EXP 1

Answers to the Questions:

Conceptual Questions

1. What is the first law of thermodynamics, and how does it relate to the internal
energy of a system?
o The first law of thermodynamics states that the internal energy of a system can
be changed by doing work on the system or by transferring heat to the system.
Mathematically, it is expressed as ΔU=q+w\Delta U = q + wΔU=q+w, where
ΔU\Delta UΔU is the change in internal energy, qqq is the heat added to the
system, and www is the work done on the system.
2. Define enthalpy change and explain how it is related to internal energy and work
done by the system.
o Enthalpy change (ΔH\Delta HΔH) is the heat change at constant pressure. It is
related to internal energy (ΔU\Delta UΔU) and the work done by the system as
ΔH=ΔU+PΔV\Delta H = \Delta U + P\Delta VΔH=ΔU+PΔV, where
PΔVP\Delta VPΔV is the work done by the system during expansion or
contraction.
3. What is heat capacity, and how is it measured in this experiment?
o Heat capacity (CCC) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
a system by 1 K. In this experiment, it is measured by determining the heat
exchange between ice water and the calorimeter contents, using the formula
VwaterCp,water(Tf−Ti)=Cp,calorimeter(Tc−Tf)V_{\text{water}}
C_{p,\text{water}} (T_f - T_i) = C_{p,\text{calorimeter}} (T_c - T_f)Vwater
Cp,water(Tf−Ti)=Cp,calorimeter(Tc−Tf).
4. Explain the significance of carrying out calorimetric measurements under
adiabatic conditions.
o Adiabatic conditions ensure that no heat is exchanged between the calorimeter
and its surroundings, making the measurements of heat changes more accurate
as they solely reflect the heat exchange within the system.
5. What is the heat of neutralization, and how is it typically measured for the
reaction between a strong acid and a strong base?
o The heat of neutralization is the heat change that occurs when one mole of
water is formed from the reaction between an acid and a base. It is typically
measured by mixing known quantities of acid and base in a calorimeter and
recording the temperature change.

Apparatus and Reagents Questions

6. What apparatus is used in this experiment to measure the heat of neutralization?

o The apparatus includes a magnetic stirrer with a magnet, a calorimeter with a
cork stopper, measuring cylinders or volumetric flasks, Pasteur pipettes, a
burette, glass beakers, a finely calibrated thermometer, and a thermos flask.
7. List the reagents and solutions required for this experiment.
o The reagents and solutions include potassium hydrogen phthalate (HK),
phenolphthalein solution, 0.2 mol·dm-3 sodium hydroxide (NaOH), 1.0
mol·dm-3 hydrochloric acid (HCl), 0.5 mol·dm-3 sulphuric acid (H2SO4), 1.0
mol·dm-3 acetic acid (CH3COOH), ice water, and distilled water.
 8. Why is a magnetic stirrer used in this experiment?
o A magnetic stirrer is used to ensure uniform mixing of the solutions in the
calorimeter, which helps in achieving accurate and consistent temperature
measurements.
9. Explain the role of phenolphthalein in the titration process.
o Phenolphthalein is used as an indicator in the titration process. It changes
color at the endpoint of the titration, indicating that the reaction between the
acid and base is complete.
10. Why is it important to use a finely calibrated thermometer in this experiment?
o A finely calibrated thermometer is important to accurately measure small
changes in temperature, which are crucial for precise calculations of the heat
of neutralization.

Procedure Questions

11. Describe the procedure for standardizing the sodium hydroxide solution.
o Weigh between 0.6 and 0.7 g of potassium hydrogen phthalate (HK), dissolve
it in 75 cm³ of water in a 250 cm³ conical flask, and titrate with NaOH using
phenolphthalein as an indicator. Repeat to obtain duplicate values.
12. How is the heat capacity of the calorimeter determined in this experiment?
o Measure 150 cm³ of water in the calorimeter and record its temperature until
constant. Add 25 cm³ of ice water, measure its temperature, and record the
mixed temperatures every 20 seconds until constant. Repeat for duplicate
values.
13. Explain the steps involved in determining the heat of neutralization for the
reaction between NaOH and HCl.
o Measure 125 cm³ of 0.2 mol·dm-3 NaOH in the calorimeter, stir, and record
the temperature until constant. Add 25 cm³ of 1.0 mol·dm-3 HCl at the same
temperature and record the temperature change every 20 seconds until
constant. Repeat for duplicate values.
14. Why is it necessary to measure the temperature of the solutions every 20
seconds?
o Measuring the temperature every 20 seconds ensures accurate tracking of the
temperature change during the reaction, allowing for precise determination of
the maximum temperature reached.
15. How would you repeat the determination of the heat of neutralization for
sulphuric acid and acetic acid?
o Follow the same procedure as for NaOH and HCl: measure and record the
temperature of the NaOH solution, add the respective acid (H2SO4 or
CH3COOH), and record the temperature change every 20 seconds until
constant.
EXP 2

Conceptual Questions

1. Define integral heat of dissolution and differential heat of dissolution. Explain

the difference between them.
o Answer: The integral heat of dissolution is the heat absorbed or released when
one mole of a dissolvable substance is dissolved in a known quantity of
solvent to give a specific concentration. The differential heat of dissolution is
the heat absorbed or released when one mole of a dissolvable substance is
dissolved in an infinite quantity of solvent, so that no significant change
occurs in the concentration. The key difference is the amount of solvent used;
integral heat of dissolution uses a specific, finite amount of solvent, whereas
differential heat of dissolution uses an effectively infinite amount.
2. Why is it important to minimize heat exchange with the surroundings in a
calorimetric experiment?
o Answer: It is important to minimize heat exchange with the surroundings to
ensure that the measured temperature changes are solely due to the dissolution
process within the calorimeter. This allows for accurate determination of the
heat of dissolution.
3. Explain why the heat of dissolution per mole of salt (Q) is calculated using the
equation Q = -qwater/n.
o Answer: This equation is used because the heat energy lost by the water
(qwater) is equal to the heat energy gained by the solution (qsol, NH4NO3).
By dividing this heat energy by the number of moles of salt (n), we obtain the
heat of dissolution per mole of salt.
4. What is the significance of the heat capacity of the calorimeter in this
experiment?
o Answer: The heat capacity of the calorimeter is significant because it allows
for the calculation of the heat absorbed or released by the system during the
dissolution process. It is a necessary parameter for determining the heat of
dissolution accurately.

Apparatus and Reagents Questions

1. List the apparatus used in this experiment and explain the purpose of each item.
o Answer:
▪ Calorimeter: To measure the heat change during the dissolution
process.
▪ Magnetic stirrer: To ensure uniform mixing of the solution.
▪ Stopwatch: To time the intervals between temperature readings.
▪ 100 cm³ measuring cylinder: To measure the volume of water
accurately.
2. What role does the magnetic stirrer play in this experiment?
o Answer: The magnetic stirrer ensures that the salt dissolves uniformly in the
water, providing consistent temperature readings and preventing localized
temperature variations.
3. Why is it necessary to use distilled water in this experiment?
 o Answer: Distilled water is used to avoid any impurities that could interfere
with the dissolution process and affect the accuracy of the temperature
measurements and heat calculations.

Procedure Questions

1. Describe the steps taken to determine the heat of dissolution of NH4NO3.

o Answer:
▪ Place 200 cm³ distilled water in the calorimeter and stir with a
magnetic stirrer.
▪ Measure the temperature every 30 seconds until it remains constant
within 0.5 K for three readings.
▪ Weigh approximately 4.4 g of NH4NO3 precisely and add it to the
water.
▪ Stir the mixture and record the temperature every 20 seconds until a
constant value is obtained for three readings.
▪ Repeat the steps to obtain duplicate values.
2. Why is it necessary to record the temperature every 20 seconds after adding the
salt?
o Answer: Recording the temperature every 20 seconds allows for precise
tracking of the temperature change over time, ensuring accurate determination
of the final temperature and the heat of dissolution.
3. Explain the rationale behind using different amounts of salts (NH4NO3,
CuSO4·5H2O, BaCl2·2H2O) for their respective dissolution experiments.
o Answer: Different amounts of salts are used to achieve specific dilutions
(approximately 200 for NH4NO3 and 400 for CuSO4·5H2O and
BaCl2·2H2O) to ensure that the dissolution process occurs under conditions
that allow for accurate measurement of the heat changes. The chosen dilutions
ensure that the heat of dissolution can be precisely determined for each salt.
4. What is the purpose of obtaining duplicate values in this experiment?
o Answer: Obtaining duplicate values helps to ensure the reliability and
reproducibility of the experimental results. It allows for verification of the
consistency of the data and helps to identify any experimental errors.

EXP 3

Conceptual Questions

1. Define Raoult's Law and explain its relevance in this experiment.

o Answer: Raoult's Law states that the vapor pressure of a solvent is lowered
proportionally when a non-volatile solute is dissolved in it. This principle is
used in the experiment to understand the relationship between the lowering of
the freezing point and the concentration of the solute, which helps in
determining the molar mass of naphthalene.
2. What is the significance of the freezing point depression constant (Kf) in
determining the molar mass of naphthalene?
o Answer: The freezing point depression constant (Kf) is a proportionality
constant that relates the lowering of the freezing point to the molality of the
 solute. It is crucial for calculating the molar mass of naphthalene because it
provides a means to quantify the effect of the solute on the solvent's freezing
point.
3. Why is it important to consider undercooling in the determination of freezing
points?
o Answer: Undercooling can lead to inaccurate determination of the freezing
point because the temperature can drop below the actual freezing point before
solidification begins. Recognizing and correcting for undercooling ensures
accurate measurements of the freezing point.
4. Explain how the Clausius-Clapeyron equation is used in the context of this
experiment.
o Answer: The Clausius-Clapeyron equation relates the change in vapor
pressure with temperature to the heat of melting and the temperature of the
pure solvent. It helps in understanding how the addition of a solute affects the
freezing point of the solvent, which is essential for calculating the molar mass
of the solute.

Apparatus and Reagents Questions

1. List the apparatus used in this experiment and describe the purpose of each
item.
o Answer:
▪ Freezing point apparatus: To measure the temperature changes during
freezing.
▪ Magnetic stirrer: To ensure uniform mixing of the solution.
▪ Thermometer: To accurately measure the temperature.
▪ Stopwatch: To time intervals between temperature readings.
▪ 10 cm³ measuring cylinder: To measure the volume of benzene
accurately.
2. What is the role of the ice water bath and the salt-ice water bath in this
experiment?
o Answer: The ice water bath is used to cool the benzene to approximately 8°C,
preparing it for the freezing point determination. The salt-ice water bath is
used to further cool the benzene and the solution to ensure they freeze,
allowing the freezing points to be measured accurately.
3. Why is benzene used as the solvent in this experiment?
o Answer: Benzene is used as the solvent because it has a well-known freezing
point and freezing point depression constant (Kf), making it suitable for
determining the molar mass of solutes like naphthalene through freezing point
depression.

Procedure Questions

1. Describe the steps taken to determine the freezing point of pure benzene and the
benzene solution.
o Answer:
▪ Place 10 cm³ benzene in tube A, ensuring the thermometer’s point is
covered by the liquid.
▪ Cool the benzene to approximately 8°C using the ice water bath.
 ▪ Transfer tube A to the salt-ice water bath and record the temperature
every 30 seconds while stirring until the temperature remains constant
for over 2 minutes.
▪ Repeat the process after adding 0.1 g naphthalene to the benzene to
determine the freezing point of the solution.
2. Why is it necessary to weigh the naphthalene precisely and transfer it
quantitatively to the benzene?
o Answer: Precise weighing and quantitative transfer of naphthalene are crucial
to ensure the exact concentration of the solute in the solvent. This accuracy is
necessary for reliable calculation of the freezing point depression and,
consequently, the molar mass of naphthalene.
3. Explain why it is necessary to obtain duplicate readings in this experiment.
o Answer: Obtaining duplicate readings helps to verify the consistency and
accuracy of the measurements. It allows for the detection and correction of
any experimental errors, ensuring the reliability of the calculated molar mass
of naphthalene.
4. How is the freezing point lowering determined from the cooling curves?
o Answer: The freezing point lowering is determined by plotting the cooling
curves for both pure benzene and the benzene-naphthalene solution. The
difference in the freezing points observed on these curves represents the
freezing point lowering due to the presence of naphthalene.

EXP 4

Conceptual Questions:

1. What is the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, and how is it used to determine the

enthalpy of vaporization?
o The Clausius-Clapeyron equation relates the vapor pressure of a liquid to its
temperature. It is given by: ln⁡(P)=−ΔHvapR⋅1T+C\ln(P) = -\frac{\Delta
H_{vap}}{R} \cdot \frac{1}{T} + Cln(P)=−RΔHvap⋅T1+C where PPP is the
vapor pressure, ΔHvap\Delta H_{vap}ΔHvap is the enthalpy of vaporization,
RRR is the universal gas constant, TTT is the absolute temperature, and CCC
is a constant. By plotting ln⁡(P)\ln(P)ln(P) versus 1/T1/T1/T, the slope of the
line is −ΔHvap/R-\Delta H_{vap}/R−ΔHvap/R, from which the enthalpy of
vaporization can be determined.
2. Explain the significance of the slope obtained from the plot of ln(P) versus 1/T.
o The slope of the plot of ln⁡(P)\ln(P)ln(P) versus 1/T1/T1/T is equal to
−ΔHvap/R-\Delta H_{vap}/R−ΔHvap/R. This slope allows us to calculate the
enthalpy of vaporization, ΔHvap\Delta H_{vap}ΔHvap, which is the amount
of energy required to convert one mole of liquid into vapor at constant
temperature and pressure.
3. Why is it important to ensure that the system is in equilibrium when measuring
vapor pressure?
o It is important to ensure that the system is in equilibrium to obtain accurate
measurements of the vapor pressure. At equilibrium, the rate of evaporation of
 the liquid equals the rate of condensation of the vapor, providing a stable
vapor pressure that accurately reflects the properties of the liquid at a given
temperature.
4. How do intermolecular forces affect the enthalpy of vaporization of a liquid?
o Intermolecular forces, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions,
and van der Waals forces, affect the enthalpy of vaporization. Stronger
intermolecular forces require more energy to overcome, resulting in a higher
enthalpy of vaporization. Conversely, weaker intermolecular forces result in a
lower enthalpy of vaporization.

Calculation Questions:

5. If the initial volume of the liquid methanol in the flask was 20 cm³ and the final
volume after vaporization was 25 cm³, calculate the number of moles of methanol
vaporized.
o Assuming the vapor behaves ideally, the number of moles nnn can be
calculated using the ideal gas law: n=PVRTn = \frac{PV}{RT}n=RTPV
However, this calculation would typically be done using the actual
experimental vapor pressure and temperature values.

Experimental Procedure Questions:

8. Describe the steps involved in setting up the vapor pressure apparatus for this
experiment.
o Set up the vapor pressure apparatus with a 50 cm³ flask, manometer, vacuum
pump, and thermometer. Ensure the system is sealed well, add the liquid
(methanol or ethyl acetate), and introduce boiling stones. Connect the vacuum
pump and adjust taps to decrease pressure. Check for air leaks by monitoring
mercury levels in the manometer. Heat the liquid, record temperature and
mercury levels, and repeat for different pressures.
9. How do you ensure there are no air leaks in the system before starting the
measurements?
o After pulling a vacuum and closing the necessary taps, observe the mercury
levels in the manometer for 5 minutes. If the levels remain constant, it
indicates that there are no air leaks in the system.
10. Why is it necessary to measure the room temperature and atmospheric pressure
during the experiment?
o Measuring the room temperature and atmospheric pressure is necessary to
account for any external factors that might affect the vapor pressure readings
and to ensure accurate calculations of the vapor pressure of the liquid