctrl+ I

Italic Ctrl+Shift+ I

Justify Para Ctrl+ J

Left Para Ctrl+ L

Line Down Down

Line Down Extend Shift+ Down

Line Up Up

Line Up Extend Shift+ Up

List Num Field Alt+Ctrl+ L

Lock Fields Ctrl+ 3

Lock Fields Ctrl+ F11

Macro Alt+ F8

Mail Merge Check Alt+Shift+ K

306
Command Name Modifiers Key

Mail Merge Edit Data Alt+Shift+ E

Source

Mail Merge to Doc Alt+Shift+ N

Mail Merge to Printer Alt+Shift+ M

Mark Citation Alt+Shift+ I

Mark Index Entry Alt+Shift+ X

Mark Table of Contents Alt+Shift+ O

Entry

Merge Field Alt+Shift+ F

Microsoft System Info Alt+Ctrl+ F1

Move Text F2

New Default Ctrl+ N

Next Field F11

Next Field Alt+ F1

Next Misspelling Alt+ F7

Next Object Alt+ Down

Next Pane F6

Next Window Ctrl+ F6

307
Command Name Modifiers Key

Next Window Alt+ F6

Normal Alt+Ctrl+ N

Normal Style Ctrl+Shift+ N

Normal Style Alt+Shift+ Clear (Num 5)

Open Ctrl+ O

Open Ctrl+ F12

Open Alt+Ctrl+ F2

Open or Close Up Para Ctrl+ 0

Outline Alt+Ctrl+ O

Outline Collapse Alt+Shift+ -

Outline Collapse Alt+Shift+ Num -

Outline Demote Alt+Shift+ Right

Outline Expand Alt+Shift+ =

Outline Expand Alt+Shift+ Num +

Outline Move Down Alt+Shift+ Down

Outline Move Up Alt+Shift+ Up

Outline Promote Alt+Shift+ Left

308
Command Name Modifiers Key

Outline Show First Line Alt+Shift+ L

Page Alt+Ctrl+ P

Page Break Ctrl+ Return

Page Down Page Down

Page Down Extend Shift+ Page Down

Page Field Alt+Shift+ P

Page Up Page Up

Page Up Extend Shift+ Page Up

Para Down Ctrl+ Down

Para Down Extend Ctrl+Shift+ Down

Para Up Ctrl+ Up

Para Up Extend Ctrl+Shift+ Up

Paste Ctrl+ V

Paste Shift+ Insert

Paste Format Ctrl+Shift+ V

Paste Special Alt+Ctrl+ V

Prev Field Shift+ F11

309
Command Name Modifiers Key

Prev Field Alt+Shift+ F1

Prev Object Alt+ Up

Prev Pane Shift+ F6

Prev Window Ctrl+Shift+ F6

Prev Window Alt+Shift+ F6

Print Ctrl+ P

Print Ctrl+Shift+ F12

Print Preview Ctrl+ F2

Print Preview Alt+Ctrl+ I

Proofing F7

Redo Alt+Shift+ Backspace

Redo or Repeat Ctrl+ Y

Redo or Repeat F4

Redo or Repeat Alt+ Return

Repeat Find Shift+ F4

Repeat Find Alt+Ctrl+ Y

Replace Ctrl+ H

310
Command Name Modifiers Key

Research Lookup Ctrl+Shift+ O

Reset Char Ctrl+ Space

Reset Char Ctrl+Shift+ Z

Reset Para Ctrl+ Q

Revision Marks Toggle Ctrl+Shift+ E

Right Para Ctrl+ R

Save Ctrl+ S

Save Shift+ F12

Save Alt+Shift+ F2

Save As F12

Select All Ctrl+ A

Select All Ctrl+ Clear (Num 5)

Select All Ctrl+ Num 5

Select Table Alt+ Clear (Num 5)

Show All Ctrl+Shift+ 8

Show All Headings Alt+Shift+ A

Show All Headings Alt+Shift+ A

311
Command Name Modifiers Key

Show Heading1 Alt+Shift+ 1

Show Heading2 Alt+Shift+ 2

Show Heading3 Alt+Shift+ 3

Show Heading4 Alt+Shift+ 4

Show Heading5 Alt+Shift+ 5

Show Heading6 Alt+Shift+ 6

Show Heading7 Alt+Shift+ 7

Show Heading8 Alt+Shift+ 8

Show Heading9 Alt+Shift+ 9

Shrink Font Ctrl+Shift+ ,

Shrink Font One Point Ctrl+ [

Shrink Selection Shift+ F8

Small Caps Ctrl+Shift+ K

Space Para1 Ctrl+ 1

Space Para15 Ctrl+ 5

Space Para2 Ctrl+ 2

Spike Ctrl+Shift+ F3

312
Command Name Modifiers Key

Spike Ctrl+ F3

Start of Column Alt+ Page Up

Start of Column Alt+Shift+ Page Up

Start of Doc Extend Ctrl+Shift+ Home

Start of Document Ctrl+ Home

Start of Line Home

Start of Line Extend Shift+ Home

Start of Row Alt+ Home

Start of Row Alt+Shift+ Home

Start of Window Alt+Ctrl+ Page Up

Start of Window Extend Alt+Ctrl+Shift+ Page Up

Style Apply Pane Ctrl+Shift+ S

Style Separator Alt+Ctrl+ Return

Subscript Ctrl+ =

Superscript Ctrl+Shift+ =

Symbol Font Ctrl+Shift+ Q

Thesaurus RR Shift+ F7

313
Command Name Modifiers Key

Time Field Alt+Shift+ T

Toggle Character Code Alt+ X

Toggle Field Display Shift+ F9

Toggle Master Subdocs Ctrl+ \

Toggle Ribbon Ctrl+ F1

Toggle XMLTag View Ctrl+Shift+ X

Translate Pane Alt+Shift+ F7

Un Hang Ctrl+Shift+ T

Un Indent Ctrl+Shift+ M

Underline Ctrl+ U

Underline Ctrl+Shift+ U

Undo Ctrl+ Z

Undo Alt+ Backspace

Unlink Fields Ctrl+ 6

Unlink Fields Ctrl+Shift+ F9

Unlock Fields Ctrl+ 4

Unlock Fields Ctrl+Shift+ F11

314
Command Name Modifiers Key

Update Auto Format Alt+Ctrl+ U

Update Fields F9

Update Fields Alt+Shift+ U

Update Source Ctrl+Shift+ F7

VBCode Alt+ F11

Web Go Back Alt+ Left

Web Go Forward Alt+ Right

Word Count List Ctrl+Shift+ G

Word Count Recount Ctrl+Shift+ R

Word Left Ctrl+ Left

Word Left Extend Ctrl+Shift+ Left

Word Right Ctrl+ Right

Word Right Extend Ctrl+Shift+ Right

Word Underline Ctrl+Shift+ W

315
 EXERCISE XII

1. What is a Computer shortcut?

2. Discuss the different sections of the computer keyboard.
3. In tabular arrangement, provide the command, modifier
and relevant key(s) for executing the following shortcuts
in MS Word:
(i) Breaking a page (blank);
(ii) Go to end of entire document;
(iii) Decrease font size of text;
(iv) Superscript of selected text;
(v) Find selected text.
(vi) Save As.
(vii) Redo or Repeat.
(viii) Repeat Find.
(ix) Print Preview.
(x) Bold text.

316
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 APPENDIX

GLOSSARY OF COMMON FILE EXTENSIONS

-A-
ACE – ACE Archiver compression file.
AIF– Audio Interchange File used with SGI and Macintosh
applications.
ANI – Animated cursors used in Microsoft Windows.
API– Application Program Interface.
ARC – Compressed file format from an old program called ARC.
ARJ – Compressed file by the ARJ program from Robert Jung.
ART – Clipart.
ASC– ASCII text file.
ASM – Assembler code.
ASP – Microsoft Active Server Page.
AVI – Audio/Video Interleaved used for Windows based movies.

-B-
BAK – Backup Files.
BAS– BASIC programming language source code.
BAT – MS-DOS batch file.
BFC – Briefcase document used in Windows.

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BIN – Binary File.
BIN – Mac Binary-encoded files.
BMP – Bitmap format.
BUD – Backup Disk for Quicken by Intuit.
BZ2 – Bzip2-compressedfiles.

-C-
C – C source file.
CAB – Microsoft cabinet file compressed for software (OS)
distribution
CAT - Security Catalog file.
CBL –COBOL code.
CBT – Computer Based Training.
CDA – Compact Disc Audio Track.
CDT – CorelDraw Template file.
CFML – Cold Fusion Markup Language.
CGI– Common Gateway Interface. Web-based programs and
scripts.
CHM – Compiled HTML Help files used by Windows.
CLASS – Java script Class file.
CLP – Windows Clipboard file.
CMD – DOS Command File.
CMF – Corel Meta File.
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COM – Command File.
CPL – Control panel item. The settings in Control Panels
represent CPL files in the Windows/System folder.
CPP – C++ programming language source code.
CSS – Cascading Style Sheet. Creates a common style reference
for a set of WebPages.
CSV – Comma Separated Values format.
CTY – City Desk site from Fog Creek Software.
CWK – Claris Works/Apple Works file.
CWS – AppleWorks template file.
CUR – Cursor in Microsoft Windows.

-D-
DAO – Registry Backup file for Windows registry.
DAT – Data file, often viewable in a text editor.
DD – Compressed Archive by Macintosh Disk Doubler.
DEB – Debian packages.
DEV – Device Driver.
DIC – Dictionary file.
DIR – Macromedia Directory file.
DLL – Dynamic Linked Library, Microsoft application file.
DOC – Document format for Word Perfect and Microsoft Word.
DOT – Microsoft Word Template.
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DRV – Device Driver.
DS– TWAIN Data source file.
DUN – Dial-up networking configuration file.
DWG – Autocad drawing.
DXF – Autocad drawing exchange format file.

-E-
EMF – Enhanced Windows Metafile.
EML – Microsoft Outlook e-mail file.
EPS – Encapsulated PostScript supported by most graphics
programs.
EPS2 – Adobe PostScript Level II Encapsulated Postscript.
EVE – TT Maker Event Scheduling File.
EXE – DOS based executable file which is also known as a
program.

-F-
FFL - Microsoft Fast Find file.
FFO - Microsoft Fast Find file.
FLA - Macromedia Flash movie format.
FNT – Font file.
FSH - EA Sports Game Graphic Editor File

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-G-
GIF– Graphics Interchange Format that supports animation. Created
by CompuServe and used primarily for web use.
GID – Windows global index. Contains the index information
used by “Help” in Windows.
GRP – Microsoft Program Manager Group.
GZ – Unix compressed file.

-H-
HEX – Macintosh binary hex (binhex) file.
HLP – Standard helpfile.
HT – Hyper Terminal files.
HQX – Macintosh binary hex (binhex) file.
HTM – Hyper Text Markup. This markup language is used for
web design.
HTML – Hyper Text Markup Language. This markup language is
used for web design.

-I-
ICL– Icon Library File.
ICM – Image Color Matching profile.
ICO – Microsoft icon image.
INF – Information file used in Windows.
INI – Initialization file used in Windows.
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-J-
JAR – Java Archive. A compressed java file format.
JAVA – File containing Java source code.
JPEG – Compression scheme supported by most graphics
programs and used predominantly for web use.
JPG – More common extension for JPEG described above.
JS – JavaScript
File – A text file containing JavaScript programming code.
JSP – An HTML page that contains a link to a Java servlet.

-K-
KBM – Keyboard mapping script for Reflection 4.0
KDC – Kodak Photo-Enhancer image
KIZ – Kodak digital postcard
KQP – Konica camera file

-L-
LAB – Microsoft Excel mailing labels.
LG – OOTP Developments saved games.
LGO – Windows 9x startup logo.
LHZ – Compressed archive by the LHA program from Haruyasu
Yoshizaki.
LIT – eBooks in Microsoft Reader format.
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LNK – Windows 9x shortcut file.
LOG – Application log file.
LSP –Autocad (visual) lisp program.

-M-
MAQ – Microsoft Access Query.
MAR – Microsoft Access Report.
MDB – Microsoft Access DataBase File.
MDL – Rose model file, opens with Visual Modeler or Rational
Rose.
MFM – MF Works map file standard by Keigan Systems.
MHT – Microsoft single file web archive.
MID – MIDI music file.
MOD – Microsoft Windows 9.x kernel module.
MOV – Quick time movie.
MP3 – MPEG Audio Layer 3.
MPEG – Animation file format.
MPP – Microsoft Project File.
MSG – Microsoft Outlook message file.
MSG – Fidonet messages.

-N-
NCF – Netware command File.
329
NDX – Arc View Fonts Index File by ESRI
NFF – Haines Neutral File Format
NFF – World ToolKit Neutral File Format
NITF – National Imagery Transmission Format
NLM – Netware loadable Module.

-O-
O – Object file, used by linkers.
OBD – Microsoft Office Binder file, Ties Office docs together
without having to load separate programs
OCX – ActiveX Control: A component of the Windows
environment.
OFT – Microsoft Outlook template
OGG – OggVorb is digitally encoded music file.
OST – Microsoft Exchange/Outlook offline file.

-P-
PAK – WAD file that contains information about levels, settings,
maps, etc for Quake and Doom.
PCL – Printer Control Language file, PCL is a Page Description
Language developed by HP.
PCT – Macintosh drawing format.

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PDF – Portable Document File by Adobe, Viewable in a web
browser or with Adobe Acrobat.
PDF – Printer Description File; provides printer support for certain
applications.
PDR–Port driver for Windows 95, it is actually a virtual device
driver (vxd).
PHP – Web page that contains a PHP script.
PHTML – Web page that contains a PHP script.
PIF – Program Information File
PIF– Vector graphics GDF file (IBM Mainframe)
PIF – Macintosh Compressed archive
PL – Perl source code file.
PM – Perl Module.
PM3 – PageMaker 3.0 document.
PM4 – PageMaker 4.0 document.
PM5 – PageMaker 5.0 document.
PM6 – PageMaker 6.0 document.
PNG – PortableNetworkGraphicfile.
POL – System Policy file for Windows NT.
POT – Microsoft PowerPoint design template.
PPD – PostScript Printer Description file used in Macintosh and
Windows operating systems to provide printer specific features to
a driver.
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PPK – PuTTY Private Key.
PPS – Microsoft PowerPoint slide show.
PPT – Microsoft PowerPoint presentation (default extension).
PRN – A print file created as the result of "printing to file".
PS – PostScript file.
PSD – Native Adobe Photoshop format.
PSP – Paint Shop Pro-image.
PST – Personal Folder File for Microsoft Outlook.
PUB – Microsoft Publisher document.
PWL – Windows Password list file.

- Q-
QBB – Quick Books backup company file.
QBW – Quick Books working company file.
QIF – Quicken Import file.
QXD – Quark Express file.

- R-
RAM – Real Audio Meta file.
RAR – RAR compressed archive created by Eugene Roshall.
RAW – Raw File Format.
RDO – Raster Document Object. Proprietary file type used on
Xerox Digipath Scan and Make ready workstations.
332
REG – Registry file that contains registry settings.
RM – Real Audio video file.
RPM – Red Hat Package Manager.
RSC – Standard resource file.
RTF – Rich Text Format.

- S-
SCR – Screen Saver file.
SEA – Self-extracting archive for Macintosh Stuffit files.
SGML - Standard Generalized Markup Language.
SH – Unix Shell script.
SHTML – HTML file that supports Server Side Includes (SSI).
SIT – Compressed Macintosh Stuff it files.
SMD – SEGA mega drive ROM file.
SVG – Adobe scalable vector graphics file.
SWF – Shockwave Flash file by Macromedia.
SWP – DOS swap file.
SYS – Windows system file used for hardware configuration or
drivers.

- T-
TAR – Unix Tape Archive.
TCW – TurboCAD Drawing File.
333
TGA – Targa bitmap.
TIFF – Tagged Image File Format; Universal graphics format
supported by most graphics applications.
TMP – Windows temporary file.
TTF – True Type font.
TXT – Text Format.

- U-
UDF – Uniqueness Definition File; Used for Windows unattended
installations.
UUE – UU-encoded file.

- V-
VBS – Microsoft Visual Basic script file.
VBX – Microsoft Visual Basic extension.
VM – Virtual Memory file.
VXD – Windows 9x virtual device driver.

- W-
WAV – Waveform sound file.
WMF – Windows Metafile (graphics format).
WRI – Write Document; this is equivalent to RTF, Rich Text Format
that enables saving text with formatting information.
WSZ – Winamp Skin.

334
- X-
XCF – The GIMP’s native image format.
XIF – Wang imaging file; Wang Image Viewer comes with
Windows 95/2000.
XIF – Xerox Image file (same as TIFF).
XIF – Image file eXtended by Scan Soft is similar to TIFF.
XLS – Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet.
XLT – Microsoft Excel Template.
XML – Extensible markup language.
XSL – XML style sheet.

- Y-
YBK – Microsoft Encarta yearbook file
- Z-
ZIP – Compressed Zip archive.

335