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INDEX
UNIT Q.NO TITLE PAGE.NO
1-11 PART-A 1-3
PART-B
1 General Feedback Structure 4-7
2 Current shunt, Voltage series, Current series and 8-15
Voltage shunt
I 2b Nyquist Criterion 16-17
3 Effect of Negative Feedback 18-22
4 Method of identifying the topology 23-26
5,6,7 Solved problems, Block diagram of feedback 26-38
amplifier
PART-C 39-49
1-13 PART-A 50-53
PART-B
1 RC phase shift and Wein bridge oscillator 54-63

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II
2
3
4a
Hartley and Colpitt’s oscillator
Crystal oscillator
Tuned collector and Miller oscillator
64-71
72-75
76-78
4b
5 w.EClapp and Franklin oscillator
Armstrong and Twin-T oscillators
PART-C
79-83
84-87
88-105
1-14
asy
PART-A
PART-B
106-108

1
2 En
Single tuned amplifier
Instability of tuned amplifier and class-c amplifier
109-118
119-125
III 3
4
Stagger tuned amplifier
gin
Effect of caing double tuned and single tuned
126-127
128-129

5
amplifier on bandwidth
Double tuned amplifiers eer 130-136

1-15
PART-C
PART-A
PART-B
i ng.
137-152
153-157

IV
1
2
3
RC high pass circuit
RC low pass circuit
Clippers and Clampers
n158-166
167-172
173-177 e
4 Collector coupled Astable Multivibrator 178-181
5 Schmitt trigger 182-185
PART-C 186-214
1-10 PART-A 215-217
PART-B
1 Monostable blocking oscillator 218-223
2 Astable blocking oscillator 223-226
V
3 UJT saw tooth generator 227-228
4 Current time base generators 229-233
5 Voltage time base generators 234-237
PART-C 238-265
PREVIOUS UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS 266-285

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UNIT –I FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS

PART-A
1. Define feedback and its types
A portion of the output signal is taken from the output of the
amplifier and is combined with the normal input signal. This is known as
feedback.
There are two types
 Positive Feedback

If the feedback signal is in phase with input signal,

then the net effect of the feedback will increase the input
signal given to the amplifier. This type of feedback is said to
be positive or regenerative feedback.
 Negative Feedback

If the feedback signal is out of phase with the input

ww signal then the input voltage applied to the basic amplifier is

decreased and correspondingly the output is decreased. This

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feedback.

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2. What is meant by return ratio and Feedback ratio? [NOV/DEC 2011]
Return ratio (or) Loop gain:
The signal Vi is multiplied by ‘A’ in passing through the amplifier is multiplier by
‘β’.
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In transmission through the feedback network and is multiplied by ‘-1’ in the
mixer. The product of ‘- A β’ is called the loop gain (or) return ratio.
Feedback Factor (or) Feedback ratio:
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It is the ratio between the feedback voltages to the output voltage of the
amplifier.
β = Vf/ Vo
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Where, β is a feedback factor (or) feedback ratio, Vf is the feedback
voltage, Vo is the output voltage.
g.n
3. What are the effects of negative feedback? (Or) What are the
advantages and
disadvantages of negativefeedback? [NOV/DEC-2012][NOV/DEC-2016]
 It improves the stability of the circuit.
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 It improves the frequency response of the amplifier.
 It improves the percentage of harmonic distortion.
 It improves the signal to noise ratio (SNR).
 It reduces the gain of the circuit.
Disadvantages:
 Reduced circuit overall gain.
 Reduced stability at high frequency.
4. Give the effect of negative feedback on amplifier characteristics.
Current- Voltage- Current-
Voltage-
Characteristics series series shunt shunt

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Voltage gain Decreases Decreases Decreases Decreases

Bandwidth Increases Increases Increases Increases
Input resistance Increases Increases Decreases Decreases
Output Resistance Increases Decreases Decreases Increases

5. What is Node and Loop Sampling?

Node Sampling:
When the output voltage is sampled by connecting the feedback network
in shunt across the output, the connection is referred to as Voltage or Node
Sampling.
Loop Sampling:
When the output voltage is sampled by connecting the feedback network in
series across the output, the connection is referred to as Current or Loop

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Sampling.
6. Define Frequency compensation and its types.

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If the feedback amplifier has more than two poles, it can be unstable. The
technique is used to make unstable feedback amplifier to stable is called
Frequency compensation.

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There are two types
 Dominant pole compensation
In this compensation technique if dominant pole is

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introduced into the amplifier so that phase shift is less than -1800

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when the loop gain is unity.
 Miller compensation
It is implemented by connecting a capacitor between input

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and output of a gain stages of a multistage amplifier.

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7. What is the nature of input and output resistance in negative feedback?
(1) Voltage series feedback:
Input impedance: Zif = Zi * (1+A β)
Output impedance: Zof = Zo / (1+A
β)
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(2) Voltage shunt feedback:
Input impedance: Rif = Ri * (1+A β)
Output impedance: Zof = Zo * (1+ A β)
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(3) Current series feeback:
Input impedance: Rif = Zi / (1+A β)
Output impedance: Zof = Zo / (1+A β)
(4) Current shunt feedback:
Input impedance: Rif = Ri / (1+A β)
Output impedance: Rof = Ro * (1+A β)

8. Mention the three basic networks that are connected around the basic
amplifier to implement feedback concept (NOV/DEC’12)
 Mixing Network
 Sampling Network

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 Feedback Network

9. What is the impact of negative feedback on noise in circuits? (APRIL/MAY

2011)[NOV/DEC 2016]
When negative feedback is employed in an amplifier, the noise is reduced.
Let N= noise without feedback and Nf = noise with feedback
The noise with feedback is given by the following relation

From above equation it is clear that when the feedback is applied the noise is
reduced by a factor (1+Aβ).

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10. Define Sensitivity and Desensitivity of gain in feedback amplifiers.
(APRIL/MAY 2011)

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Sensitivity: The fractional change in amplification with feedback divided by the
fractional change in amplification without feedback is called the sensitivity of the
transfer gain.

asy Sensitivity = =

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Desensitivity: Desensitivity is defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity. It indicates

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the factor by which the voltage gain has been reduced due to feedback network.
Desensitivity factor (D) = 1+A
β. Where A = Amplifier gain and β = Feedback
factor
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11. State the Nyquist criterion to maintain the stability of negative feedback
amplifier. (APR/ MAY 2015 R8)

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The Nyquist criterion forms the basis of a steady state method of determining
whether an amplifier is stable or not.
Nyquist Criterion:
e
The Aβ is a function of frequency. Points in the complex plane are obtained for
the values of Aβ corresponding to all values of ‘f’ from - to. The locus of all these
points forms a closed curve.
The criterion of Nyquist is that amplifier is unstable if this curve encloses the
point (-1+j0), and the amplifier is stable if the curve does not enclose this point.

FIG. locus of |1+Aβ|=1

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PART-B

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PART-C

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UNIT –II OSCILLATORS

PART-A

1. State the Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation [MAY/JUNE 2014]

What will happen to the oscillations if the magnitude of the loop gain is
greater than unity? [NOV/DEC 2013]
The conditions for oscillator to produce oscillation are given by Barkhausen
criterion.
i) The total phase shift produced by the circuit should be 360o or 0o
ii) The Magnitude of loop gain must be greater than or equal to 1 (i.e.) |Aβ|≥1
In practice loop gain is kept slightly greater than unity to ensure that oscillator work
even if there is a slight change in the circuit parameters.

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2. What is piezo electric effect? [APR/MAY 2006]
The piezo electric Crystals exhibit a property that if a mechanical stress is

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applied across one face the electric potential is developed across opposite face.
The inverse is also live. This phenomenon is called piezo electric effect.

asy
3. Classify the different types of Oscillators.
 According to waveform generation

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Sinusoidal scillator.
Relaxation Oscillator.
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 According to the fundamental mechanism involved
Negative resistance Oscillator.
Feedback Oscillator. nee
 According to frequency generated
Audio frequency Oscillator (Up to 20KHZ) rin
Radio frequency Oscillator (20KHZ)
g.n
Very high frequency oscillator (30 MHZ to 300 MHZ).
Ultra high frequency Oscillator (300 MHX to 3 GHZ).
Microwave frequency Oscillator (> 3 GHZ).
 According to type coupling.
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LC Oscillator and RC Oscillator.

4. How does an oscillator differ from an amplifier? [NOV/DEC-2013]

Oscillators Amplifiers
1. They are self-generating circuits. They
generate waveforms like sine, square 1. They are not self-generating circuits.
and They
triangular waveforms of their own. need a signal at the input and they just
Without having input signal. increase the level of the input waveform.
2. It have infinite gain 2.It have finite gain
3. Oscillator uses positive feedback. 3. Amplifier uses negative feedback.

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5. Draw the electrical equivalent circuit of crystal. [NOV/DEC 2013,

NOV/DEC 2006, MAY/JUNE 2007] and mention its series and parallel
resonance frequency.
[NOV/DEC 2006, MAY/JUNE 2007, APR/MAY 2008]

ww The crystal actually behaves as a series RLC circuit in parallel with CM.
Because of presence of CM, the crystal has two resonant frequencies.
 One of these is the series resonant frequency fs. In this case

w.E impedance


asy
is very low.
The other is parallel resonance frequency fp. In this case impedance is very
high.

E Where

ngi
6. Give the comparison between RC and LC oscillators.
S.No RC oscillators
1. Frequency of oscillations is
dependent on values of R and C
LC oscillators

nee
Frequency of oscillations is
dependent on

2. These are used at low and rin

values of L and C
These are preferred at high

3.
medium frequencies
Phase shift and Wein bridge
frequencies
g.n
Hartley, Colpitt’s and Clapp
oscillators are the examples of
RC oscillators
oscillators are
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the examples of LC oscillators

7. Write an advantages of Wein bridge oscillator over RC-phase shift

oscillator. [APR/MAY-2015]
 Due to the use of two stage amplifier, the gain is high.
 The stability is high.
 It provides stable low distortion sinusoidal output.
 The frequency range can be selected simply by using decade resistance
boxes
 The circuit is easy from design point of view and gives constant output.
8. Compare between Colpitt’s and Clapp Oscillator. [APR/MAY-2015]

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 A Clapp oscillator uses additional capacitor C3 in series with an

inductor in the tank circuit. A Colpitt’s oscillator uses two capacitors
C1 and C2 and an inductive in its tank circuit.
 In Colpitt’s oscillator, frequency depends on C1 and C2 and L while in
Clapp oscillator depends on C3 and L.
 The frequency stability of Clapp oscillator is good compared to Colpitt’s
oscillator.
 The stray capacitances have no effect on C3 hence frequency is stable
and accurate for Clapp Oscillator.

9. Write the feedback factor expression for BJT transistor based LC oscillators.
[APR/MAY 2015 ]

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No Oscillator Feedback Factor

1.

2.
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Wein bridge Oscillator

RC phase shift Oscillator

3. asy
Hartley Oscillator

4. E
Colpitt’s Oscillator
ngi
nee
10. Why LC oscillator preferred over RC oscillator at radio frequencies?
[APR/MAY 2015 ] .Why an LC tank circuit does not produce sustained
oscillations. How
can this can be overcome? [NOV/DEC 2008]
rin
g.n
We know that the inductor coil has some resistance and dielectric material of
the capacitor has some leakage.so small part of the originally imparted energy is
used to overcome these losses. As a result, the amplitude of oscillating current

a LC tank circuit does not produce sustained oscillations. e

goes on decreasing and becomes zero when all energy is consumed as losses. So

To maintain sustained oscillations, energy must be supplied to the circuit at the

same rate at which it is dissipated. In an oscillator, the function of transistor and
power supply source is to feed energy to the circuit to overcome the losses at right
time.
11. What did you understand by the term stability of an Oscillator? (Or) ii).
Define stability of an Oscillator. (Or) iii). Why is amplitude stabilization
required? [APR/MAY-2009]
The frequency stability of an Oscillation is a measure of its ability to
maintain the required frequency as precisely constant as possible over a long
period of time interval.
Factors affecting the frequency stability:
 Operating point of the active devices

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 Inter element capacitances

 Variation in power supply
 Temperature Variation
 Output load
 Mechanical Vibration

12. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of RC Phase shift oscillators.

[MAY/JUNE2016][NOV/DEC 2016]
Advantages:
The circuit is simple to design
Can produce output over audio frequency range
Produces sinusoidal output waveform
It is a fixed frequency oscillator

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Disadvantages:
By changing the values of R and C, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed.
But the values of R and C of all three sections must be changed simultaneously to

w.E
satisfy the oscillating conditions. But this is practically impossible. Hence the phase
shift oscillator is considered as a fixed frequency oscillator, for all practical purposes.
And the frequency stability is poor due to the changes in the values of various

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components, due to effect of temperature, aging etc.

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13. Sketch the feedback circuit of a Colpitts Oscillator. Calculate the value of the

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equivalent series capacitance required if it uses an inductance of 100 mH and is
to oscillate at 40 kHz. [MAY/JUNE 2016]

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g.n
f 
1
2 LC eq

40* 10 3 =
1
e
2 100 * 10 3 C eq
C eq  158.314 pF

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UNIT III TUNED AMPLIFIERS

PART-A
1. What is meant by Neutralization and Unilateralisation?
Neutralization: It is the process by which feedback can be cancelled by
introducing a current that is equal in magnitude but 180° out of phase with the
feedback signal at the input of the active device. The two signals will cancel and
the effect of feedback will be eliminated. This technique is termed as
neutralization.
Unilateralisation: It is the phenomenon by which a signal can be transmitted
from the input to the output alone and not vice versa. In a unilateralised amplifier
both resistive and reactive effects are cancelled.

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2. What is Quality factor? & define loaded and unloaded Q.

Quality factor:
[APRIL/MAY 2010, NOV/DEC 2010][NOV/DEC 2016]

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The ratio of inductive reactance of the coil at resonance to its resistance is
known as quality factor. Q = XL / R
Loaded Q:
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The loaded Q or QL of a resonator is determined by how tightly the resonator is
coupled to its terminations.

Unloaded Q:
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It is defined as the ratio of stored energy to dissipated energy in a reactor or
resonator. For an inductor or capacitor

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Where X= reactance: Rs= series resistance
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neutralization circuit? (MAY/JUNE 2013), (NOV/DEC 2013)
Neutralization
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3. What is meant by neutralization? (MAY/JUNE 2014) & what is the need for

It is the process by which feedback can be cancelled by introducing a current

that is equal in magnitude but 180o out of phase with the feedback signal at the input of
the active device. The two signals will cancel and the effect of feedback will be
eliminated. This technique is termed as neutralization.
Need for neutralization circuit
In tuned RF amplifiers, the inter-junction capacitance Cbc of the transistor
becomes dominant (i.e.) its reactance is low, it provides the feedback signal from
collector to base. If some feedback signal manages to reach the input from output in a
positive manner with proper phase shift, then amplifier keeps oscillating, thus stability
of amplifier gets affected. Hence neutralization is employed.

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4. Mention the applications of class ‘c’ tuned amplifier. [APR/ MAY 2003]
One of the most common applications for mixer is in radio receivers. The
mixer is used to convert incoming signal to a lower frequency where it is easier to
obtain the high gain and selectivity required.
Mixer circuits are used to translate signal frequency to some lower
frequency or to some higher frequency. When it is used to translate signal to lower
frequency it is called down converter. When it is used to translate signal to higher
frequency, it is called up converter.

5. What is stagger tuned amplifier? & Mention the need for stagger-tuned
amplifier. [NOV/ DEC 2011]

ww If two or more tuned circuits which are caed are tuned to slightly different
resonant frequencies, it is possible to obtain an increased bandwidth with a flat pass
bandwidth steep sides. This technique is known as stagger tuning and the amplifier

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using this technique is called as stagger tuned amplifier.
Need for stagger- tuned amplifier the double tuned amplifier gives greater 3db

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bandwidth having steeper sides and flat top. But alignment of double tuned amplifier is
difficult. To overcome this problem two single tuned amplifiers are caed.

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6. List the advantages and disadvantages of tuned amplifiers. [APR/MAY’12]
Advantages:
 They amplify defined frequencies.
 Signal to Noise ratio at output is good. nee
 They are well suited for radio transmitters and receivers.
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 The band of frequencies over which amplification is required can be varied.
Disadvantages:
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 Since they use inductors and capacitors as tuning elements, the circuit is bulky
and costly.
 If the band of frequency is increased, design becomes complex.
 They are not suitable to amplify audio frequencies.
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7. What is principle of Hazeltine neutralization?
Hazeltine introduced a circuit in which the troublesome effect of the
collector to base capacitance of the transistor was neutralized by introducing
a signal which cancels the signal coupled through the collector to base
capacitance.

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8. What are the differences between single tuned and synchronously tuned
Amplifiers? [NOV/DEC 2007]
S.No Single tuned amplifier Synchronously tuned amplifier

1. Uses one parallel tuned circuit Uses a number of identical caed single
as the load impedance and tuned stages tuned to same frequency.
tuned to one frequency.

2. High gain and narrow Increases gain and reduces

bandwidth bandwidth

3. Bandwidth is Bandwidth is
BW= fr/Q

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9. What is the application of tuned amplifiers? [MAY/JUN 2008]

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The application of tuned amplifiers to obtain a desired frequency and rejecting
all other frequency in (i). Radio and T .V broadcasting as tuning circuit and
(ii). Wireless communication system.

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10. Define gain bandwidth product of a tuned amplifier. [MAY/JUN 2009]

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The gain bandwidth (GBW) product is a figure of merit defined in terms of

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mid band gain and upper 3-db frequency fh as GBW = | Aim fh | = gm / 2πc

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11. What is narrow band neutralization? [NOV/DEC 2012, NOV/DEC 2011]
The process of cancelling the instability effect due to the collector to base

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capacitance of the transistor in tuned circuits by introducing a signal which cancels the
signal coupled through the collector to base capacitance is called narrow band
neutralization.
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12. What are the various components coil losses?
i) Hysteresis loss
ii) Copper loss
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iii) Eddy current loss

13. What is the effect of caing n stages of identical single tuned amplifiers
(synchronously tuned) on the overall 3db bandwidth? [APRIL/MAY 2011]
The bandwidth of n stage caed single tuned amplifier is given as

From the above equation it is clear that the overall 3dB bandwidth reduces.

14. What is the effect of Q on the resonance circuit? [MAY/JUNE 2016]

Increase in Q reduces bandwidth and increases selectivity of the
resonancecircuit.

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PART-B

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UNIT –IV WAVE SHAPING AND MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS

PART-A

1. What is meant by multivibrator? Define its Types. [NOV/DEC 2016]

Multivibrators are two stage switching circuits in which the output of the
first stage is fed to the input of the second state and vice-versa. The outputs of two
stages are complementary.
Types of multivibrator.
Astable multivibrator
It is a multivibrator in which neither state is stable. There are two
temporary states. The circuit changes state continuously from one quasi stables

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state to another at regular intervals without any triggering. This generates
continuous square waveform without any external signal.

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Monostable multivibrator.
When a trigger pulse is applied to the input circuit, the circuit state is
changed abruptly to unstable state for a predetermined time after which the circuit

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returned to its original stable state automatically.
Bistable multivibrator.

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Bistable multivibrator signifies a circuit which can exist indefinitely in

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either of two stable states and which can be induced to make an abrupt transition
from one state to other by applying an external triggering signal.

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2. Why commutating capacitors are used in bistable multivibrators?
[APR/MAY’15] [MAY/JUNE’16]

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A binary remains in one of its stable states until a triggering pulse is

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applied. After the application of this triggering pulse, the time taken for the
transistor to transfer from ON state to OFF state is called transition time. This

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transition time should be as small as possible and to speed up the transition,
capacitors are used in shunt with the coupling resistors. These capacitors are
called speed up capacitors or commutating capacitors or transpose capacitors.
3. What is meant by clippers and clampers? List its applications.[APR/MAY’11]
Clippers- The circuit with which the waveform is shaped by removing a portion of
the input signal without distorting the removing part of the alternating waveform is
called a clipper.
Clampers- It shifts (clamp) a signal to a different d.c level, i.e., it introduces a d.c
level to an a.c signal. Hence; the clamping network is known as d.c restorer.

Applications of clipper circuits:

 In speech processing for communication applications.
 In Television and FM receivers.

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 Used for amplifiers and op-amps performing mathematical operations.

 In pulse height analyzers.
 In protection circuits such as protection of exposed inputs of integrated
circuits.
Applications of clamper circuits:
 As a d.c restorer circuit in television receivers.
 In various test equipments.
 In analog video processing.
 In cameras for the flash circuit.
 In radar and sonar circuits.

4. What is meant by Schmitt trigger or Regenerative Comparator? List its

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applications. [APR/MAY’12, ‘13][NOV/DEC 2016]
A comparator circuit which uses a positive feedback to obtain an infinite
forward gain (unity loop gain) is called regenerative comparator. The Schmitt

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trigger and blocking oscillator are examples of regenerative comparator circuits.
Applications:

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 It is used for wave shaping circuits.
 It can be used for generation of rectangular waveforms with sharp edges from a sine

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wave or any other waveform.
 It can be used as a voltage comparator.
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The Hysteresis in Schmitt trigger is valuable when conditioning noisy signals

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for using digital circuits. The noise does not cause false triggering and so the
output will be free from noise.

5. Define Hysteresis, UTP and LTP.

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 The input voltage difference between UTP and LTP
is known as hysteresis.
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 UTP [Upper trigger point] is the point at which the transistor enters into
conduction.i.e. OFF to ON state.
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 LTP [Lower trigger point] is the point at which the transistor enters from ON to OFF
state.

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6.Why is monostable Multivibrator called delay circuit? [APR/MAY’09]

The time between the transitions from quasi-stable state to stable state
can be predetermined and hence it can be used to introduce time delays with the
help of fast transition. Due to this application is Called delay circuit.

7. Define: Rise time, Delay time, Total turn on time, Settling Time, Storage time,
transition time, and Resolving time.
Rise time:
The time required for the current to rise from 10% to 90% of its
maximum (saturation) value Ics is called the rise time tr.
Delay time:

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(saturation) value Ics is called the delay time td.
Total turn on time:

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The total turn on time is ton is the sum of the delay time and
rise time, ton = td + tr, Where, td = Delay time.tr = Rise time.
Settling time:
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It is defined as the time required for recharging of commutating
capacitors after transfer of conduction.
Storage time:
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The interval that elapses between the transition of the input waveform
and the time when the collector current has dropped to 90 % of total output is
called the storage time ts.
Transition time: nee
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The time interval during which the conduction transfer from one
transistor to another transistor is defined as transition time.
Resolving time:
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It is the minimum time interval between two consecutive trigger pulses
and equals to transition time plus the settling time.
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8. Draw the input and output waveform for the circuit shown. (MAY/JUNE 2014)

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9. Mention the uses of Schmitt trigger [NOV/DEC 2016]

Amplitude comparator
Squaring circuit which converts arbitrary waveform to a square waveform.
Flip-flop.
10.Define the different types of triggering of bistable multivibrator?
1. Asymmetrical triggering. 2. Symmetrical triggering.
Symmetrical triggering.
It is the method of triggering, by which pulses are applied at only one input and
these are steered or directed to appropriate transistors sequentially.
Asymmetrical triggering

If two signals from two separate trigger source are used, one signal to cause

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the change in one direction.i.e. from ON to OFF and the other signal cause
change from OFF to On. It is used in logic circuit.

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11.Compare Astable, Monostable, and Bistable Multivibrator.

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
Astable
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Multivibrator
Monostable
Multivibrator
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Multivibrator
Astable
multivibrator has
Monostable
multivibrator has nee
Bistable
multivibrator has
both the states as
quasi-stable
only one stable
state. The other rin
two stable states.

states. state is unstable

referred as quasi- g.n
It
makes
automatically

successive
the
stable state.
When an external
trigger pulse is
applied to the
It
external e
requires an
trigger
pulse to change
transitions from circuit, the circuit from one stable
one quasi-stable goes into the state to another.
state to other, quasi-stable state The circuit remains
without any from its normal in one stable state
external trigger stable state. After unless an external
pulse. some time interval, trigger pulse is
the circuit applied.
automatically
returns to its stable
state.

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It is also known as It is also known as It is also known as

free running one-shot, single Eccles-Jordan
multivibrator shot, a single circuit, trigger
cycle, a single circuit, scale-of-2
swing, a single toggle circuit, flip-
step multivibrator flop and binary.
or a univibrator,
gating circuit or
delay circuit.
Applications are: Applications are: Applications are:
1. Used as a 1. Used to produce 1. Used for the
square wave rectangular performance of
generator, voltage waveform and many digital

ww to frequency
converter etc.
2. Used as a clock
hence can be used
as gating circuit.
2. Used to
operations
counting
like
and
storing of digital

signals.w.E
for binary logic generate uniform
width pulses from
a variable width
information.
2. Used as a
frequency divider.

asy input pulse train.

E
12.What type of distortion is observed in astable multivibrator? (NOV/DEC 2011)

ngi
In Astable multivibrator, instead of exact square wave, at the output, the
vertical rising edges are little bit rounded as shown in figure. This is called rounding
which is distortion in Astable multivibrator.

nee
rin
g.n
Fig: Rounding distortion.
e
13. What is tilt applicable to RC circuits? Give expression for tilt (NOV/DEC 2011)
In high pass RC network, Tilt is defined as the decay in the amplitude of the
output voltage waveform, when the input maintains its level constant.
Percentage of tilt is given by,
(1  eT /2
RC )
* 200
P= (1  eT / 2 RC )

14. Write advantages of emitter-coupled monostable multivibrator over

collector coupled monostable multivibrator. [APR/MAY’15]
 Time period T varies linearly with voltage V.
 It is a perfect gate wave generator.

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 Its gate width can be controlled easily and linearly with the help of an electric
signal.
 It can be used as voltage to time converter.
15. An RC low pass circuit has R=1.5 kΩ and C= 0.2 μF. What is the rise time of the
output when excited by a step input? [MAY/JUNE’16]
t r = 2.2 RC
 = 2.2 * 1.5*10 3 *0.2*10 6
=0.66 ms
PART-B

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PART-C

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Unit 5
POWER AMPLIFIERS AND DC CONVERTERS

Power Amplifier

After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, it has several voltage amplifications
done, after which the power amplification of the amplified signal is done just before the loud
speaker stage. This is clearly shown in the below figure.

ww
w.E
asy
While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power amplifier raises
the power level of the signal. Besides raising the power level, it can also be said that a power

En
amplifier is a device which converts DC power to AC power and whose action is controlled
by the input signal.
gin
ee
The DC power is distributed according to the relation,

DC power input = AC power output + losses

rin
Power Transistor
g.n
For such Power amplification, a normal transistor would not do. A transistor that is

et
manufactured to suit the purpose of power amplification is called as a Power transistor.A
Power transistor differs from the other transistors, in the following factors.It is larger in size,
in order to handle large powers.The collector region of the transistor is made large and a heat
sink is placed at the collector-base junction in order to minimize heat generated.
The emitter and base regions of a power transistor are heavily doped.Due to the low input
resistance, it requires low input power.Hence there is a lot of difference in voltage
amplification and power amplification. So, let us now try to get into the details to understand
the differences between a voltage amplifier and a power amplifier.

Difference between Voltage and Power Amplifiers

Let us try to differentiate between voltage and power amplifier.

Voltage Amplifier
The function of a voltage amplifier is to raise the voltage level of the signal. A voltage
amplifier is designed to achieve maximum voltage amplification.

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The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by

Av=β(RcRin)Av=β(RcRin)

The characteristics of a voltage amplifier are as follows −

The base of the transistor should be thin and hence the value of β should be greater than
100.The resistance of the input resistor Rin should be low when compared to collector load
RC.The collector load RC should be relatively high. To permit high collector load, the voltage
amplifiers are always operated at low collector current.The voltage amplifiers are used for

wwsmall signal voltages.

Power Amplifier

w.E
The function of a power amplifier is to raise the power level of input signal. It is required to

asy
deliver a large amount of power and has to handle large current.

The characteristics of a power amplifier are as follows −

En
gin
The base of transistor is made thicken to handle large currents. The value of β being (β >
100) high.The size of the transistor is made larger, in order to dissipate more heat, which is

ee
produced during transistor operation.Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.

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Collector resistance is made low.he comparison between voltage and power amplifiers is
given below in a tabular form.
g.n
S.No

1
Particular

β
Voltage Amplifier

High (>100)
et
Power Amplifier

Low (5 to 20)

2 RC High (4-10 KΩ) Low (5 to 20 Ω)

3 Coupling Usually R-C Invariably transformer

coupling coupling
4 Input voltage Low (a few m V) High (2-4 V)

5 Collector current Low (≈ 1 mA) High (> 100 mA)

6 Power output Low High

7 Output High (≈ 12 K Ω) Low (200 Ω)

impendence

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Classification of Signal Amplifier

Type of Signal Type of Classification Frequency of

Configuration Operation

Small Signal Common Emitter Class A Amplifier Direct Current (DC)

Large Signal Common Base Class B Amplifier Audio Frequencies (AF)

ww Common Collector Class AB Amplifier Radio Frequencies (RF)

w.E Class C Amplifier VHF, UHF and SHF

Frequencies

asy
Amplifiers can be thought of as a simple box or block containing the amplifying device,

En
such as a Bipolar Transistor, Field Effect Transistor or Operational Amplifier, which has two
input terminals and two output terminals (ground being common) with the output signal

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being much greater than that of the input signal as it has been “Amplified”.

ee
An ideal signal amplifier will have three main properties: Input Resistance or (RIN), Output

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Resistance or (ROUT) and of course amplification known commonly as Gain or (A). No

g.n
matter how complicated an amplifier circuit is, a general amplifier model can still be used to
show the relationship of these three properties.

Ideal Amplifier Model

et

The amplified difference between the input and output signals is known as the Gain of the
amplifier. Gain is basically a measure of how much an amplifier “amplifies” the input signal.

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For example, if we have an input signal of 1 volt and an output of 50 volts, then the gain of
the amplifier would be “50”. In other words, the input signal has been increased by a factor
of 50. This increase is called Gain.

Amplifier gain is simply the ratio of the output divided-by the input. Gain has no units as its
a ratio, but in Electronics it is commonly given the symbol “A”, for Amplification. Then the
gain of an amplifier is simply calculated as the “output signal divided by the input signal”.

Amplifier Gain

wwThe introduction to the amplifier gain can be said to be the relationship that exists between

w.E
the signal measured at the output with the signal measured at the input. There are three
different kinds of amplifier gain which can be measured and these are: Voltage

asy
Gain ( Av ), Current Gain ( Ai ) and Power Gain ( Ap ) depending upon the quantity being

En
measured with examples of these different types of gains are given below.

gin
Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal

ee rin
g.n
Voltage Amplifier Gain et
Current Amplifier Gain

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Power Amplifier Gain

Note that for the Power Gain you can also divide the power obtained at the output with the
power obtained at the input. Also when calculating the gain of an amplifier, the
subscripts v, i and p are used to denote the type of signal gain being used.

The power gain (Ap) or power level of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels, (dB).
The Bel (B) is a logarithmic unit (base 10) of measurement that has no units. Since the Bel is too

ww
large a unit of measure, it is prefixed with deci making it Decibels instead with one decibel

w.E
being one tenth (1/10th) of a Bel. To calculate the gain of the amplifier in Decibels or dB, we
can use the following expressions.

asy
Voltage Gain in dB: av = 20*log(Av)

En
Current Gain in dB: ai = 20*log(Ai)

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Power Gain in dB: ap = 10*log(Ap)

ee
We have already come across the details of transistor biasing, which is very important for
the operation of a transistor as an amplifier. Hence to achieve faithful amplification, the

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biasing of the transistor has to be done such that the amplifier operates over the linear region.

g.n
A Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current flows for the entire cycle of the

et
AC input supply. Hence the complete signal present at the input is amplified at the output.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram for Class A Power amplifier.

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From the above figure, it can be observed that the transformer is present at the collector as a
load. The use of transformer permits the impedance matching, resulting in the transference
of maximum power to the load e.g. loud speaker.

The operating point of this amplifier is present in the linear region. It is so selected that the
current flows for the entire ac input cycle. The below figure explains the selection of
operating point.

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w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
The output characteristics with operating point Q is shown in the figure above. Here
(Ic)Q and (Vce)Q represent no signal collector current and voltage between collector and
emitter respectively. When signal is applied, the Q-point shifts to Q1 and Q2. The output
current increases to (Ic)max and decreases to (Ic)min. Similarly, the collector-emitter voltage
increases to (Vce)max and decreases to (Vce)min.

D.C. Power drawn from collector battery V cc is given by

Pin=voltage×current=VCC(IC)QPin=voltage×current=VCC(IC)Q

This power is used in the following two parts −

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Power dissipated in the collector load as heat is given by

PRC=(current)2×resistance=(IC)2QRC

Power given to transistor is given by

Ptr=Pin−PRC=VCC−(IC)2QRCPtr=Pin−PRC=VCC−(IC)Q2RC

When signal is applied, the power given to transistor is used in the following two parts −

The D.C. power dissipated by the transistor (collector region) in the form of heat, i.e., (PC)dc

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
This class A power amplifier can amplify small signals with least distortion and the output
will be an exact replica of the input with increased strength.

Overall Efficiency
The overall efficiency of the amplifier circuit is given by
(η)overall=a.cpowerdeliveredtotheloadtotalpowerdeliveredbyd.csupply(η)overall=a.cpowerd
eliveredtotheloadtotalpowerdeliveredbyd.csupply

=(PO)ac(Pin)dc=(PO)ac(Pin)dc

Collector Efficiency
The collector efficiency of the transistor is defined as
(η)collector=averagea.cpoweroutputaveraged.cpowerinputtotransistor(η)collector=averagea.c
poweroutputaveraged.cpowerinputtotransistor

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=(PO)ac(Ptr)dc

Expression for overall efficiency

(PO)ac=Vrms×Irms(PO)ac=Vrms×Irms

=12–√[(Vce)max−(Vce)min2]×12–
√[(IC)max−(IC)min2]=12[(Vce)max−(Vce)min2]×12[(IC)max−(IC)min2]

=[(Vce)max−(Vce)min]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8=[(Vce)max−(Vce)min]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8

Therefore
(η)overall=[(Vce)max−(Vce)min]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8×VCC(IC)Q(η)overall=[(Vce)max−(

ww Vce)min]×[(IC)max−(IC)min]8×VCC(IC)Q

w.E
Advantages of Class A Amplifiers

The advantages of Class A power amplifier are as follows −


 asy
The current flows for complete input cycle
It can amplify small signals

 En
The output is same as input
No distortion is present

gin
Disadvantages of Class A Amplifiers

 Low power output

ee
The advantages of Class A power amplifier are as follows −

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 Low collector efficiency
g.n
Transformer coupled Class A power amplifier. et
An amplifier where the load is coupled to the output using a transformer is called a
transformer coupled amplifier. Using transformer coupling the efficiency of the amplifier
can be improved to a great extend. The coupling transformer provides good impedance
matching between the output and load and it is the main reason behind the improved
efficiency. Impedance matching means making the output impedance of the amplifier equal
to the input impedance of the load and this is an important criteria for the transfer of
maximum power. Circuit diagram of typical single stage Class A amplifier is shown in the
circuit diagram below.

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ww
w.E
Impedance matching can be attained by selecting the number of turns of the primary so that
its net impedance is equal to the transistors output impedance and selecting the number of

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turns of the secondary so that its net impedance is equal to the loudspeakers input
impedance.

En
 gin
Advantages of transformer coupled amplifier.

Main advantage is the improvement of efficiency.


ee
Provides good DC isolation as there is no physical connection between amplifier

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output and load. Audio signals pass from one side to other by virtue of induction.

Disadvantages of transformer coupled amplifier.

g.n



It is a bit hard to make/find an exactly matching transformer.
et
Transformers are bulky and so it increases the cost and size of the amplifier.
Transformer winding does not provide any resistance to DC current. If any DC
components if present in the amplifier output, it will flow through the primary
winding and saturate the core. This will result in reduced transformer action.
 Transformer coupling reduces the low frequency response of the amplifier.
 Transformer coupling induces hum in the output.
 Transformer coupling can be employed only for small loads.

Class B Amplifier

When the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of the input signal, the
power amplifier is known as class B power amplifier.

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Class B Operation

The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero signal
condition, there will be no collector current. The operating point is selected to be at
collector cut off voltage. So, when the signal is applied, only the positive half cycle is
amplified at the output.

The figure below shows the input and output waveforms during class B operation.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the positive half cycle of the
input and hence the collector current flows. But during the negative half cycle of the input,
the circuit is reverse biased and the collector current will be absent. Hence only the positive
half cycle is amplified at the output.

As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal distortion will be high. Also,
when the applied signal increases, the power dissipation will be more. But when compared
to class A power amplifier, the output efficiency is increased.

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Well, in order to minimize the disadvantages and achieve low distortion, high efficiency and
high output power, the push-pull configuration is used in this class B amplifier.

Class B Push-Pull Amplifier

Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only one half
cycle of the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is not completely
utilized. In order to compensate these problems, the push-pull configuration is introduced in
class B amplifier.

Construction

wwThe circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical transistors T 1 and
T2 whose bases are connected to the secondary of the center-tapped input transformer Tr1.

w.E
The emitters are shorted and the collectors are given the V CC supply through the primary of

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the output transformer Tr2.

The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier, is same as that of class A push-pull

En
amplifier except that the transistors are biased at cut off, instead of using the biasing

gin
resistors. The figure below gives the detailing of the construction of a push-pull class B
power amplifier.
ee rin
g.n
et

Operation

The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the above figure clears that both the
transformers are center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors T1 and

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T2 are in cut off condition and hence no collector currents flow. As no current is drawn from
VCC, no power is wasted.

When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer T r1 which splits the signal
into two signals that are 180o out of phase with each other. These two signals are given to the
two identical transistors T1 and T2. For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor
T1 becomes positive and collector current flows. At the same time, the transistor T 2 has
negative half cycle, which throws the transistor T 2 into cutoff condition and hence no

wwcollector current flows. The waveform is produced as shown in the following figure.

w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
For the next half cycle, the transistor T 1 gets into cut off condition and the transistor T 2 gets
into conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts
alternately. The output transformer T r3 serves to join the two currents producing an almost
undistorted output waveform.
Power Efficiency of Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
The current in each transistor is the average value of half sine loop.

For half sine loop, Idc is given by

Idc=(IC)maxπIdc=(IC)maxπ

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Therefore,
(pin)dc=2×[(IC)maxπ×VCC](pin)dc=2×[(IC)maxπ×VCC]

Here factor 2 is introduced as there are two transistors in push-pull amplifier.

R.M.S. value of collector current = (IC)max/2–√(IC)max/2

R.M.S. value of output voltage = VCC/2–√VCC/2
Under ideal conditions of maximum power

Therefore,

ww (PO)ac=(IC)max2–√×VCC2–√=(IC)max×VCC2(PO)ac=(IC)max2×VCC2=(IC)max×VCC2

w.E
Now overall maximum efficiency
ηoverall=(PO)ac(Pin)dcηoverall=(PO)ac(Pin)dc

asy
=(IC)max×VCC2×π2(IC)max×VCC=(IC)max×VCC2×π2(IC)max×VCC

En
=π4=0.785=78.5%=π4=0.785=78.5%

gin
The collector efficiency would be the same.

Hence the class B push-pull amplifier improves the efficiency than the class A push-pull
amplifier.
ee
Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier rin
g.n
The push pull amplifier which was just discussed improves efficiency but the usage of
center-tapped transformers makes the circuit bulky, heavy and costly. To make the circuit

et
simple and to improve the efficiency, the transistors used can be complemented, as shown in
the following circuit diagram.

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ww
w.E
asy
En
The above circuit employs a NPN transistor and a PNP transistor connected in push pull

gin
configuration. When the input signal is applied, during the positive half cycle of the input

ee
signal, the NPN transistor conducts and the PNP transistor cuts off. During the negative half
cycle, the NPN transistor cuts off and the PNP transistor conducts.
rin
g.n
In this way, the NPN transistor amplifies during positive half cycle of the input, while PNP
transistor amplifies during negative half cycle of the input. As the transistors are both

et
complement to each other, yet act symmetrically while being connected in push pull
configuration of class B, this circuit is termed as

Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier.

Advantages

The advantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.

 As there is no need of center tapped transformers, the weight and cost are reduced.

 Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.

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Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier are as follows.

 It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (NPN and PNP) that have similar
characteristics.

 We require both positive and negative supply voltages.

wwClass AB and Class C Power Amplifiers

w.E
The class A and class B amplifier so far discussed has got few limitations. Let us now try to
combine these two to get a new circuit which would have all the advantages of both class A

asy
and class B amplifier without their inefficiencies. Before that, let us also go through another
important problem, called as Cross over distortion, the output of class B encounters with.

Cross-over Distortion
En
gin
In the push-pull configuration, the two identical transistors get into conduction, one after the
other and the output produced will be the combination of both.

ee
When the signal changes or crosses over from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage

rin
point, it produces an amount of distortion to the output wave shape. For a transistor in order

g.n
to conduct, the base emitter junction should cross 0.7v, the cut off voltage. The time taken
for a transistor to get ON from OFF or to get OFF from ON state is called the transition
period.
et
At the zero voltage point, the transition period of switching over the transistors from one to
the other, has its effect which leads to the instances where both the transistors are OFF at a
time. Such instances can be called as Flat spot or Dead band on the output wave shape.

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ww The above

w.E
figure clearly shows the cross over distortion which is prominent in the output waveform.
This is the main disadvantage. This cross over distortion effect also reduces the overall peak

asy
to peak value of the output waveform which in turn reduces the maximum power output.

En
This can be more clearly understood through the non-linear characteristic of the waveform as
shown below.

gin
ee rin
g.n
et

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It is understood that this cross-over distortion is less pronounced for large input signals,
where as it causes severe disturbance for small input signals. This cross over distortion can
be eliminated if the conduction of the amplifier is more than one half cycle, so that both the
transistors won’t be OFF at the same time.

This idea leads to the invention of class AB amplifier, which is the combination of both class
A and class B amplifiers, as discussed below.

wwClass AB Power Amplifier

As the name implies, class AB is a combination of class A and class B type of amplifiers. As

w.E
class A has the problem of low efficiency and class B has distortion problem, this class AB
is emerged to eliminate these two problems, by utilizing the advantages of both the classes.

asy
The cross over distortion is the problem that occurs when both the transistors are OFF at the

En
same instant, during the transition period. In order to eliminate this, the condition has to be
chosen for more than one half cycle. Hence, the other transistor gets into conduction, before

gin
the operating transistor switches to cut off state. This is achieved only by using class AB
configuration, as shown in the following circuit diagram.

ee rin
g.n
et

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Therefore, in class AB amplifier design, each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for
slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle
of conduction of class A. The conduction angle of class AB amplifier is somewhere between
180o to 360o depending upon the operating point selected. This is understood with the help
of below figure.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

The small bias voltage given using diodes D1 and D2, as shown in the above figure, helps the
operating point to be above the cutoff point. Hence the output waveform of class AB results
as seen in the above figure. The crossover distortion created by class B is overcome by this
class AB, as well the inefficiencies of class A and B don’t affect the circuit.

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So, the class AB is a good compromise between class A and class B in terms of efficiency
and linearity having the efficiency reaching about 50% to 60%. The class A, B and AB
amplifiers are called as linear amplifiers because the output signal amplitude and phase are
linearly related to the input signal amplitude and phase.

Class C Power Amplifier

When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input signal, the power
amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.

The efficiency of class C amplifier is high while linearity is poor. The conduction angle for
class C is less than 180 o. It is generally around 90o, which means the transistor remains idle

wwfor more than half of the input signal. So, the output current will be delivered for less time
compared to the application of input signal.

w.E
The following figure shows the operating point and output of a class C amplifier.

asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et

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This kind of biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80% to the amplifier, but
introduces heavy distortion in the output signal. Using the class C amplifier, the pulses
produced at its output can be converted to complete sine wave of a particular frequency by
using LC circuits in its collector circuit.

Power MOSFET

Working Principle and Applications

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
The Power MOSFET is a type of MOSFET. The operating principle of power MOSFET is

g.n
similar to the general MOSFET. The power MOSFETS are very special to handle the high
level of powers. It shows the high switching speed and by comparing with the normal

et
MOSFET, the power MOSFET will work better. The power MOSFETs is widely used in
the n-channel enhancement mode, p-channel enhancement mode, and in the nature of n-
channel depletion mode. Here we have explained about the N-channel power MOSFET. The
design of power MOSFET was made by using the CMOS technology and also used for
development of manufacturing the integrated circuits in the 1970s.

A power MOSFET is a special type of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It is
specially designed to handle high-level powers. The power MOSFET’s are constructed in a V
configuration. Therefore, it is also called as V-MOSFET, VFET. The symbols of N- channel
& P- channel power MOSFET are shown in the below figure.

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ww
w.E
Basic Statures of Power MOSFET

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There is three basic status in the power MOSFET which is following.

On sate resistance
En
Breakdown voltage
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Body diode

On State Resistance
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g.n
If the power MOSFET is in ON sate, then it produces the resistive behavior in-between the

et
drain & source terminals. We can see in the following figure, that the resistance is the sum of
many elementary contributions. The RS resistance is the source resistance. It will show all
resistance between the source terminals of the package to the channel of the MOSFET.

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The Power MOSFET is a type of MOSFET. The operating principle of power MOSFET is
similar to the general MOSFET. The power MOSFETS are very special to handle the high
level of powers. It shows the high switching speed and by comparing with the normal
MOSFET, the power MOSFET will work better. The power MOSFETs is widely used in
the n-channel enhancement mode, p-channel enhancement mode, and in the nature of n-
channel depletion mode. Here we have explained about the N-channel power MOSFET. The
design of power MOSFET was made by using the CMOS technology and also used for
development of manufacturing the integrated circuits in the 1970s.

A power MOSFET is a special type of metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It is
specially designed to handle high-level powers. The power MOSFET’s are constructed in a V
configuration. Therefore, it is also called as V-MOSFET, VFET. The symbols of N- channel
& P- channel power MOSFET are shown in the below figure.

wwBody Diode

w.E
The body diode can be seen in the following figure that the source metallization is connected
to both the N+ and P implantations. Even though the basic principle of the MOSFET requires

asy
only that the source should be connected to the N+ zone. Thus, this would result in a floating
P zone between the N-doped source and drain. It is equivalent to an NPN transistor with a
nonconnected base. Under some conditions like high drain current, in the order of the same

En
volts of an on-state drain to source voltage, this parasitic transistor of NPN should be
triggered and make the MOSFET uncontrollable.

gin
ee rin
g.n
et

The connections of the P implantation to the source metallization short the base terminal of
the transistor parasitic to its emitter and it prevents the latching. Hence this solution creates a
diode between the cathode & anode of the MOSFET and the current blocks in one direction.

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For inductive loads, the body diodes utilize the freewheeling diodes in the configuration of H
Bridge & half bridge. Generally, these diodes will have a high forward voltage drop, the
current is high. They are sufficient in many applications like reducing part count.

Working with Power MOSFET and Characteristics

The construction of the power MOSFET is in V-configurations, as we can see in the

following figure. Thus the device is also called as the V-MOSFET or V-FET. The V- the
shape of power MOSFET is cut to penetrate from the device surface is almost to the N+
substrate to the N+, P, and N – layers. The N+ layer is the heavily doped layer with a low
resistive material and the N- layer is a lightly doped layer with the high resistance region.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Both the horizontal and the V cut surface are covered by the silicon dioxide dielectric layer
and the insulated gate metal film is deposited on the SiO2 in the V shape. The source
terminal contacts with the both N+ and P- layers through the SiO2 layer. The drain terminal
of this device is N+.

The V-MOSFET is an E-mode FET and there is no exists of the channel in between the drain
& source till the gate is positive with respect to the source. If we consider the gate is positive
with respect to the source, then there is a formation of the N-type channel which is close to
the gate and it is in the case of the E-MOSFET. In the case of E-MOSFET, the N-type
channel provides the vertical path for the charge carriers. To flow between the drain and

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source terminals. If the VGS is zero or negative, then there is no channel of presence and the
drain current is zero.

The following figures show the drain & transfer characteristics for the enhancement mode of
N-channel power MOSFET is similar to the E-MOSFET. If there is an increase in the gate
voltage then the channel resistance is reduced, therefore the drain current ID is increased.
Hence the drain current ID is controlled by the gate voltage control. So that for a given level
of VGS, ID is remaining constant through a wide range of VDS levels.

ww
w.E
asy
En
gin
.
ee rin
g.n
et
The channel length of the power MOSFET is in the diffusion process, but in the MOSFET
the channel length is in the dimensions of the photographic masks employed in the diffusion
process. By controlling the doping density and diffusion time, the channel length will
become shorter. The shorter channels will give, the more current densities which will
contribute again to larger power dissipation. It also allows a larger transconductance gm to be
attained in the V-FET.

In the geometry of power MOSFET, there is an important factor which is the presence of
lightly doped, N- epitaxial layer which is close to the N+ substrate. If the VGS is at zero or
negative, then the drain is positive with respect to the source and there is a reverse biased
between the P- layer & N- layer. At the junction the depletion region penetrates into the N-
layer, therefore it punch-through the drain to the source are avoided. Hence, relatively high
VDS are applied without any danger of device breakdown.

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Applications of Power MOSFET

 The power MOSFET’s are used in the power supplies

 DC to DC converters
 Low voltage motor controllers
 These are widely used in the low voltage switches which are less than the 200V

DC-to-DC converter

Buck Converter

A buck converter (step-down converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter which steps down

ww
voltage (while stepping up current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class
of switched-mode power supply (SMPS) typically containing at least two semiconductors
(a diode and a transistor, although modern buck converters frequently replace the diode with

w.E
a second transistor used for synchronous rectification) and at least one energy storage
element, a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce voltage ripple, filters
made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally added to such a

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converter's output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).[1]

En
gin
ee
Fig. : Buck converter circuit diagram.
rin
g.n
Switching converters (such as buck converters) provide much greater power efficiency as

dissipating power as heat, but do not step up output current. [2] et

DC-to-DC converters than linear regulators, which are simpler circuits that lower voltages by

Buck converters can be highly efficient (often higher than 90%), making them useful for
tasks such as converting a computer's main (bulk) supply voltage (often 12 V) down to lower
voltages needed by USB, DRAM and the CPU (1.8 V or less).

The basic operation of the buck converter has the current in an inductorcontrolled by two
switches (usually a transistor and a diode). In the idealised converter, all the components are
considered to be perfect. Specifically, the switch and the diode have zero voltage drop when
on and zero current flow when off, and the inductor has zero series resistance. Further, it is
assumed that the input and output voltages do not change over the course of a cycle (this
would imply the output capacitance as being infinite).

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ww The conceptual model of the buck converter is best understood in terms of the relation
between current and voltage of the inductor. Beginning with the switch open (off-state), the
current in the circuit is zero. When the switch is first closed (on-state), the current will begin

w.E
to increase, and the inductor will produce an opposing voltage across its terminals in
response to the changing current. This voltage drop counteracts the voltage of the source and
therefore reduces the net voltage across the load. Over time, the rate of change of current

asy
decreases, and the voltage across the inductor also then decreases, increasing the voltage at
the load.

En
During this time, the inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field. If the switch
is opened while the current is still changing, then there will always be a voltage drop across

gin
the inductor, so the net voltage at the load will always be less than the input voltage source.
When the switch is opened again (off-state), the voltage source will be removed from the

ee
circuit, and the current will decrease.

rin
g.n
et
The decreasing current will produce a voltage drop across the inductor (opposite to the drop
at on-state), and now the inductor becomes a Current Source. The stored energy in the
inductor's magnetic field supports the current flow through the load. This current, flowing
while the input voltage source is disconnected, when concatenated with the current flowing
during on-state, totals to current greater than the average input current (being zero during off-
state).
The "increase" in average current makes up for the reduction in voltage, and ideally
preserves the power provided to the load. During the off-state, the inductor is discharging its

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stored energy into the rest of the circuit. If the switch is closed again before the inductor fully
discharges (on-state), the voltage at the load will always be greater than zero.

ww
w.E
asy
En
Boost Converter gin
ee rin
The boost converter circuit has many similarities to the buck converter. However the circuit
topology for the boost converter is slightly different. The fundamental circuit for a boost

g.n
converter or step up converter consists of an inductor, diode, capacitor, switch and error
amplifier with switch control circuitry.

et

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The circuit for the step-up boost converter operates by varying the amount of time in which
inductor receives energy from the source.

In the basic block diagram the operation of the boost converter can be seen that the output
voltage appearing across the load is sensed by the sense / error amplifier and an error voltage
is generated that controls the switch.

Typically the boost converter switch is controlled by a pulse width modulator, the switch
remaining on of longer as more current is drawn by the load and the voltage tends to drop
and often there is a fixed frequency oscillator to drive the switching.

Boost converter operation

ww The operation of the boost converter is relatively straightforward.When the switch is in

the ON position, the inductor output is connected to ground and the voltage Vin is placed

w.E
across it. The inductor current increases at a rate equal to Vin/L.

When the switch is placed in the OFF position, the voltage across the inductor changes

asy
and is equal to Vout-Vin. Current that was flowing in the inductor decays at a rate equal to
(Vout-Vin)/L.

En
gin
ee rin
g.n
et
Referring to the boost converter circuit diagram, the current waveforms for the different
areas of the circuit can be seen as below.

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ww
w.E .

asy
It can be seen from the waveform diagrams that the input current to the boost converter is

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higher than the output current. Assuming a perfectly efficient, i.e. lossless, boost converter,
the power out must equal the power in, i.e. Vin ⋅ Iin = Vout ⋅ Iout. From this it can be seen if

gin
the output voltage is higher than the input voltage, then the input current must be higher than
the output current.

are achievable in most supplies. ee

In reality no boost converter will be lossless, but efficiency levels of around 85% and more

rin
g.n
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In a boost converter, the

shown in Figure
et
output voltage is always higher than the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage is

When the switch is closed, current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction and the
inductor stores some energy by generating a magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the
inductor is positive.
When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is higher. The magnetic
field previously created will be destroyed to maintain the current towards the load. Thus the
polarity will be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative now). As a result, two
sources will be in series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode D.
If the switch is cycled fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between charging
stages, and the load will always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone when
the switch is opened. Also while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load
is charged to this combined voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is
shorted out from the left hand side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and
energy to the load. During this time, the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from

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discharging through the switch. The switch must of course be opened again fast enough to
prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.

The basic principle of a Boost converter consists of 2 distinct states (see figure 2):

wwin the On-state, the switch S (see figure 1) is closed, resulting in an increase in the inductor
current;in the Off-state, the switch is open and the only path offered to inductor current is
through the flyback diode D, the capacitor C and the load R. This results in transferring the

w.E
energy accumulated during the On-state into the capacitor.

The input current is the same as the inductor current as can be seen in figure 2. So it is not

asy
discontinuous as in the buck converterand the requirements on the input filter are relaxed
compared to a buck converter.The buck boost converter is a DC to DC converter. The output

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voltage of the DC to DC converter is less than or greater than the input voltage. The output
voltage of the magnitude depends on the duty cycle. These converters are also known as the

gin
step up and step down transformers and these names are coming from the analogous step up
and step down transformer. The input voltages are step up/down to some level of more than

ee
or less than the input voltage. By using the low conversion energy, the input power is equal
to the output power. The following expression shows the low of a conversion.

Input power (Pin) = Output power (Pout) rin

g.n
et
For the step up mode, the input voltage is less than the output voltage (Vin < Vout). It shows
that the output current is less than the input current. Hence the buck booster is a step up
mode. Vin < Vout and Iin > Iout

In the step down mode the input voltage is greater than the output voltage (Vin > Vout). It
follows that the output current is greater the input current. Hence the buck boost converter is
a step down mode.

Vin > Vout and Iin < Iout

It is a type of DC to DC converter and it has a magnitude of output voltage. It may be more

or less than equal to the input voltage magnitude. The buck boost converter is equal to the fly
back circuit and single inductor is used in the place of the transformer. There are two types of
converters in the buck boost converter that are buck converter and the other one is boost
converter. These converters can produce the range of output voltage than the input voltage.
The following diagram shows the basic buck boost converter.

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ww
w.E Working principle of Buck Boost Converter

The working operation of the DC to DC converter is the inductor in the input resistance has

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the unexpected variation in the input current. If the switch is ON then the inductor feed the
energy from the input and it stores the energy of magnetic energy. If the switch is closed it

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discharges the energy. The output circuit of the capacitor is assumed as high sufficient than the

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time constant of an RC circuit is high on the output stage. The huge time constant is compared

ee
with the switching period and make sure that the steady state is a constant output voltage Vo(t) =
Vo(constant) and present at the load terminal.

rin
g.n
There are two different types of working principles in the buck boost converter.

Buck converter.
Boost converter.
Buck Converter Working
et
The following diagram shows the working operation of the buck converter.

In the buck converter first transistor is turned ON and second transistor is switched OFF due
to high square wave frequency. If the gate terminal of the first transistor is more than the current
pass through the magnetic field, charging C, and it supplies the load. The D1 is the Schottky
diode and it is turned OFF due to the positive voltage to the cathode.
The inductor L is the initial source of current. If the first transistor is OFF by using the
control unit then the current flow in the buck operation. The magnetic field of the inductor is
collapsed and the back e.m.f is generated collapsing field turn around the polarity of the voltage

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across the inductor. The current flows in the diode D2, the load and the D1 diode will be turned
ON

ww .

w.E
The discharge of the inductor L decreases with the help of the current. During the first
transistor is in one state the charge of the accumulator in the capacitor. The current flows through

asy
the load and during the off period keeping Vout reasonably. Hence it keeps the minimum ripple
amplitude and Vout closes to the value of Vs
Boost Converter Working
En
gin
In this converter the first transistor is switched ON continually and for the second transistor

ee
the square wave of high frequency is applied to the gate terminal. The second transistor is in

rin
conducting when the on state and the input current flow from the inductor L through the second
transistor. The negative terminal charging up the magnetic field around the inductor. The D2

g.n
diode cannot conduct because the anode is on the potential ground by highly onducting the
second transistor.
et

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By charging the capacitor C the load is applied to the entire circuit in the ON State and it can
construct earlier oscillator cycles. During the ON period the capacitor C can discharge regularly
and the amount of high ripple frequency on the output voltage. The approximate potential
difference is given by the equation below.

VS + VL
During the OFF period of second transistor the inductor L is charged and the capacitor C is
discharged. The inductor L can produce the back e.m.f and the values are depending up on the
rate of change of current of the second transistor switch. The amount of inductance the coil can

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occupy. Hence the back e.m.f can produce any different voltage through a wide range and
determined by the design of the circuit. Hence the polarity of voltage across the inductor L has

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reversed now.
The input voltage gives the output voltage and atleast equal to or higher than the input

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voltage. The diode D2 is in forward biased and the current applied to the load current and it
recharges the capacitors to VS + VL and it is ready for the second transistor.

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Modes Of Buck Boost Converters
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There are two different types of modes in the buck boost converter. The following are the

Continuous conduction mode.

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two different types of buck boost converters.

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Discontinuous conduction mode.
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In the continuous conduction mode the current from end to end of inductor never goes to
zero. Hence the inductor partially discharges earlier than the switching cycle.
Discontinuous Conduction Mode
In this mode the current through the inductor goes to zero. Hence the inductor will totally
discharge at the end of switching cycles.
Applications of Buck boost converter
 It is used in the self regulating power supplies.
 It has consumer electronics.
 It is used in the Battery power systems.
 Adaptive control applications.

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 Power amplifier applications.

Advantages of Buck Boost Converter
 It gives higher output voltage.
 Low operating duct cycle.
 Low voltage on MOSFETs

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