TOPICS COVERED IN THIS UNIT

Periodized Training
The Need for Periodization
The Relationship and Practical
Applications of Periodization
and the Laws of Training
Overtraining and Overreaching
Interrelated Stressors
Physiological Markers of Overtraining
Excessive Training
Muscle Soreness
Avoiding Overtraining
and Overreaching
An Integrated Approach
for Recuperation
Creating a Periodized Program
Conclusion

PERIODIZATION
460 I Unit IS

Unit Outline
1. Periodized Training III. Muscle Soreness
A. The Need for Periodization A. Avoiding Overtraining and Overreaching
B. The Relationship and Practical B. An Integrated Approach for Recuperation
Applications of Periodization and 1 phase 1• Pre Trainin Recover
the Laws of Training ’ aSe ’ re rainmS eco١'ery
2 Ph
1. The Law of I„d™a„al Differences “، ٤ R،C٩ Dur1"8 Traln1"8
2. The La of O ercompensation $٠ ‫؛‬٥١٦ase Post-Training Recovery
and Overload 4. Ongoing Professional Assistance
3. The SAID Principle and the 5. Sleep Requirements
Law of Specificity ٤ Creating a Periodized Program
4. The GAS Principle and the ٢ ٨ ,٦٠٦٥ pXperjence.re]aLe٥ pactors
Law of Use/Disuse
.. 2. Macrocycles, Mesocycles, and Microcycles
II. Overtraining and Overreaching
3. Order of Exercises, Drills, and Flexibility
A Interrelated Stressors ٢٢ . .
Training
B Physiological Markers of Overtraining 4 • • ٢ ٥ . ¡٢٢
٧ 9 $ 4. Foundational Training
C. Excessive Training ،٠٠ punc‫؛‬jonaj Training (Sport-Specific Training)
6. Pre-season Training
7. In-season Training
8. Active Rest
IV. Conclusion

Learning Objectives
After completing this unit, you will be able to do the following:

٠ Design and implement a comprehensive periodized program for your clients.

٠ Understand the differences between overtraining and overreaching and how to curtail each of them
in your training.

PERIODIZED TRAINING
periodized training: A phrase The concept of periodized training is becoming increasingly popular. Periodization
which refers to how one's refers to how one’s training is broken down into discreet time periods called
training is broken down into
“macrocycles”, “mesocycles,” and “microcycles.” Even though any program must
discreet time periods called
"macrocycles, mesocycles, and be
microcycles." periodized if it is to be successful (making periodization a foregone conclusion), it has
become more of a buzzword in the world of strength training. More and more books,
magazine articles, and Internet information now address the concept of periodization.

Fitness: The Complete Guide

 Periodization 461 ‫ا‬

THE NEED FOR PERIODIZATION macrocycles: A term used in

conjunction with periodization.
Long-term training period,
Is periodization necessary for athletic performance to improve? why? why not just
usually between six months and
train hard all the time and practice skills all the time? A seemingly logical question, one year.
but let's have a look at what noted sports scientists have to say.
mesocycles: A term used in
“Ute need for different phases cf training is influenced by physiology because neuro- conjunction with periodization.
muscular and cardiorespiratory development and perfection.„are achieved progres- May represent anywhere from
sively over a long period cf time. One also has to consider the client’s physiological and 2 weeks to a few months, but is
psychological potential, and that athletic shape cannot be maintained throughout the typically a month in length.
year at a high level!’ microcycles: A term used in
conjunction with periodization.
~ Tudor o. Bompa (Theory and Methodology cf Training 1983) Generally referred to as 7 days/
one week in length.
“Peaking at fust the right time — obviously cf key importance to the bodybuilder
and clients — is far from the only benefit cf periodized training. You will also gain
strength, power, and muscle size. Training with a periodized plan also helps to keep
your regimen from becoming boring. Another major reason to switch to periodized
training is to prevent injuries!’
~ Fleck and Kraemer (.Periodization Breakthrough! 1996)

periodization has been established to prevent overtraining and optimize peak

performance through training!’
~ Dan Wathen (.Essentials cf Strength Training and Conditioning 1997)

While these statements are true, the fact is the Seven Laws of Training simply demand
a periodized plan.

THE RELATIONSHIP AND

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
PERIODIZATION AND THE LAWS
OF TRAINING

The Law of Individual Differences

,
This law states that not everyone can train in the same manner. It is relevant to
periodization when you consider the fact that individual client differences will change
with training. Each will become an entirely different individual after a year of proper
training. Certainly, a beginner will not keep the same physical and psychological
characteristics—he or she will literally become a different individual in that they will
be stronger, faster, recover more quickly, and have a different perspective on training
than when they began.

The Law of Overcompensation and Overload

Simply put, training must progressively increase in intensity over a period of time.
Using the same repetitions, sets, frequency, training loads, and methods of training
time after time will not result in improvement in performance.

International Sports Sciences Association

462 I Unit 15

The SAID Principle and the Law of Specificity

,
Ihe body will adapt in a highly specific manner to the stress it receives. Simply put,
you must train like you play! However, the rigors of athletic competition are too
extreme to jump right into. Many sports are ballistic in nature, a stress that is too
intense to engage in without sufficient limit strength and conditioning methods.

The GAS Principle and the Law of Use/Disuse

Periods of high intensity must be followed by periods of low or no intensity. If you
only complete one hard workout, adaptation for larger muscles will take weeks. ,That
is too long not to train! ,Therefore, there must be frequent periods of low intensity
between periods of high intensity. Again, the adaptation process will allow quicker
recovery as you develop physically. What used to demand a week’s worth of recovery
will eventually only require a couple of days. Therefore, changes in training variables
must take place.

OVERTRAINING AND OVERREACHING

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome Principle has demonstrated that the body
will go through three predictable stages in response to stress: shock, compensation,
and exhaustion. Therefore, cycling your training to account for these stages is
imperative for program success. If we exceed our bodies’ rates of adaptation, we will
most likely spend most of our training in the exhaustion phase.
Overreaching is an accumulation of training and/or non-training stress resulting
overreaching:
An accumulation of training in a short-term decrement in performance capacity. This may or may not include
and/or non-training stress related physiological and psychological signs and symptoms of overtraining in which
resulting in a short-term restoration of performance capacity may take from several days to several weeks.
decrement in performance
capacity. This may or may not
Overtraining is an accumulation of training and/or non-training stress resulting
include related physiological in a long term decrement in performance capacity. This may or may not include
and psychological signs and related physiological and psychological signs and symptoms in which restoration of
symptoms of overtraining performance capacity may take from several weeks to several months.
in which restoration of
performance capacity may take
from several days to several INTERRELATED STRESSORS
weeks.
We are all bombarded daily with a variety of stressors. More often than not, these
overtraining: Excessive
training, principally of the
stressors are of low enough “intensity” or so subtle that they don’t affect us negatively
eccentric contraction phase in the athletic training term. But most take their toll over time. What’s worse, of those
of lifting weights or running. that do have a more immediate negative effect, their intensity is often compounded
Can cause injuries, loss of body by the mere presence of the many other stressors. For example, any number of
weight, insomnia, depression, environmental stressors can have physical or physiological consequences. And one’s
chronic muscle soreness, and psychological state is inextricably intertwined with one’s biochemistry.
retard workout recovery.
Consider some of the more common stressors (Table 15.1), with an eye toward how
stressors: External stimulus or
a events that cause stress to an
they interact to aid or hinder training efforts and especially how they can affect
organism. overreaching and overtraining.
As a rule of thumb, attempt to eliminate (or at least minimize the ill effects of) all
stressors except exertion, training duration, training frequency, training intensity,
and training volume. You want these stressors, but only if you can control them.
In a previous chapter, we explored the Seven Laws of Training that must be obeyed

Fitness: The Complete Guide

Stressors ، i٢١d Contributing Factors

Periodizatio
ENVIRONMENTAL

n I 463
٠ Excessive heat or cold ٠ Poor training facilities ٠ Excessively high or low humidity
STRESSORS

٠ Challenging terrain ٠ Ultraviolet irradiation ٠ Excessive altitude (above or below sea level)
٠ Environmental pollution
Table ٠ Poorly designed clothing ٠ Airborne pollen and other allergens
15.1
٠ Poorly designed equipment

٠ Job problems ٠ Depression ٠ Mental illness

PSYCHOLOGICAL

٠ Neurological disorders ٠ Pain ٠ Aging

CIAL

٠ Anger ٠ Fear or anxiety ٠ Academic considerations

AND PSVCH( ،‫؛‬٠

٠ Financial status ٠ Family problems ٠ Sex problems

٠ Personality conflicts ٠ Schedule conflicts ٠ Boredom
٠ Lack of encouragement ٠ Psyching up too frequently ٠
STRESSORS

Pressure to perform
٠ Lack of adequate training
AND BIOCHEMICAL
PHYSIOLOGICAL

٠ Environmental stress ٠ Psychological stress ٠ Too much

STRESSORS

training frequency
٠ Anatomical/structural stress ٠ Aging ٠ Too much training intensity
٠ Overuse stress ٠ Exertional stress ٠ Too much training volume
٠ Poor exercise technique ٠ Too much trainingduration ٠ Ill-conceived training program

if training efforts are to pay maximum dividends.

Of particular importance is the General Adaptation
PHYSIOLOGICAL MARKERS
Syndrome (GAS) Law. ,The third stage of the GAS Law OF OVERTRAINING
infers the notion that you must rest between severe bouts
of training to allow both recovery and supercompensation Several physiological markers of overtraining have
to occur. In the short run (days or weeks), failing to do been identified. More important than recognizing
so causes an overreaching syndrome and, in the long run these markers, however, is denying their evolution. By
(months), causes an overtraining syndrome. the time you have observed such markers, it is too late.
Consider these common examples: Is it better to treat
If you do not go that far, the low-level overreaching may the excess storage fat associated with obesity or prevent
be its accumulation? Is it better to allow your insulin levels
regarded as just another term for “adaptive overload.” It is to fluctuate wildly by disregarding sound dietary and
what is needed to initiate an adaptive response in the body. supplementation techniques (thereby predisposing you
But once you have overreached, you must pay attention to to increased catabolic activity and thus overreaching/
the GAS Law! Continued overreaching — indiscriminate overtraining) or to eat and supplement carefully to
and continued overload over time — causes cumulative prevent catabolism and overreaching/overtraining?
microtrauma, which is the primary cause of overtraining.

International Sports Sciences Association

464 I Unit 15

Obviously, the best approach is prevention.

If overtraining and overreaching are not prevented, several markers (symptoms)
will alert you to their presence. It is important that you know what to do if these
markers surface. First, you should be aware that most scientists are in agreement
that overtraining and overreaching markers are generally different for anaerobic
and aerobic clients. Anaerobic clients usually experience sympathetic overtraining
symptoms, whereas aerobic clients are more susceptible to parasympathetic
overtraining. Briefly, the sympathetic nervous system speeds up bodily functions,
thereby increasing energy needs. And the parasympathetic system slows down bodily
functions, thereby conserving energy. Together, they comprise the autonomic nervous
system, which acts on blood vessels, glands, and internal organs. ,The somatic nervous
system, on the other hand, primarily innervates your skeletal muscles.
Sympathetic overtraining can lead to increased resting heart rate, increased
sympathetic overtraining:
A category of overtraining in
blood pressure, loss of appetite, decreased body mass, sleep disturbances, emotional
which the sympathetic part of instability, and elevated basal metabolic rate. Parasympathetic overtraining signs
the nervous system becomes include early onset of fatigue, increased resting heart rate, decreased heart rate
overactive which results in the recovery after exercise, and increased resting blood pressure. Of the two conditions,
classic sign of an increased symptoms of sympathetic overtraining are the most frequently observed. Nilson et al.
resting heart rate.
(1999) have proposed that young clients are more prone to symptoms of sympathetic
parasympathetic overtraining, while older clients are more likely to show signs of parasympathetic
overtraining: A serious overtraining.
end-stage of overtraining
associated with the exhaustion ,The body’s hormonal responses are also altered as a result of overtraining. ,The ratio
of neurological and hormonal of testosterone to cortisol is thought to regulate anabolic processes in recovery. So a
factors, typically with serious change in this ratio is an important indicator, and perhaps the cause, of overtraining.
physical, chemical, or mental
injuries.
A decrease in testosterone coupled with increased cortisol might lead to more protein
catabolism than anabolism in the cells. Overtrained clients often have higher blood
levels of urea. And because urea is produced by the breakdown of protein, this
indicates increased protein catabolism. ,This mechanism is thought to be responsible
for the loss in the body mass seen in the overtrained clients.

EXCESSIVE TRAINING
Excessive training refers to the training in which the volume, the intensity, or
excessive training: A point both are increased too quickly and without proper progression. Training with too
where an individual may see a high a volume or intensity produces no additional improvement in conditioning or
decrease in performance and
performance and can lead to a chronic state of fatigue that is associated with muscle
plateauing as a result from
failure to consistently perform glycogen depletion. Research shows that training three to four hours per day, five
at a certain level or training load or six days each week, provides no greater benefits than when training is limited to
exceeds their recovery capacity. only 1 to 1.5 hours per day. In addition, such excessive training has been shown to
significantly decrease muscle strength. ,Therefore, trainers and trainees should make
sure that their programs are periodized and slowly progressive. Finally, the concept
of training specificity implies that several hours of daily training will not provide the
adaptations needed for clients who participate in events of short duration. So if the
training volume and intensity are implemented with a steady progression and they are
specific to that sport, then what should be the intensity of training?
The level of training intensity relates to both the force of muscle action and the stress
placed on the cardiovascular system. With regard to muscle action, intensity is highest
when the muscles exert maximal tension. Training intensity can determine the
specific adaptations that occur in response to the training stimulus. High-intensity,
low-volume training can be tolerated only for brief periods. Although it does increase
muscle strength, aerobic capacity will not be improved. Conversely, low-intensity,

Fitness: The Complete Guide

 Periodization I 465

high-volume training stresses the oxygen transport and oxidative metabolism

systems, causing greater gains in aerobic capacity. Attempts to perform large amounts
catabolism: The breaking
of high-intensity training or trying to imitate the training programs of elite clients
down aspect of metabolism,
can have negative effects on adaptation. ,The energy needs of high-intensity exercise including all processes in
place greater demands on the glycolytic system, rapidly depleting muscle glycogen. which complex substances are
If training is attempted too often, such as daily, the muscles can become chronically progressively broken down
depleted of their energy reserves and the person might demonstrate signs of chronic into simpler ones. Example:
fatigue or overtraining. ,The body undergoes inflammation in response to this training the catabolism of protein in
and should progress into repair and remodeling. muscle tissue into component
amino acids, such as occurs
If you are constantly in the catabolic state of metabolism through repeated training, in intense training. Another
your body cannot produce the chemical substances and parts needed for repair, common example is breaking
remodeling, and ultimately growth of the body. ,This is called overtraining. ,The stress down carbohydrates or fats
of excessive training can exceed the body’s ability to recover and adapt, which results for use in energy expenditure.
Both anabolism and catabolism
in more catabolism (breakdown) than anabolism (buildup). Once again, clients usually involve the release of
experience varied levels of fatigue during repeated days and weeks of training, so not energy and together constitute
all situations can be classified as overtraining. Fatigue that often follows one or more metabolism.
exhaustive training sessions is usually corrected by a few days of rest, coupled with a
anabolism: The building up in
carbohydrate-rich diet. Overtraining, on the other hand, is characterized by a sudden the body of complex chemical
decline in performance that cannot be remedied by a few days of rest and dietary compounds from simpler
manipulation. compounds (e.g., proteins from
amino acids).

MUSCLE SORENESS delayed onset muscle

soreness (DOMS): The pain
Our bodies will undergo the processes of inflammation, repair, and remodeling in and stiffness experienced
in muscles several hours to
response to the stress imposed by training. A certain degree of muscle soreness or
days after unaccustomed or
pain may be experienced after a workout. Muscle soreness that occurs directly after strenuous exercise.
a workout is known as acute muscle soreness. Muscle soreness that appears 12 to 48
post exercise muscle
hours after exercise is known as delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) or post
soreness (PEMS): The
exercise muscle soreness (PEMS). Acute soreness may last up to one hour following sensation of discomfort or pain
exercise and dissipate thereafter. ,The cause of acute soreness or inflammation may in the skeletal muscles following
be due to a reduction in blood flow to the muscle and an accumulation of metabolic physical activity, usually
byproducts like hydrogen ions or lactic acid. ,The physiological mechanisms that cause eccentric, to which an individual
is not accustomed.

International Sports Sciences Association

466 I Unit IS

DOMS or PEMS are not completely understood, but the leading hypotheses are: (1)
the Connective Tissue Damage Hypothesis, (2) Skeletal Muscle Damage Hypothesis,
and (3) ,The Spasm Hypothesis.
1. Connective Tissue Damage Hypothesis. In a 1997 study, Brown,
Child, Day and Donnelly reaffirmed an early study done by Abraham that
demonstrated that the excretion of hydroxyproline—a metabolic product
of connective tissue damage—was higher in the urine of individuals who
experienced muscle soreness than those who did not. This hypothesis suggests
that DOMS or PEMS is due to a disruption in the connective tissue of the
muscle and tendinous attachments.

2. Skeletal Muscle Damage Hypothesis. In a 1986 study, Clarkson et. al.

found that serum creatine kinase concentration was elevated with concentric,
eccentric, and isometric contractions, with greater perceived muscle soreness
associated with the eccentric contraction. In a 2000 article entitled "Effects
of Plyometric Exercise on Muscle Soreness and Plasma Creatine Kinase Levels
and its Comparison with Eccentric and Concentric Exercise" (The journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research: Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 68-74), the authors
found Clarkson's study not only proved to be true but also concluded
that plyometric activities had incurred greater perceived muscle soreness than
concentric contractions.

3. Spasm Hypothesis. In a 1980 study, Devries proposed that DOMS or PEMS

ischemia: Inadequate blood is due to ischemia during exercise, which results in the accumulation of pain-
flow to a body part, caused by causing substances in the muscle, which in turn stimulates reflex muscular
constriction or obstruction of a spasms that produce more ischemia. This theory was further proven by work
blood vessel. done in 2000 by Barias, Walsh, Baxter, and Allen.

Decrease in performance

Increased number of infections

Elevated heart rate and blood

lactate levels during exercise

Loss of body weight

Chronic fatigue

Psychological staleness

Figure 15.1 Symptoms of overtraining

Fitness: The Complete Guide

 Periodization I 467

AVOIDING OVERTRAINING
AND OVERREACHING
Cumulative microtrauma (cellular damage from an overreaching episode that gets cumulative microtrauma:
worse and worse over time) is the cause of overtraining. ,There are two ways to cope Repetitive motion injury.
with cumulative microtrauma: You can avoid it or you can treat it. If you have to treat Any group of conditions
characterized by repeated stress
it, it is too late! You avoid it not by avoiding training or by avoiding a small amount of
on muscles, bones, tendons,
(normal) cellular destruction, but instead by not letting microtrauma accumulate. and nerves which have physical
This is done by: and physiological ramifications.

٠ Incorporating sensible, scientific weight training and light resistance systems of

training that employ a carefully devised "periodicity" or "cycle" method
٠ Varying your training methods

٠ Taking advantage of scientific application of the many therapeutic modalities at

your disposal
٠ Following sensible, scientific, nutritional practices and supplementation
٠ Using good lifting techniques
٠ Getting proper sleep and rest

٠ Taking advantage of various psychological techniques that promote restoration

(for example, meditation, visualization, and hypnotherapy techniques)

٠ Avoiding all other stressors in your life that can become problematic to
your training efforts (whether environmental, psychological, sociological,
biochemical, physiological, or anatomical in nature)

The best predictors of overtraining syndrome appear to be heart rate, oxygen uptake,
and blood lactate responses to a standardized bout of work. Performance decrements
are also good indicators. The best way to minimize the risk of overtraining is to
follow cyclic training procedures and alternating easy, moderate and hard periods of
training, also known as periodization. As a general rule, one or two days of intense
training should be followed by an equal number of easy aerobic training days.
Repeated days of hard training cause a gradual reduction of muscle glycogen. On
average, the body has the ability to store 500 grams of glycogen; 400 are in muscle
glycogen, 95 in liver glycogen, and 5 in blood-borne glucose. Unless clients consume
extra carbohydrates during these periods, muscle and liver glycogen reserves can be
depleted. As a consequence, the most heavily recruited muscle fibers will not be able to
generate needed energy for exercise.
Keeping a journal of daily training programs and charting sets, repetitions, exercises,
rest between sets and, most importantly, target heart rate during particular lifts
can help you analyze your clients’ progression. If all these factors are constant, then
carbohydrate intake should increase by an extra 360 calories per day. The extra
calories add up to an additional 2500 calories a week, which corresponds to the
calories needed to gain a pound in muscle. If you continue to lose muscle mass,
analyze all the emotional stress in your life to identify any possible contributing
factors. Allow for adequate periods of sleep a night; men typically eight hours a night
and women seven hours a night. A comprehensive program that is periodized and
progressive will always yield the best gains. Adjust your programs and keep training.

International Sports Sciences Association

468 I Unit 15

AN INTEGRATED APPROACH as well as large doses, with less possibility of stomach

irritation. Instead of assuming that “more is better,” it is
FOR RECUPERATION a wise practice to seek the smallest possible dose that will
assist your recuperative efforts. To protect your stomach
Left to its own resources, the body will, in time, recover
lining even further, try crushing the aspirin tablets
fully from most training sessions. ,The problem is that the
body is in no particular hurry to do this. So the key is to between two spoons and mixing them into a glass of
administer a comprehensive recuperation plan to speed milk. Since the body eventually develops a tolerance to it,
up this process. Soviet researchers recommend “cycling” use aspirin judiciously—perhaps only prior to your most
your recuperative efforts. ,This means that as the difficulty difficult training sessions. Once again, never recommend
of your training increases, you must pay even more over-the-counter medications without first obtaining
attention to recuperation. Here, then, is a three-phase medical clearance.
recuperation procedure that has been perfected “in the
trenches” on many elite-level throwers and power lifters. Leg Elevation
,
This procedure is integrative; that is to say, all aspects Many of us either sit or stand while at work for eight
function synergistically, with the end result being a more or more hours before going to the gym. During this
speedy and complete recovery from the most difficult time, the legs can often become edematous and swollen.
training sessions. Training with your legs in this condition will handicap
your training efforts right from the start. To help remedy
Phase 1: Pre-Training Recovery this condition, spend 20 to 30 minutes (both during
,
The application of pre-training recuperative techniques the work day and prior to your leg and/or low back
will ensure not only better training performance, but training) with your back on the floor, legs up against the
more effective post-training recovery as well. Sports wall or up against the side of a couch. Positioning your
medicine specialists employ the following to favorably legs in this way will allow gravity to assist your body in
affect their clients’ recuperative abilities: returning blood back up to the heart, restoring optimum
circulation. Incidentally, while on your back, take the
opportunity to listen to some relaxing music or take a
Salicylate (Aspirin)
light nap. Doing so will promote an important physical
Before we discuss aspirin, we must stress: In all cases,
and psychological transition between work and training.
NEVER recommend over-the-counter medication
without first obtaining medical clearance.
Phase 2: Recovery During Training
Aspirin operates on a variety of levels. First, aspirin ,
The recovery process starts every time you cease work —
improves blood flow by reducing the body’s output of that means between the positive and negative portion of
thromboxane, a natural chemical, which causes blood each rep, between reps, between exercises, and between
platelets to become “stickier.” Even as little as 30 mgs workouts. In the larger sense, recovery is needed between
(about a tenth of a normal tablet) of aspirin prior to
heavy training cycles, which sometimes last months. ,The
training can thin the blood to the point where muscle following aspects of recovery during the training session
tissue is exposed to greater amounts of nutrient-carrying must be addressed.
blood, thus speeding up recovery between reps and sets.
Second, lactic acid and other waste products — the result
of heavy training efforts — will be flushed from your Time Between Sets
muscle cells with greater speed and efficiency. Aspirin also Time is, in fact, the most elemental unit of recovery. ,The
reduces edema (swelling), another result of hard training. amount of time you spend between sets has a significant
Tissue swelling and inflammation is universally regarded effect on your performance during succeeding sets and
by experts as the enemy of healing. Recovery simply does on future training sessions. In fact, you can raise the
not begin until edema has subsided. ,Third, aspirin reduces overall difficulty of the workout simply by decreasing
pain associated with training. While there is no benefit the time between sets. You can employ either objective
in masking pain resulting from injury, aspirin can often or subjective methods of monitoring time between sets.
make the difference between a “ho-hum” workout and a Objectively, the pulse rate is commonly used to determine
really supercharged effort which, when coupled with an when to begin the next set. Most commonly, the trainee
effective recovery regimen, will lead to increased progress. waits until the heart rate has fallen below 60% of
maximum. Another objective method, albeit less accurate,
Research has proven that low doses of aspirin work just is to use the clock. In other words, for example, you

Fitness: The Complete Guide

 Periodization I 469

would do a set every three minutes. The problem with this method is that your body’s
functioning varies from workout to workout, depending on how well you recovered
from previous training efforts. ,Therefore, using a standard time unit can be a hit-or-
miss proposition at best.
Most people use a subjective assessment to determine time between sets. In other
words, they resume the next set when they “feel ready.” While there is merit in
trusting and listening to your body, we recommend the heart-rate method, perhaps
tempered with subjective assessment, to determine the proper time between sets.

Movement Between Sets

Many individuals mistakenly sit down and move as little as possible between sets.
While this feels like the thing to do from an intuitive perspective, a faster recovery
can be realized by moving around a bit between sets. Why? Well, if you will consider
the importance of the warm-up and cool-down in the context of a workout, and
then think of moving between sets as both a cool-down from the previous set and a
warm-up for the next set, you will see the logic in this approach. Movement serves as
a “transition” between all-out effort during the set and relative inactivity between sets.
This practice aids circulation and helps to reduce swelling of muscular tissues.

Peripheral Heart Action Training (PHAT)

PHAT is simply the practice of structuring your workouts so that upper- and lower- peripheral heart action
body exercises are alternated with one another instead of first training legs, then back training (PHAT): A form of
and so on. The effectiveness of PHAT is that it keeps the blood moving between major resistance training performed
areas of the body, which accelerates recovery of each body part. in a circuit fashion (or little
rest between exercises). The
Peripheral Heart Action Training
The “Light Day” System requires you to perform
Instead of performing each and every leg workout at gut-busting intensity, multiple exercises in rapid
succession, but alternating
incorporate planned, easier workouts about every third session. An example of such
between upper and lower body
a session would be four sets of 15 reps at 50% to 55% of maximum. This type of exercises. This helps facilitate
moderate-intensity training is quite effective in “feeding” sore muscles with fresh circulation to various muscles
blood, reducing scar formation on the micro-level and flushing waste products from and helps you burn extra
affected tissues. Planning light days into your training schedule not only accelerates calories compared to traditional
recovery times, it also adds variety to the training schedule, which in itself assists in weight lifting.
the recovery process.

International Sports Sciences Association

470 I Unit 15

Phase 3: Post-Training Recovery

Post-training recovery methods complete the integrated recuperation plan. ,These
methods are designed to assist the body in rapidly accelerating the recovery process
when it is needed most: directly after training. Two techniques in particular give the
most “bang for the buck” in terms of immediate results.

Contrast Showers
Done immediately after training (use your gym’s shower, if possible), expose your
lumbar area to alternating bursts of hot and cold water - as hot as you can reasonably
stand for two minutes, followed by two minutes of progressively colder water up to the
point of discomfort. This procedure is then repeated four to six times. Since hot water
contrast showers: A method is a vasodilator and cold water a vasoconstrictor, the net effect of contrast showers is
of removing metabolic waste vastly improved circulation to the affected areas.
products from working muscles
and/or improving circulation
The effectiveness of contrast showers is markedly increased when combined with
which involves submerging all or trunk stretching. Facing away from the shower nozzle, slowly bend forward at the
part of the body in alternating waist, rounding the spine as you do so (forward flexion). Then return to an upright
hot and cold temperatures of position and slightly backward to extend your spine. Finally, flex your spine laterally
water. by bending to each side at the waist. Use a handrail and non-slip rubber skids for
safety. All four stretches are repeated for each contrasting cycle.

Cryokinetics
Immediately after leaving the shower, construct an ice pack by placing crushed ice in
a Zip-lock bag. Lie down on the floor with your feet propped over your bed or couch
and place the ice pack under your lumbar spine. Now, to improve the effect of this
procedure threefold, try stretching your spine while on the ice. Gently perform lateral
(side to side) flexions alternated with pulling your knees to your chest. Mobilizing
your spine in this way will counteract the stiffening effect that you may have
cryokinetics experienced while icing your back in the past. Cryo-kinetic therapy is very beneficial
(cryo-kinetic therapy): in reducing contracted, tightened muscle tissue, as well as pumping these tissues free
A rehabilitation technique of accumulated training-induced waste products. Spend at least 15, but no longer than
involving ice application 20, minutes on the ice.
followed by progressive active
exercises.
Ongoing Professional Assistance
Many forms of therapy, including various types of “bodywork,” are available at
moderate cost and are highly recommended. Chiropractic adjustments, massage,
whirlpool, sauna, and acupressure are among the most readily available and effective
of these therapeutic modalities.
The integrated recuperative strategy just described is not theoretical, ft has been
successfully used by scores of high-level athletes from various disciplines, ft requires
a minimum investment of time and money and it requires no specialized equipment
or facilities. For many individuals, integrating a recuperative scheme into their
personal training schedule means the start of new progress, even after long periods
of stagnation.
It all boils down to a simple plan. Many trainers will tell you that the single biggest
problem with their clients is not that they do not train enough, but that they train too
much. This is not necessarily true. Perhaps they have “under-recovered,” but they are
not necessarily training too much. In fact, it may very well be that clients can tolerate
much more training and benefit commensurably from it. First, you must periodize

Fitness: The Complete Guide

 Periodization I 471

your training adequately. All progress must be gradual and orderly. What you do
must be predicated upon what you have just accomplished. No system of training is
a silver bullet. None will give you immediate success at your sport. Indeed, sticking
to one program can actually hamper your progress. Take your time, be scientific and
thorough, and plan for sufficient sleep in your week.

Sleep Requirements
,
The amount of sleep needed is contingent on the individual’s current schedule,
personal preferences, and level of daily stress. Extensive evidence points to a need for
at least eight hours of sleep per night and often as much as nine or more hours in times
of elevated stress. You can get by on less, but it catches up with you eventually. Try it
for yourself. Go to bed earlier and get an extra hour in every night for a week. You will
be quite surprised at how your alertness and vitality improve.
,
The midday nap, although not part of our Western cultural norms, is a widely practiced
custom around the world. Your circadian rhythm begs for sleep at that time, and it is not
only attributable to poor diet as is so often claimed.
,
Therefore, if possible and your schedule permits, take a brief 20- to 30-minute rest in
the afternoon, ft will make you sharper, more alert and promote faster recuperation
from intense exercise. However, avoid going into the deep sleep that comes with longer
rest. Short periods of rest are more productive.

Tips to Optimize Sleep

Oftentimes, it is hard to get a good night’s sleep. Even when we do fall asleep, the
quality of sleep may be insufficient.
The following tips can assist you in getting that good night’s sleep:
1. Avoid a pattern of sleeping 12 hours one night, then 6 the next. This is
not the same as sleeping 9 hours a night. A true sleep bank does not exist.
Oversleeping and under-sleeping throw off your routine.

2. Exercise. Avoid intense, late-night sessions. If these were done early in the
day, they would aid in a good night's sleep. But if they're done at night, the
opposite is true.

3. Avoid alcohol, caffeine, and other stimulants before bed. Caffeine increase
alertness, as do other stimulants. Alcohol, on the other hand, will actually help
you fall asleep. But alcohol greatly disrupts REM sleep; after a night of heavy
drinking, you fall asleep early...but you are not really resting. REM sleep: A kind of sleep
that occurs at intervals during
4. Avoid sleeping pills. These will create a dependency and should be the night and is characterized
a last resort. by rapid eye movements,
more dreaming and bodily
5. Get checked out for sleep apnea. Many large, muscular men have sleep apnea movement, and faster pulse and
that can easily be treated with a CPAP device that not only will improve sleep breathing.
quality and performance, but can lower blood pressure and greatly improve
sleep apnea: A common
overall health.
disorder in which you have one
6. Optimize your sleeping environment. Keep your room cool and dark. or more pauses in breathing or
Sometimes even playing soft, classical music can help you doze off into a shallow breaths while you sleep.
restful bliss.

7. Relax at night and avoid extreme highs and lows; neither

promotes relaxation.

International Sports Sciences Association

472 I Unit 15

CREATING A PERIODIZED PROGRAM

Now that the need for a periodized program has been
reviewed, it is time to begin exploring how such training
can be organized in a logical manner, ft is not as clear-cut
as it seems. ,There are many factors involved in creating a
periodized program.

Age- and Experience-Related Factors

Knowing that the Law of Individual Differences does
exist, the ages and the experience levels of your particular
clients must be taken into consideration. Remember the
following points:
٠ Younger clients will recover more quickly than
older clients.
٠ Younger clients are also usually less experienced
than older clients.
٠ Clients will change in experience levels and
recovery abilities during their training. Over a
lifetime of training, the body will decrease in
recovery ability. But during that lifetime, it will
also undergo certain training effects that allow for
harder and more frequent training.
Mesocycle
With these points in mind, younger clients—who are less A mesocycle is a periodical breakdown in a macrocycle.
skilled both in conditioning techniques as well as in their While the overall focus in a mesocycle has changed,
given sports—will need a more vigorous, foundational it should be noted that mesocycles “blend” together.
regimen. As your clients progress and mature, more
Foundational training does not end in the “foundational”
sport-specific training will be needed, and the
period, nor does sport-specific training begin in the
foundational period—while remaining important—can be
“sport-specific training” period. Pre-training for sport-
shortened. Aged clients may need more recovery time and
individual differences may require more of a foundational specific movements and exercises will begin in the
period of training. foundational period, and foundational training may
extend well into the sport-specific period (however, with
Macrocycles, Mesocycles, and Microcycles less emphasis).
Periodization is the discreet breakdown of training goals
through cycles. Training cycles can be categorized as Microcycle
macrocycles, mesocycles, and microcycles. In simple A microcycle is described as one cycle in intensity. Recall
terms, periodization is a way to organize training goals. that periods of high intensity must be followed by periods
Metaphorically speaking, a macrocycle can be likened of low intensity before another period of high intensity
to a dollar bill. A mesocycle would then be considered can occur. For certain muscles, this could take as little
a quarter and a microcycle would be like a penny. as five days and as much as three weeks! So, while a
Keep in mind that these terms are simply used for microcycle is often thought of as “one week,” this is not
training organization. always the case. Imagine that you have your client on a
certain program for the next three weeks and he or she
is progressing in a positive manner. However, midway
Macrocycle through the cycle, a work-related problem occurs which
A macrocycle can be thought of as an entire training
limits your client’s normal sleep patterns. He or she is
period. While it is generally thought of as a year, it is
unable to continue with the program as planned. In this
not always the case. Most sports have one season per
instance, a one-day deviation in the program’s intensity to
year. However, others—such as track and field and
account for this minor aberration can be implemented so
weightlifting—may have two or more “seasons” per year.
that the client can continue to progress successfully. ,This
one-day deviation is an example of a training microcycle.

Fitness: The Complete Guide

 Periodization I 473

Order of Exercises, Drills, and Flexibility Training

One dilemma that often plagues the trainer and client: What should the client do
first? All components are important, but which ones should be done first? Because
speed, explosive movements, and agility require much of the body’s resources, they
hold precedence in order of training. Because bigger muscles require more energy and
effort than smaller muscles, they should be done first. Multiple-)oint movements also
require more energy and effort than smaller muscles. ,They, too, should be exercised
first. As for flexibility training, the rule is this: ft should never be done when the body
is not fully warmed up as injury may occur.
Training is not limited to the weight room or the field. During training, psychological
techniques and therapeutic modalities must also be applied. With these points in
mind, here are some general guidelines for proper order of exercises, drills and
flexibility training:
I. Psychological training (visualization,
concentration, etc.)
II. Warm up
III. Flexibility training
IV. Non-linear speed-strength training
A. Plyometric training
B. Agility training

V. Linear speed training

VI. Explosive training (Olympic movements)
VII. Multiple-joint movements
A. Squat
B. Bench press
C. Dip, overhead press, etc.

VIII. Single-joint movements

A. Larger muscles
B. Smaller muscles

IX. Flexibility training

X. Cool down
XI. Application of appropriate therapy (ice treatment, TENS, etc.) foundational training: A
series of exercises designed to
improve general health, alleviate
acute and chronic pain, improve
posture and enhance athletic
ability.
Foundational Training
, limit strength: Absolute
The main purpose of foundational training is to strengthen weaknesses, recover
strength enhanced by
from any injuries and develop a “foundation” of strength in all muscles, tendons, hypnosis, electrotherapy,
ligaments and health and fitness. Usually this involves training for limit strength, ergogenic substances of any
but it can also include the most nonspecific components of fitness involved in your form (including nutritional
sport. Because limit strength is not a major component of any sport other than supplements or drugs) or other
powerlifting (although important), it is usually the main focus of this period. For this techniques. Such aids increase
reason, we are providing a powerlifter’s “peaking cycle” as a basic plan for developing the potential for strength above
normal capacity. Absolute
limit strength. For clients other than powerlifters, slight modifications should be made
strength is reached solely
as they have no reason to perform one-repetition maximum lifts. through training.

International Sports Sciences Association

474 I Unit 15

For a beginning client, this period may also serve as a

“learning” period for technique and general strength
training. In future mesocycles, a beginner may be
required to engage in movements that are foreign to
him and cannot be done properly or efficiently unless
he or she has been exposed to such movements in the
foundational period.
,
This period has been given several names by practitioners
(general preparatory period and anatomical adaptation
phase, to name two). Regardless of what it is called, the
main focus remains the same: to prepare clients for future
training and peak performance by developing a strong
foundation of health and fitness.

Functional Training
(Sport-Specific Training)
,
This mesocycle is dedicated to further and more focused
development of those attributes needed by your client.
Training will be done increasingly closer to the energy
pathway needed for the particular sport. Furthermore,
the body parts (muscles, tendons, and ligaments) that
are more directly involved will receive heavier focus. For
example, a sprinter—who would have been focusing on unconditioned client. Furthermore, your client should
cardiovascular strength, as well as limit strength in all start practicing the movements and patterns needed for
muscles of the body in the foundational period—will now his or her sport. Football players should start looking at
focus on explosive leg strength and strength in the ATP/ their playbooks more, pitchers should be throwing harder,
CP or glycolytic pathway in this mesocycle (depending on long-distance clients should run longer distances, and
the length of the race). hockey, soccer, and lacrosse players should be practicing
ball or puck handling. In any sense, the focus was on
More advanced training techniques, such as the Olympic
gaining the necessary “tools” to optimize performance.
movements or compensatory acceleration training, will
Now is the time to refine their skills with their new “tools.”
be used in this period for many clients without worry
of proper technique (which should have been developed
in the foundational period). ,The functional training
period will also serve as a foundation for more advanced
In-Season Training
training, such as plyometrics and ballistic training in the Even in the pre-season training mesocycle, your client is
pre-seasonal mesocycle for many clients. still developing. However, now game day soon approaches!
Seasonal training should be viewed as the first day of
organized practice. ,The reason is these practices are often
Pre-Season Training the most intense of the year and it’s time to start backing
This mesocycle is designed to bring all aspects of past off in training and allowing the head coach to do his job.
training together to optimally condition a client for peak
performance. With the proper foundation in place, it is While conditioning will be seriously decreased, the term
time to focus on extremely specific skills needed for your “maintenance phase” is a misguided and illogical term, ft
client’s sport. No components of fitness that are not highly does not mean physical fitness will not be increased and
specific to your client’s sport are to be practiced in this merely maintained. In fact, it will be increased. In-season
mesocycle; they should already be in place! training is the ultimate in “sport-specific” training. Your
client, with the proper periodized routine, should become
Many of the drills and exercises in this mesocycle will stronger — both in the game and in overall conditioning
be extremely advanced and cannot be done by anyone — as the season progresses. ,The secret is to properly
who is not a high-level client. For example, for some schedule training sessions to allow such growth without
clients, ballistic movements and overspeed training will disturbing the head coach’s practices. ,The goal of this
be used. Such movements would be too intense for an mesocycle is to win'. Nothing you do in this mesocycle
should impede this goal!

Fitness: The Complete Guide

Key Terms
active rest
anabolism Periodization I 475
catabolism
contrast showers ischemia peripheral heart action training
limit strength (PHAT)
Active Rest
cumulative microtrauma macrocycles
. post exercise muscle soreness
٢pE
Now that the season is over, your client has achieved championship status (nothing less
cryokinetics
is acceptable!) and he or she has left everything he or she had on the playing
mM٠c٧clM field, it is
REM sleep
time to realize the GAS microcycles
Principle and allow a period of low intensity. । performance
Peak
delayed onset muscle soreness 7 sleep apnea
overreaching
(DOMS)is both physically and psychologically draining and it’s time to “get away.”
-٠ stressors
While the term “active rest” overtraining
may seem like a contradiction in terms, it sympathetic
is not. overtraining
excessive training parasympathetic overtraining active rest: Defined as very
Knowing that various therapeutic modalities increase recovery time and that even light exercise, often involving
exhausted bodies will recover more periodized
quicklytraining
from actively moving the body, this is stretching, which does not result
foundational training
still a time for physical activity, much less intense activity — but activity nonetheless. in damage to the muscles.
٧
Tell your clients to enjoy those things they have been meaning to do. Play some pick
up basketball. Go for a daily, long walk with your significant other. Put good use to
those golf clubs. Emphasize that they are not to sit around and do nothing!

CONCLUSION
As noted, perhaps even though names amongst these practitioners may differ, the
goals and progression remain the same, ft is a discreet and gradual movement toward
optimal fitness with regard to the specific demands of your client’s sport, ft must be
reemphasized that the goals of each mesocycle are not clear-cut, but they must blend
together. In the foundational mesocycle, you are developing the skills for sport-
specific training. In the sport-specific training mesocycle, you are still developing a
foundation as well as setting the stage for in-season training. In pre- and in-season
training, you are still developing sport-specific strength. Although your client may not
be involved in a traditional sport, he/she will have a goal and the plan on how to best
achieve the goal can be periodized, as well.

International Sports Sciences Association

476 I Unit 15

Unit Summary
I. Periodization refers to how a training program is broken down into discreet time periods called macrocycles,
mesocycles, and microcycles. In simple terms, periodization is a way to organize training goals.

A. Metaphorically speaking, imagine a macrocycle is a dollar bill. A mesocycle would then be considered a
quarter and a microcycle would be like a penny. Keep in mind that these terms are simply used for training
organization.

II. Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome Principle has demonstrated that the body will go through three
predictable stages in response to stress: shock, compensation and exhaustion. Therefore, cycling your training to
account for these stages is imperative for program success. Not doing so can lead to overtraining.

III. Though there are several physiological markers of overtraining, the most common are sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system overtraining.

IV. Excessive training refers to the training in which the volume, intensity, or both are increased too quickly without
proper progression.

V. Muscle soreness that occurs directly after a workout is known as acute muscle soreness. The physiological
mechanisms causing DOMS or PEMS is not completely understood, but the leading hypotheses are 1) The
Connective Tissue Damage Hypothesis, 2) Skeletal Muscle Damage Hypothesis, and 3) The Spasm Hypothesis.

VI. The best way to minimize the risk of overtraining is to follow cyclic training procedures. This is done by
alternating easy, moderate, and hard periods of training, also known as periodization. As a general rule, one or
two days of intense training should be followed by an equal number of easy aerobic training days.

VII. Integrating a recuperative scheme into training schedule can mean the start of new progress, even after long
periods of stagnation.

A. The ISSA recommends taking a brief 20- to 30-minute rest in the afternoon.

B. Periodization is a gradual process with the goals of each mesocycle oftentimes blending together.

C. In the foundational mesocycle, skills for sport-specific training are developed.

D. In the sport-specific training mesocycle, a foundation is still developing, as well as the stage being set for in-
season training. In pre- and in-season training, sport-specific strength is still developing.

A. Even if your client is not involved in a sport, his or her training program should still be periodized.

Fitness: The Complete Guide