An Introduction to the Fundamentals of

Mesh Generation in Finite Element

Analysis
At the heart of FEA lies the process of mesh generation, a critical step that can
significantly influence the accuracy, efficiency, and success of a simulation. This article
summarizes the stage for an in-depth exploration of mesh generation.

By Dominique Madier
© 2023 FEA Academy
 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Published by FEA Academy

www.fea-academy.com
Contact the author at: [email protected]

© 2023 FEA Academy. All Rights Reserved.

ISBN: 978-1-9990475-3-5

Trademarks

Commercial software names, company names, and trademarks contained in this e-book are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe on their property rights.

Legal Disclaimer and Exclusion of Liability

The author reserves the right to make changes to information contained in this e-book, without prior
notice. The concepts, methods, and examples presented in this text are for illustrative and educational
purposes only and are not intended to be exhaustive or to apply to any particular engineering problem. The
author assumes no liability or responsibility to any person or company for direct or indirect damages
resulting from the use of any information contained herein.

Intellectual Property Rights

Any reproduction of any extract of this e-book by any means whatsoever, including photocopying,
microfilm, or scanning, is strictly prohibited without the written permission of the author. Unauthorized
reproduction of this publication will be considered as a copyright infringement.

Copyright Page | 1

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

MESHING IS WHERE SCIENCE MEETS INTUITION IN FEA.

IT REQUIRES AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE PHYSICS INVOLVED
AND A FEEL FOR THE BEHAVIOR OF THE STRUCTURE UNDER STUDY.

Page | 2

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 8

ABOUT THE AUTHOR ................................................................................................................................ 10

ABOUT FEA ACADEMY.............................................................................................................................. 11

SECTION 1. UNDERSTANDING WHAT IS FEA .......................................................................................... 12

What is Finite Element Analysis (FEA) ............................................................................................................... 12

From the Need for Analysis to the Need for Modeling.................................................................................. 16

The FEA Concept ...................................................................................................................................................... 17

SECTION 2. UNDERSTANDING MESH IN FEA .......................................................................................... 18

What is Meshing? ..................................................................................................................................................... 18

Definition and Purpose ............................................................................................................................... 18
Process Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 19
Importance of Meshing in FEA ................................................................................................................. 19

Types of Elements ................................................................................................................................................... 20

1D Elements (Beam) .................................................................................................................................... 20
2D Elements (Shell)...................................................................................................................................... 20
3D Elements (Solid)...................................................................................................................................... 21
Choosing the Right Element Type ........................................................................................................... 22
Examples of 1D, 2D and 3D Usage ......................................................................................................... 24
Required Dimensions for Each Type of Element ................................................................................. 25

How to Choose the Right Element ...................................................................................................................... 26

Predict Your Structure’s Behavior ........................................................................................................... 26
Experiment Your Library of Elements..................................................................................................... 26
Understanding Element Behavior ........................................................................................................... 26
Rules for Selecting the Right Element ................................................................................................... 27

Mesh Quality and its Impact on Analysis .......................................................................................................... 28

Table of Contents Page | 3

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Defining Mesh Quality ................................................................................................................................. 28

Impact on Results ........................................................................................................................................ 28
Balancing Mesh Quality and Computational Efficiency ..................................................................... 29

SECTION 3. MESH GENERATION TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................ 30

Manual vs Automated Meshing ........................................................................................................................... 30

Manual Meshing ........................................................................................................................................... 30
Automated Meshing .................................................................................................................................... 31

2D Shell Meshing...................................................................................................................................................... 32
Overview of 2D Shell Meshing.................................................................................................................. 32
Advantages of 2D Shell Meshing ............................................................................................................. 32
Challenges and Considerations ................................................................................................................ 32

Tetrahedral vs Hexahedral 3D Meshing ............................................................................................................ 33

Tetrahedral Meshing ................................................................................................................................... 33
Hexahedral Meshing .................................................................................................................................... 34

Advanced Techniques: Sweeping, Paving, and Mapped Meshing .............................................................. 35

Sweeping ........................................................................................................................................................ 35
Paving .............................................................................................................................................................. 37
Mapped Meshing .......................................................................................................................................... 37

Why Mesh in 2D Instead of 3D?........................................................................................................................... 38

SECTION 4. MESH DENSITY AND ELEMENT SIZE ..................................................................................... 39

Determining Appropriate Mesh Density ............................................................................................................ 39

Understanding Mesh Density ................................................................................................................... 39
Strategies for Determining Mesh Density............................................................................................. 40

Importance of Element Size and Aspect Ratio ................................................................................................ 40

Element Size Considerations .................................................................................................................... 40
Aspect Ratio and its Impact....................................................................................................................... 41

Balancing Accuracy and Computational Efficiency ......................................................................................... 41

Achieving an Optimal Balance .................................................................................................................. 41

Table of Contents Page | 4

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Techniques for Balancing ........................................................................................................................... 42

Rules for Modeling Holes and Fillets .................................................................................................................. 43

SECTION 5. MESH REFINEMENT TECHNIQUES ........................................................................................ 45

Local vs Global Mesh Refinement ....................................................................................................................... 45

Global Mesh Refinement ............................................................................................................................ 45
Local Mesh Refinement .............................................................................................................................. 46

Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR) ...................................................................................................................... 47

Concept and Advantages ........................................................................................................................... 47
Implementation Challenges ...................................................................................................................... 47

Practical Examples of Refinement Strategies ................................................................................................. 48

Case Studies and Applications .................................................................................................................. 48
Best Practices and Guidelines .................................................................................................................. 49
Convergence Study Methodology............................................................................................................ 49
Over What Distance is the Mesh Refined?............................................................................................ 51

SECTION 6. COMMON PITFALLS IN MESH GENERATION ........................................................................... 52

Over-refinement and Under-refinement Issues ............................................................................................. 52

The Impact of Over-refinement ............................................................................................................... 52
Challenges of Under-refinement ............................................................................................................. 52

Inappropriate Element Choice .............................................................................................................................. 53

Selecting the Wrong Element Type ......................................................................................................... 53
Avoiding Element Mismatch and Inconsistencies .............................................................................. 53

Ignoring Geometric Nonlinearities and Complexities ..................................................................................... 53

Overlooking Geometric Nonlinearities ................................................................................................... 53
Addressing Complex Geometries............................................................................................................. 54

SECTION 7. MESH VALIDATION AND ERROR CHECKING ............................................................................ 55

Techniques for Mesh Quality Assessment ....................................................................................................... 55

Overview of Mesh Quality Metrics .......................................................................................................... 55
Tools for Mesh Quality Evaluation .......................................................................................................... 56

Table of Contents Page | 5

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Error Estimation and Convergence Testing ...................................................................................................... 56

Understanding Error Estimation .............................................................................................................. 56
Importance of Convergence Testing ....................................................................................................... 56

Real-world Examples of Mesh Validation ......................................................................................................... 57

Case Studies in Industry ............................................................................................................................. 57
Learning from Practical Applications ...................................................................................................... 57

SECTION 8. GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE MESH GENERATION ................................................................... 58

Step-by-Step Approach for New Projects ........................................................................................................ 58

Initial Assessment and Planning .............................................................................................................. 58
Geometry Preparation and Simplification ............................................................................................. 58
Mesh Generation and Refinement .......................................................................................................... 58

Best Practices in Meshing for Different Types of Analysis .......................................................................... 59

Structural Analysis ....................................................................................................................................... 59
Thermal Analysis .......................................................................................................................................... 59
Fluid Dynamics .............................................................................................................................................. 59

Tips from Industry Experts .................................................................................................................................... 60

Leveraging Experience and Case Studies .............................................................................................. 60
Continuous Learning and Adaptation ..................................................................................................... 60

CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 61

Recap of Key Takeaways ....................................................................................................................................... 61

Essential Role of Meshing in FEA ............................................................................................................ 61
Adaptation to Different Analysis Needs ................................................................................................ 61
Common Pitfalls and Best Practices....................................................................................................... 61

The Future of Mesh Generation in FEA .............................................................................................................. 62

Emerging Technologies and Trends ........................................................................................................ 62
Integration with Design and Manufacturing......................................................................................... 62
Adapting to Complex and Multiphysics Analyses ............................................................................... 62

Meshless Solutions in Finite Element Analysis ............................................................................................... 63

Introduction to Meshless Methods ......................................................................................................... 63

Table of Contents Page | 6

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Advantages Over Traditional Meshing ................................................................................................... 63

Challenges and Limitations ....................................................................................................................... 63
Current Applications and Future Potential............................................................................................ 63
Integrating Meshless Solutions into Conventional FEA Practices ................................................. 63

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................. 64

Table of Contents Page | 7

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Introduction
In the realm of engineering analysis, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) stands as a cornerstone, a powerful tool
that enables engineers to predict how products will react to real-world forces, vibration, heat, fluid flow,
and other physical effects.

At the heart of FEA lies the process of mesh generation, a critical step that can significantly influence the
accuracy, efficiency, and success of a simulation. This article sets the stage for an in-depth exploration of
mesh generation, a subject that, while often overshadowed by more glamorous aspects of FEA, is
fundamental to its success.

Mesh generation in FEA is the art and science of discretizing a continuous domain into a finite number of
elements, which can be effectively used to approximate the behavior of complex structures under various
loads and constraints. The quality of the mesh directly impacts the precision of the simulation results,
making it imperative for engineers and analysts to understand and master this process. However, mesh
generation is not a one-size-fits-all solution; it requires a nuanced approach, tailored to the specific
requirements of each analysis.

Throughout this article, we will delve into various aspects of mesh generation, including types of elements
(1D, 2D, and 3D), meshing techniques, and the critical role of mesh density and element size. We will
explore both manual and automated meshing methods, highlighting their advantages and limitations.

Furthermore, we will provide practical guidelines for mesh refinement, discuss the influence of material
properties and boundary conditions on mesh design, and address common pitfalls to avoid during the
meshing process.

Mesh generation, while a technical and often complex task, is integral to the success of FEA. Whether you
are a seasoned analyst or a novice engineer, understanding the fundamentals of mesh generation is
essential to harnessing the full power of FEA. This article aims to equip you with the knowledge and tools
to create effective and efficient meshes, thereby enhancing the reliability and accuracy of your FEA results.

Introduction Page | 8

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Join us as we embark on this journey through the critical world of mesh generation in finite element
analysis.

Montreal – Canada – December 2023

| FEA Academy Director |

| FEA Consultant | FEA Trainer | Book Author | Speaker |
| Helping Engineers and Students to Learn FEA |
[email protected]
www.fea-academy.com

Introduction Page | 9

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

About the Author

Dominique Madier is a senior aerospace consultant with 25 years’ experience

and advanced expertise in Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of static and dynamic
problems for linear and nonlinear structural behaviors.

He has conducted detailed finite element analyses for aerospace companies in

Europe and in North America (e.g., Airbus, Dassault Aviation, Hispano-Suiza
[now Safran], Bell Helicopter Textron Canada, Bombardier Aerospace, Pratt &
Whitney Canada, Beta Technologies and their subcontractors) on metallic and
composite structures such as fuselages, wings, empennages, nacelles, engine
pylons, helicopter airframes, and systems.

He is the author of the book “Practical Finite Element Analysis for Mechanical
Engineers”.

In 2020, he founded the FEA Academy in order to offer FEA consulting as well
as online FEA courses for students and engineers.

He earned a Master’s degree in Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering from

Paul Sabatier University, Toulouse, France.

About the Author Page | 10

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

About FEA Academy

FEA Academy is a company specializing in services related to numerical simulation and Finite Element
Analysis, particularly in the realm of mechanical structural analysis. The scope of its services appears to
encompass two main areas:

1. Consulting Services in FEA: FEA Academy offers expert consultation for projects that involve
mechanical structural analysis. This likely involves providing insights and guidance on how to apply FEA
methodologies effectively in various engineering projects. The consultation could cover aspects like model
development, analysis strategies, interpreting FEA results, and optimizing designs based on FEA findings.

2. Online On-Demand Practical Courses: Apart from consultation, FEA Academy also focuses on education
and training. It offers online courses targeted at students in engineering and professionals involved in
structural projects. These courses are designed to be practical and application-oriented, providing learners
with hands-on experience in FEA in structural analysis. This aspect of FEA Academy's offerings is
particularly beneficial for enhancing the skills and knowledge of individuals who are new to FEA or those
looking to deepen their expertise in this area.

Dominique Madier involvement likely ensures that the services and courses offered by FEA Academy are
grounded in practical knowledge and are up to date with current industry practices.

www.fea-academy.com

About FEA Academy Page | 11

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 1. Understanding What is FEA

What is Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
For a given structural problem, the behavior of the structure can always be described by governing
differential equations. To approximately predict the behavior of the structure, it is necessary to find a
solution to the governing differential equations.

The fundamental concept of the finite element method is based on a discretization process that involves
dividing the system to be analyzed into a finite number of subdomains called elements. Specific
assumptions, referred to as shape functions, are applied across each element to represent the variation of
the unknown dependent variables. The variation is computed in terms of solution values at specific
locations called nodes. The method provides an algebraic system of equations for unknown nodal values
that approximates the continuous solution.

The finite element method is used to solve complex problems of engineering and is useful for problems
with complicated geometries, loadings, and material properties, in which analytical solutions are not
applicable. You can employ the finite element method in multiphysics problems to provide solutions that
would otherwise be difficult to obtain. The method is usually employed to obtain approximate results for
problems that are otherwise impossible to solve with classical methods.

Finite element analysis (FEA) is used to predict the response of mechanical structures to environmental
factors such as forces, pressure, temperature, vibrations, and so on. With FEA, you can approximately
predict how a product will behave in the real world, i.e., whether it is likely to break. You can also predict
the weakest points of a product and verify whether it will work the way it was designed to.

For engineers, FEA is an important part of the product design phase in an iterative development process
because it saves time and reduces the effort and cost associated with building physical prototypes.
Prototype tests do not provide the type of numerical information that FEA does, and they make the product
development process longer.

Section 1 - Understanding What is FEA Page | 12

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

The aerospace industry, for example, still builds prototypes (called test cells) but, thanks to FEA, only
prototypes representing the final configuration are required. During the product development process,
simulation software that have FEA functionality are used to determine the deformations and stresses the
components will undergo when subjected to environmental factors. These packages are extremely
powerful when used intelligently and help to define the critical dimensions of a component by considering
the factors of safety, weight, and other parameters.

Section 1 - Understanding What is FEA Page | 13

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

FEA can be as simple as addressing a single part, for which you wish to capture the behavior, but it can
also be more complex. Indeed, complex analysis may involve multiple parts for which you wish to
determine the interactions.

These days, even the simplest products rely on FEA for design evaluation because contemporary design
problems cannot be solved as accurately and cheaply with any other currently available method. Physical
testing was the norm in years gone by, but now, it is simply too expensive. Most everyday products have
been engineered using FEA; in fact, it is almost impossible to imagine a product designed without its help.
The most common application, by far, is structural FEA, which determines how a structure responds to
various applied loadings (forces, pressure, temperature, etc.).

FEA is useful at every stage of product design, as follows.

• Before, to define the product: FEA helps the engineer create a feasible design.
• After the product is designed: FEA permits the validation of the defined design.
• After the product is released: FEA can be used to investigate product failures.

To understand what FEA is, consider the meaning of the term “finite element analysis”:

Section 1 - Understanding What is FEA Page | 14

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

FEA is based on the idea that if you divide a structure into multiple elements, the behavior of an individual
element will provide a good approximation of local behaviors (stress and strain). Thus, the global assembly
of such elements will reflect the behavior of the actual structure. While you may not be able to determine
how a complex structural piece will behave, you can do so for a simple part of it. Therefore, if you assemble
enough of these simple pieces, you can determine how a complex structural piece will behave.

PDEs are used to formulate physical problems involving functions of several variables and can describe a
wide variety of phenomena such as elasticity, acoustics, heat, electrostatics, electrodynamics, fluid
dynamics, quantum mechanics, and even economy. Just as ordinary differential equations model one-
dimensional systems, PDEs often model multidimensional systems. Thus, in the finite element method, a
continuous system is idealized by a discrete system called the mesh. A structural problem with an infinite
number of degrees of freedom (a continuous system governed by PDEs) is converted into a problem with
a finite number of degrees of freedom (a discrete system governed by matrix equations), making the
problem solvable by a computer. The following figures show examples of FEAs performed on mechanical
systems to capture deformation, stress, instability, natural frequencies, thermal distribution, and so on.

Section 1 - Understanding What is FEA Page | 15

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

From the Need for Analysis to the Need for Modeling

Section 1 - Understanding What is FEA Page | 16

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

The FEA Concept

Section 1 - Understanding What is FEA Page | 17

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 2. Understanding Mesh in FEA

This section provides a detailed and nuanced understanding of meshing in FEA, covering its types,
importance, and impact on analysis. It lays the foundation for further discussions on mesh generation
techniques and their practical applications in the following sections of the article.

What is Meshing?

Definition and Purpose

Meshing in Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is the process of breaking down a complex, continuous geometric
space into smaller, manageable elements, or 'meshes'. This discretization allows for the numerical
approximation of physical phenomena, translating intricate structures into a finite set of equations
solvable by computers. The mesh serves as the backbone for the entire FEA process, providing a
framework upon which calculations regarding stress, strain, heat transfer, and other physical attributes
are conducted. It's the bridge between a theoretical model and a practical simulation, converting abstract
concepts into tangible data.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 18

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Process Overview
The mesh generation process starts with defining the geometry of the object or space under consideration.
This geometry is then partitioned into elements, with each element representing a discrete portion of the
whole. The process involves decisions on the type, size, and density of the elements, significantly
influenced by the nature of the physical problem being solved. Following mesh creation, boundary
conditions and material properties are applied, enabling the simulation to mimic real-world scenarios
accurately. The complexity of the mesh often directly correlates with the simulation's accuracy,
highlighting the critical nature of this step in FEA.

Importance of Meshing in FEA

Meshing is a critical step in FEA as it directly impacts the accuracy and reliability of the simulation results.
A well-constructed mesh can accurately capture the nuances of the physical model, leading to precise
simulations. Conversely, a poorly designed mesh might result in significant errors, misleading results, or
even computational failure. The mesh dictates how well the simulation will replicate the real-world
conditions, making it an indispensable part of the FEA process.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 19

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Types of Elements

1D Elements (Beam)
One-dimensional (1D) elements, commonly known as beam elements, are the simplest form in FEA. They
are ideal for simulating structural components that have a predominant length dimension, such as beams,
trusses, and columns. Beam elements are defined by two nodes, each representing an end of the beam,
and they assume linear behavior between these points. This makes them incredibly efficient for analyzing
linear structures under load but limits their application in scenarios involving complex geometries or non-
linear behaviors.

The primary advantage of 1D elements is their computational efficiency. Due to their simplicity, they
require significantly fewer computational resources compared to higher-dimensional elements. This
makes them particularly useful in large-scale structures where a detailed analysis of every component is
unnecessary or impractical.

2D Elements (Shell)
Two-dimensional (2D) elements, or shell elements, are used to model objects with a dominant surface,
like thin-walled structures, plates, and shells. These elements are defined by three or more nodes forming
a flat or curved surface. Shell elements are particularly effective in analyzing stress, deformation, and
vibration in structures like aircraft wings, car bodies, or pressure vessels.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 20

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

The advantage of using 2D elements lies in their ability to provide a good balance between computational
efficiency and the ability to model complex behaviors. They can simulate bending, stretching, and in-plane
forces with reasonable accuracy. However, a critical consideration when using shell elements is the
accurate representation of thickness and curvature, which are vital for precise results.

Shell elements are versatile, but they can be challenging to use correctly. The complexity increases with
the curvature of the surface and the non-uniformity of thickness. Therefore, careful consideration is
required in their application to ensure accurate simulation results.

3D Elements (Solid)
Three-dimensional (3D) elements, or solid elements, are used for modeling objects with significant depth,
width, and height. These elements are particularly useful for analyzing volumetric objects, where stresses
and strains are not limited to a plane or a single axis. Solid elements are defined by four or more nodes,
forming tetrahedrons, hexahedrons, or other polyhedral shapes.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 21

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Solid elements are incredibly versatile and can model complex behaviors, including non-linear material
properties, large deformations, and intricate contact interactions. This versatility, however, comes at the
cost of computational intensity. Solid elements require significant processing power and memory,
especially when the mesh is refined for accuracy.

The use of 3D elements is essential in scenarios where the stress distribution is complex and cannot be
accurately captured by 1D or 2D elements. The challenge lies in balancing the level of detail in the mesh
with the available computational resources. Too coarse a mesh may overlook critical stress concentrations,
while an overly fine mesh can lead to prohibitively long computation times.

Choosing the Right Element Type

Selecting the appropriate type of element for a given FEA task is a critical decision that depends on several
factors. The geometry of the object being analyzed, the nature of the loads and constraints, and the desired
accuracy of the results all play a role in this choice. For simple structures under normal loads, 1D elements
may suffice, while complex structures with non-uniform loads may require 2D or even 3D elements for
accurate analysis.

The choice of element type also depends on the specific requirements of the project, such as the level of
detail needed in the results and the computational resources available. For instance, while 3D elements
offer the most detailed analysis, they may not be feasible for large-scale projects due to the high
computational demand. In such cases, a combination of different 1D and 2D element types may be
employed to optimize both accuracy and efficiency.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 22

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 23

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Examples of 1D, 2D and 3D Usage

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 24

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Required Dimensions for Each Type of Element

To calculate the stiffness matrix, the solver requires that all dimensions be defined. The meshing, made up
of nodes and elements, is used to describe the dominant dimensions with 1D, 2D, or 3D elements selected
accordingly. However, depending on the element type (1D, 2D, or 3D), the solver may require additional
dimensions. The table below shows the additional dimensions required for each type of element.

When a geometry is borderline (somewhere between 2D and 3D geometry classification), 2D shell

elements are preferred over 3D for dynamic analysis because they are less stiff and will capture the mode
shapes more accurately with fewer nodes and elements.

Moreover, in nonlinear problems, the use of 3D elements may lead to too many degrees of freedom,
thereby preventing the problem’s resolution by the solver. This is why 1D and 2D elements are favored in
nonlinear analysis, while 3D elements are only used when there is no other alternative.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 25

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

How to Choose the Right Element

Predict Your Structure’s Behavior

The critical issue when selecting elements for your FEA is knowing how the structure will behave before
you begin your modeling work. You must understand the load path in your structure to be able to select
the right elements. Remember that you should not employ FEA to predict the behavior of your structure.
In fact, you must do the opposite and be able to predict the behavior of your structure to build a reliable
and accurate FEM. If you do not have a fairly good idea of how the structure will behave, you may be misled
by incorrect results based on incorrect assumptions in your element selection.

Experiment Your Library of Elements

If you are not familiar with an element, experiment it by doing a very simple test model. This practice will
give you a better understanding of an element’s capability and limitations, prior to using it in a large
production model. Before beginning to build your model, make sure you understand all the capabilities and
limitations of the elements you use. Problems can often be solved in many different ways, but making a
good choice can reduce effort, computing time, and errors in the results.

Understanding Element Behavior

The process of meshing starts with the selection of the appropriate element types to guarantee the proper
interaction with applied loads and boundary conditions. To perform this selection, a very good
understanding of the behavior of each element type is essential.

To ensure you select the right element type from the library, it is important to understand which degrees
of freedom are transmitted by each element because this dictates the capacity of the elements to model
a given problem. The degrees of freedom associated with each element type also dictate compatibility.
You should understand the library of elements associated with your FEA software before beginning any
meshing activity.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 26

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Rules for Selecting the Right Element

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 27

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Mesh Quality and its Impact on Analysis

Defining Mesh Quality

Mesh quality in FEA refers to the characteristics of the mesh that influence the accuracy and stability of
the simulation results. High-quality meshes have well-shaped elements with uniform size and aspect
ratios, minimal skewness, and appropriate density. The quality of a mesh is assessed using various
metrics, such as element shape quality, aspect ratio, and Jacobian determinant.

A high-quality mesh effectively represents the geometry of the model, accurately captures the stress
gradients, and ensures numerical stability in the analysis. Conversely, a poor-quality mesh can lead to
inaccurate results, convergence issues, and increased computational time.

Impact on Results
The quality of the mesh has a profound impact on the FEA results. A well-constructed mesh ensures that
the physical phenomena being modeled are accurately represented, leading to reliable and accurate
simulation outcomes. High-quality meshes capture critical stress concentrations and accurately represent
the behavior of the material under various loading conditions.

On the other hand, a poor-quality mesh can result in significant errors in the simulation. These errors might
manifest as unrealistic stress concentrations, incorrect deformation patterns, or convergence issues
during the analysis. In extreme cases, a poor-quality mesh can lead to completely erroneous conclusions,
potentially compromising the integrity of the design and safety of the structure.

Ensuring mesh quality is particularly important in simulations involving complex geometries, non-linear
materials, and large deformations. In these scenarios, the mesh must be capable of capturing the intricate
behaviors and interactions within the model accurately.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 28

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Balancing Mesh Quality and Computational Efficiency

Achieving an optimal mesh is a balance between quality and computational efficiency. While a finer mesh
with higher quality can yield more accurate results, it also demands more computational resources and
time. Conversely, a coarser mesh reduces computational load but may compromise accuracy.

The key is to identify areas in the model where higher accuracy is critical and refine the mesh accordingly,
while keeping it coarser in less critical regions. This targeted approach, known as adaptive mesh
refinement, ensures that computational resources are efficiently utilized without sacrificing the accuracy
of the simulation results.

Section 2 - Understanding Mesh in FEA Page | 29

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 3. Mesh Generation Techniques

This section covers the essential techniques in mesh generation for FEA, providing insights into their
applications, advantages, and limitations. These insights help engineers and analysts make informed
decisions about mesh generation, ensuring optimal results in their simulations.

Manual vs Automated Meshing

Manual Meshing
Manual meshing is a traditional approach where the
mesh is created and refined by a user, typically an
engineer or a technician. This method offers a high
level of control over the mesh generation process,
allowing the user to make precise adjustments to
mesh density, element size, and shape according to
the specific requirements of the analysis. Manual
meshing is particularly advantageous when dealing
with complex geometries or when specific areas of a
model require focused attention.

The precision and customization offered by manual

meshing can lead to higher-quality meshes in certain
applications. However, this method is time-consuming and requires a significant amount of expertise and
experience. The quality of the mesh heavily relies on the skill of the individual creating it, making it less
consistent and potentially prone to human error. Additionally, manual meshing is not practical for large or
highly complex models due to the time and labor involved.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 30

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Automated Meshing
This approach significantly reduces the time and effort required
to create a mesh, making it ideal for large or routine projects.
Automated meshing tools are equipped with algorithms that
can handle complex geometries and are capable of
automatically refining the mesh in areas where higher accuracy
is needed.

While automated meshing is less labor-intensive and provides

faster results, it may not always produce the optimal mesh for
every scenario. The quality of the mesh generated by
automated methods can vary depending on the sophistication
of the software and the parameters set by the user. It's crucial to have a good understanding of the
software's capabilities and limitations to effectively use automated meshing.

In practice, a hybrid approach is often used, where the initial mesh is generated automatically, and manual
refinements are made as needed. This approach combines the efficiency of automated meshing with the
precision of manual adjustments, leading to a balanced and effective meshing process.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 31

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

2D Shell Meshing

Overview of 2D Shell Meshing

2D shell meshing is a specialized technique used in Finite Element Analysis for modeling thin-walled
structures (any parts having a width:thickness ratio > 20). These structures include components like
vehicle bodies, aircraft fuselage, and other objects where one dimension (thickness) is significantly smaller
than the other two. Shell elements in 2D meshing are defined by their surface geometry, with each element
typically having three or four nodes and possessing both bending and in-plane stiffness.

Shell meshing is particularly effective in applications where structural behavior is dominated by bending
and in-plane forces. This technique offers a balance between computational efficiency and the ability to
capture complex behaviors of thin-walled structures. It allows for the analysis of large structures, like
entire aircraft wings or car bodies, with reasonable computational resources.

Advantages of 2D Shell Meshing

One of the primary advantages of 2D shell meshing is its ability to efficiently model large structures with
high accuracy. By focusing on the surface geometry, shell elements can accurately capture the structural
response to loads without the need for a volumetric (3D) mesh, which significantly reduces the number of
elements and computational effort. Additionally, shell meshing can accommodate a variety of material
models, including orthotropic and composite materials, making it ideal for a wide range of engineering
applications.

Challenges and Considerations

However, shell meshing also presents certain challenges. Accurately defining the thickness and material
properties of the shell is crucial, as these directly impact the analysis results. The transition regions, where
the shell meets a solid or another shell with different properties or thickness, require careful meshing and
consideration. It's also essential to correctly apply boundary conditions and loading to shell elements to
avoid inaccuracies.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 32

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

In summary, 2D shell meshing is a powerful tool in FEA, offering a practical and efficient method for
analyzing thin-walled structures. While it simplifies the modeling of complex geometries, attention to
detail in defining properties and boundary conditions is key to obtaining accurate results.

Tetrahedral vs Hexahedral 3D Meshing

Tetrahedral Meshing
Tetrahedral meshing involves dividing the domain into
tetrahedrons – three-dimensional elements with four triangular
faces. This type of meshing is highly versatile and can easily
conform to complex geometries, making it a popular choice in
many FEA applications. Tetrahedral elements are particularly
useful in scenarios where the geometry is too intricate for
simpler element shapes.

The main advantage of tetrahedral meshing is its flexibility and

ease of generation, especially in automated meshing
environments. However, tetrahedral elements can be less
efficient and less accurate than hexahedral elements, especially
for bending and twisting loads. They often require a finer mesh
to achieve the same level of accuracy, which can increase computational requirements.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 33

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Hexahedral Meshing
Hexahedral meshing, on the other hand, uses six-faced elements
(hexahedrons) and is often preferred for its superior accuracy and
efficiency in many applications. Hexahedral elements are
particularly effective in modeling bending and twisting
phenomena and generally provide more accurate stress and
strain results with fewer elements compared to tetrahedrons.

The challenge with hexahedral meshing lies in its application to

complex geometries. Creating a high-quality hexahedral mesh
manually can be time-consuming and requires significant
expertise. Automated hexahedral meshing is also more
challenging and less robust than tetrahedral meshing due to the
geometric constraints of hexahedral elements.

In practice, the choice between tetrahedral and hexahedral meshing depends on the specific requirements
of the analysis, including the geometry of the model, the type of loading, and the desired level of accuracy.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 34

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Advanced Techniques: Sweeping, Paving, and Mapped Meshing

Sweeping
Sweeping is a mesh generation technique used for objects with a consistent cross-section along a
particular direction. In this method, a 2D mesh is created on the cross-sectional area, which is then 'swept'
along a path to create a 3D mesh. This technique is highly efficient for elongated objects like beams,
channels, and pipes, as it produces high-quality meshes with fewer elements.

The sweeping technique is particularly advantageous for its ability to generate well-structured, high-
quality meshes quickly. However, its applicability is limited to geometries that have a uniform cross-
section along one dimension.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 35

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 36

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Paving
Paving is a technique primarily used for 2D meshing, especially in areas with irregular boundaries. It
involves laying out elements in layers, starting from the boundaries and working towards the interior,
somewhat akin to paving stones in a path. This technique is effective in creating a well-structured mesh
that conforms closely to the boundaries of the model.

Paving is beneficial for its ability to handle complex boundary shapes and to create a uniform mesh.
However, like sweeping, its use is somewhat limited by the geometry of the model.

Mapped Meshing
Mapped meshing is a technique used for objects with regular, geometrically simple shapes, such as
rectangles or cylinders. In mapped meshing, the domain is divided into regular sub-domains, and a
structured mesh is created within each sub-domain. This method allows for a high degree of control over
element size and shape, resulting in a uniform and efficient mesh.

Mapped meshing is particularly effective for models with simple geometries where a high-quality,
structured mesh is desired. However, its application is limited to objects that can be easily subdivided into
regular shapes.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 37

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Why Mesh in 2D Instead of 3D?

I have often seen thin-walled structures modeled with 3D solid elements simply because the FEA analyst
wished to decrease the extraction time required for the mid-planes or did not know how to extract them.
This is an incorrect approach that produces inaccurate results. The main problem with using 3D solid
elements to model thin-walled structures is shear locking. Shear locking is an over-stiff behavior that
results when energy is expended on shearing the element, rather than bending. This locking phenomenon
is even more pronounced when the solid elements look like shells (one dimension that is much smaller
than the other two). This problem may be circumvented by placing three or four elements across the
thickness to capture all bending and stiffness effects and generate an accurate solution. However, this
approach produces a tremendous number of degrees of freedom.

Therefore, for thin-walled structures such as skins, pressure vessels, ribs, bulkheads, webs, and so on, 2D
shell elements are the only option, of which the preferred choice is the linear quadrilateral element.

Moreover, if a high-quality mesh is required, a shell mesh is easier to create than a solid one. From an
analytical point of view, the shell model also offers the great advantage of using fewer resources (less
RAM, disk space, and CPU time), especially for nonlinear analysis and larger models. This is because, rather
than actually modeling the thickness with additional nodes and elements, shell models capture wall
thickness as a mathematical value, resulting in fewer equations to solve.

Another benefit of 2D shell models over 3D solid models is the ease with which you can change the
thickness in your simulations, since the thickness is a property associated with the shell element. With a
3D model, you will have to move nodes or even re-mesh certain parts. Therefore, the shell model is a better
choice for conducting sensitivity studies.

Finally, post-processing with shell elements is easier and faster than with solid elements, which is not a
minor detail, when you need to post-process numerous load cases.

Section 3 - Mesh Generation Techniques Page | 38

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 4. Mesh Density and Element Size

This section comprehensively covers the critical aspects of mesh density and element size in FEA,
providing insights into their determination, importance, and the balance between accuracy and
computational demands. These principles are fundamental to creating effective and efficient FEA models.

Determining Appropriate Mesh Density

Understanding Mesh Density

Mesh density in Finite Element Analysis refers to the number of elements within a given area or volume
of the model. It's a crucial factor that directly influences the accuracy and computational intensity of the
analysis. High mesh density means more elements are used to represent the model, allowing for a more
detailed and accurate representation of the physical phenomena. However, this also leads to increased
computational resource requirements and longer processing times.

Determining the appropriate mesh density depends on several factors, including the complexity of the
geometry, the type of loading, the expected stress gradients, and the criticality of the simulation's
accuracy. Areas with high stress gradients or significant changes in geometry typically require higher mesh
density to capture the behavior accurately.

Section 4 - Mesh Density and Element Size Page | 39

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Strategies for Determining Mesh Density

There are several strategies to determine the optimal mesh density for an FEA model. One common
approach is to start with a coarse mesh and gradually refine it in areas where higher accuracy is required.
This can be guided by stress analysis results, where higher stress concentrations indicate the need for
finer mesh.

Another approach is to use adaptive meshing techniques, where the mesh density is automatically
adjusted based on the stress gradients or error estimates. This method is particularly effective in complex
analyses, as it dynamically refines the mesh in regions where it's most needed.

In addition to stress analysis, considering the type of material behavior, such as plastic deformation or
large strains, is also crucial in determining mesh density. These material behaviors often require finer
meshes to accurately capture the nonlinear response of the material.

Importance of Element Size and Aspect Ratio

Element Size Considerations

The size of the elements in a mesh is a key factor in the quality of the FEA simulation. Smaller elements
generally provide more detailed results but at the cost of increased computational effort. The choice of
element size should be based on the level of detail required in the simulation results and the geometric
complexity of the model.

In areas with complex geometry or high stress concentrations, smaller elements are necessary to
accurately capture the behavior. However, in regions where stresses are relatively uniform or less critical,
larger elements can be used to reduce computational demands.

Section 4 - Mesh Density and Element Size Page | 40

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Aspect Ratio and its Impact

The aspect ratio of an element, defined as the ratio of its longest to shortest dimension, is another critical
factor in mesh quality. Elements with high aspect ratios (elongated elements) can lead to inaccurate
results, especially in stress calculations. Ideally, elements should be as close to equilateral as possible,
particularly in areas of high stress or complex material behavior.

Maintaining a low and uniform aspect ratio throughout the mesh ensures that the elements can accurately
represent the physical phenomena, providing reliable results. However, in some scenarios, such as thin
structures or areas with sharp geometrical features, high aspect ratio elements might be unavoidable. In
these cases, special care should be taken in interpreting the results, and additional validation may be
necessary.

Balancing Accuracy and Computational Efficiency

Achieving an Optimal Balance

Balancing the accuracy of the simulation with the computational efficiency is a key challenge in FEA. A
highly detailed mesh (high density and small element size) will yield accurate results but requires
significant computational resources and time. Conversely, a coarser mesh reduces the computational load
but may compromise the accuracy and reliability of the results.

To achieve an optimal balance, it's essential to understand the critical aspects of the model and the
analysis objectives. For instance, in preliminary design stages, a coarser mesh may be sufficient to get an
overall understanding of the structural behavior. However, for detailed design verification or failure
analysis, a finer mesh is necessary to accurately capture critical stress concentrations and complex
behaviors.

Section 4 - Mesh Density and Element Size Page | 41

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Techniques for Balancing

Several techniques can be employed to balance accuracy and computational efficiency. One approach is to
use multi-scale analysis, where different levels of mesh detail are used for different parts of the model,
concentrating finer meshes in critical areas. Another technique is to use higher-order elements, which can
capture more complex behaviors with fewer elements, thus reducing the computational burden.

Additionally, modern FEA software often includes tools for optimizing the mesh based on the desired
balance between accuracy and efficiency. These tools can automatically adjust the mesh density and
element size based on predefined criteria, ensuring that the mesh is as efficient as possible without
sacrificing the necessary accuracy.

In summary, determining the appropriate mesh density, understanding the importance of element size
and aspect ratio, and balancing accuracy with computational efficiency are critical aspects of mesh
generation in FEA. These factors significantly influence the quality of the simulation results and the overall
effectiveness of the analysis. A well-designed mesh, tailored to the specific requirements of the model
and analysis, is essential for obtaining reliable and accurate simulation outcomes.

Section 4 - Mesh Density and Element Size Page | 42

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Rules for Modeling Holes and Fillets

Holes and fillets are common geometry types that sometimes require more precise meshing to capture
local effects. The table below summarizes the rules for the general and critical regions. The rules for critical
regions apply if peak stresses or strains are extracted, while the rules for general regions apply to regions
where stresses or strains are not extracted but where we nevertheless want to model the proper stiffness.

Section 4 - Mesh Density and Element Size Page | 43

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

The refined mesh around a hole should be 1.5 to 2 times the hole diameter, and a minimum of two layers
of fine mesh around the hole is required.

Section 4 - Mesh Density and Element Size Page | 44

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 5. Mesh Refinement Techniques

This section thoroughly discusses mesh refinement techniques in FEA, highlighting their importance,
applications, and practical considerations. It provides a foundational understanding of how different
refinement strategies can be effectively employed to enhance the accuracy and efficiency of FEA
simulations.

Local vs Global Mesh Refinement

Global Mesh Refinement

Global mesh refinement involves uniformly increasing the density of the mesh across the entire model.
This method is straightforward and can be effective for small to medium-sized models or when a uniform
level of detail is required throughout the analysis. Global refinement enhances the overall resolution of the
simulation, leading to more accurate results. However, it also significantly increases the number of
elements, which can exponentially raise computational costs and time, making it less practical for larger
or more complex models.

Section 5 - Mesh Refinement Techniques Page | 45

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Local Mesh Refinement

Local mesh refinement, in contrast, focuses on increasing mesh density in specific areas of the model
where higher accuracy is required. This technique is particularly useful in regions with high stress
concentrations, complex geometries, or near boundary conditions and load applications. Local refinement
allows for detailed analysis of critical areas without the unnecessary computational burden of refining the
entire mesh. This targeted approach is more efficient and practical, especially for large-scale or complex
models.

The challenge with local refinement lies in identifying the regions that require it. Typically, areas with high
stress gradients, potential for material non-linearities, or geometric complexities are candidates for local
refinement. Effective use of this technique requires a good understanding of the model's behavior and the
specific requirements of the analysis.

Section 5 - Mesh Refinement Techniques Page | 46

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR)

Concept and Advantages

Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR) is an advanced technique that dynamically adjusts the mesh during the
analysis based on specific criteria, such as stress gradients, strain energy, or error estimates. AMR begins
with a coarse mesh and refines it iteratively in areas where the analysis indicates higher detail is needed.
This approach ensures that the mesh density is optimized throughout the simulation, leading to more
accurate results without unnecessarily large computational costs.

AMR is particularly effective in nonlinear analysis, transient simulations, and problems with evolving
geometries, such as crack propagation or large deformations. It automates the refinement process,
reducing the need for user intervention and expertise in determining where refinement is needed.

Implementation Challenges
While AMR offers significant advantages, its implementation can be challenging. It requires sophisticated
software algorithms capable of assessing the analysis results in real-time and making intelligent decisions
about where and how to refine the mesh. The criteria for refinement must be carefully chosen to ensure
that the mesh adapts effectively to the evolving requirements of the simulation.

AMR can also lead to non-uniform meshes with a wide range of element sizes, which might introduce
additional complexities in the analysis, especially in terms of element compatibility and numerical stability.
Therefore, careful consideration and validation are necessary when using AMR to ensure the reliability of
the results.

Section 5 - Mesh Refinement Techniques Page | 47

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Practical Examples of Refinement Strategies

Case Studies and Applications

Practical examples and case studies of mesh refinement strategies offer valuable insights into their real-
world applications. For instance, in automotive crash simulations, local refinement is often used around
areas of expected high deformation, such as crumple zones, while keeping the rest of the mesh coarser.
This approach provides detailed information about the deformation and stress distribution in critical areas
while keeping the overall computational cost manageable.

In aerospace applications, global refinement might be used in preliminary design stages to get a uniform
understanding of the stress distribution across the entire structure. As the design progresses, local
refinement can be employed in areas like joints, connections, and areas with high stress concentration to
provide more detailed analysis for design optimization.

Full Aircraft
Global FEM (GFEM)
- Coarse Mesh) -

Mesh refinement in a critical region.

Refinement embedded into the
GFEM

Section 5 - Mesh Refinement Techniques Page | 48

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Best Practices and Guidelines

The choice of refinement strategy should be guided by the specific requirements of the analysis and the
limitations of computational resources. It's essential to start with a clear understanding of the objectives
of the simulation and the critical areas of the model. Regularly reviewing the analysis results can provide
valuable feedback on the effectiveness of the mesh and guide further refinements.

In practice, a combination of global and local refinement is often used, starting with a globally refined mesh
for an initial understanding, followed by targeted local refinement in critical areas. The use of AMR can
further enhance this process by automating the refinement based on the evolving needs of the simulation.

Convergence Study Methodology

By definition, a converged mesh, from a numerical accuracy standpoint, is one that produces no significant
differences in the result when mesh refinement is introduced. Mesh convergence is a concern when
producing a model to capture peak stress or strain. If test results such as strain gauge records exist for the
part you wish to model, it is easy to determine the mesh density needed to capture the correct stress.
Unfortunately, you will usually not have such records prior to beginning the meshing process. Therefore, a
convergence study must be conducted for the regions of peak stress to ensure that the mesh size is
sufficiently fine to correctly capture the phenomena of interest and critical stress.

A powerful method used to determine the converged mesh is the convergence curve. First, you must select
a critical result parameter. For the mechanical structural engineer, it is usually stress or strain. You should
conduct a convergence study for each region of the model for which you wish to extract the peak stress or
strain.

Increasing the number of nodes improves results accuracy, but it also increases the solution time and cost.
The usual practice is to increase the number of elements only in regions of high stress, instead of reducing
the global element size of the entire model, and to continue until the difference between the two
consecutive results is less than 5%. A convergence study is the process of solving a model with successively
finer meshes and comparing the results of the different meshes. This comparison is usually made by

Section 5 - Mesh Refinement Techniques Page | 49

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

inspecting the fields at one or more points in the model. By comparing the results obtained during mesh
refinement, it is possible to judge the convergence of the solution, with respect to mesh refinement. After
a minimum of three successive solutions, asymptotic behavior may begin to emerge, and variations in the
results among the meshes will become smaller. If these variations are small enough, the mesh can be
considered converged. This is always a judgment call on the part of the FEA analyst, who knows the
uncertainties in the model inputs and the acceptable uncertainty in the results.

The figure below shows a typical convergence curve obtained during a convergence study. The last two
points show that the model can be considered to be converged, so the mesh corresponding to the
penultimate point should be used for the stress-strain extraction.

At least three runs are required to plot a curve, which can then be used to indicate that convergence has
been achieved. However, if two runs of different mesh densities give the same result, convergence can be
considered to have already been achieved, and no further mesh refinement is required.

Another check to perform during the convergence study concerns the gradient in neighboring elements:
the correct gradient has not been properly captured if the neighboring elements show significant variations
in stress, and additional refinement is then required.

Currently, some codes are able to compute convergence based on criteria defined by the FEA analyst.
These codes are able to automatically re-mesh non-converged regions of an FEM. However, such

Section 5 - Mesh Refinement Techniques Page | 50

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

automatic convergence studies are dependent on the load cases and will produce different meshes for
different ones. If the convergence study is performed manually by refining the critical regions step by step,
computation of the asymptotic value is time-consuming.

Over What Distance is the Mesh Refined?

In theory, for each successive level of mesh refinement in the convergence study, all elements in the model
should be split in all directions. However, the Saint-Venant’s principle implies that local stresses in one
region of a structure do not affect stress elsewhere (the behavior depends on only the tensor of the
internal forces, at this point).

Therefore, in practical terms, we can conduct the convergence study only in the region of interest and keep
the rest of the model unconverged. At the same time, there should be transition regions to connect the
refined mesh to the coarse mesh. From a practical point of view, mesh refinement is required as long as
the field gradient is significant. Once it is not, the mesh transition can start.

The figure below illustrates this principle. The peak stress must be captured in the corner of the cutout, so
only this region of the model is refined.

Section 5 - Mesh Refinement Techniques Page | 51

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 6. Common Pitfalls in Mesh Generation

This section provides a comprehensive discussion of common pitfalls in mesh generation for FEA,
highlighting the challenges and providing guidance on how to avoid them. Understanding these pitfalls is
crucial for ensuring accurate and efficient finite element models, and avoiding common errors that can lead
to unreliable results or inefficient analyses.

Over-refinement and Under-refinement Issues

The Impact of Over-refinement

Over-refinement occurs when the mesh is too dense for the requirements of the analysis, resulting in an
excessive number of elements. While this might seem advantageous for accuracy, it leads to unnecessarily
long computation times and can exhaust computational resources. In extreme cases, over-refinement can
cause numerical instabilities due to issues like ill-conditioning in the stiffness matrix and rounding errors.

The key to avoiding over-refinement is understanding the level of detail required for the analysis. Over-
refinement is often unnecessary in regions of the model where stress gradients are low or where high
precision is not critical. A balanced approach, focusing refinement efforts where they are most needed, is
more effective and efficient.

Challenges of Under-refinement
Under-refinement, on the other hand, is characterized by a mesh that is too coarse, with too few elements
to accurately capture the behavior of the model. This can lead to inaccurate results, such as missed stress
concentrations, incorrect deformation patterns, or even non-convergence of the solution. Under-
refinement is particularly risky in areas with complex geometries, near boundary conditions, or in regions
where material nonlinearities are expected.

To prevent under-refinement, it is essential to start with a mesh that is sufficiently detailed for the given
analysis and refine it based on preliminary results or known areas of concern. Adaptive mesh refinement
techniques can be particularly useful in automatically identifying and refining under-refined areas.

Section 6 - Common Pitfalls in Mesh Generation Page | 52

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Inappropriate Element Choice

Selecting the Wrong Element Type

One of the common pitfalls in mesh generation is the inappropriate selection of element types. Different
elements (1D, 2D, 3D) have specific applications and limitations. For instance, using beam elements (1D)
for a problem that requires capturing complex three-dimensional stress patterns can lead to erroneous
results. Similarly, employing solid elements (3D) for thin-walled structures where shell elements (2D)
would be more appropriate not only increases computational effort but also potentially reduces accuracy.

The choice of element type should be based on the geometry of the part, the nature of the loads and
constraints, and the type of analysis being performed. It's also important to consider the material
properties and the expected mode of failure or deformation. Utilizing the correct element type is crucial for
an accurate and efficient analysis.

Avoiding Element Mismatch and Inconsistencies

In addition to choosing the appropriate type of element, ensuring consistency in the element formulation
across the model is vital. Mismatched elements, where different types or formulations are used in adjacent
regions without proper transition, can lead to inaccuracies and convergence issues. This is especially true
in areas where different types of elements meet, such as where solid elements interface with shell
elements.

Ignoring Geometric Nonlinearities and Complexities

Overlooking Geometric Nonlinearities

Geometric nonlinearities occur when deformations are large enough to cause significant changes in the
geometry of the structure during analysis. Ignoring these nonlinearities in mesh generation can result in
inaccurate modeling of the behavior under load, particularly in structures prone to large deflections or
rotations.

Section 6 - Common Pitfalls in Mesh Generation Page | 53

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

When dealing with geometric nonlinearities, the mesh must be able to accommodate the large
deformations without becoming overly distorted. This often requires finer meshing in regions expected to
undergo large deformations, as well as the use of elements that are capable of capturing nonlinear
geometric effects.

Addressing Complex Geometries

Complex geometries, such as sharp corners, thin ribs, or small features, pose significant challenges in mesh
generation. These features can create stress concentrations that are easily missed with a coarse mesh. At
the same time, overly refining these areas can lead to over-refinement problems.

The key to successfully meshing complex geometries is to use a combination of element types and
refinement techniques that can accurately represent the geometry without excessive computational cost.
This might involve local refinement around complex features, the use of higher-order elements that can
better capture curvature and gradients, or employing techniques like mesh smoothing to avoid irregular
element shapes.

Section 6 - Common Pitfalls in Mesh Generation Page | 54

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 7. Mesh Validation and Error Checking

This section provides a comprehensive overview of mesh validation and error checking in FEA, covering
essential techniques and real-world applications. Understanding and implementing these practices are
crucial for achieving accurate and reliable simulation results, ensuring the success of engineering projects
across various industries.

Techniques for Mesh Quality Assessment

Overview of Mesh Quality Metrics

Mesh quality assessment is crucial in FEA to ensure that the mesh accurately represents the physical
model and is suitable for analysis. Various metrics are used to evaluate mesh quality, including aspect ratio,
skewness, Jacobian, and warpage. A high-quality mesh typically has low aspect ratios, minimal skewness,
positive Jacobian values, and limited warpage, ensuring that elements are well-shaped and capable of
accurately capturing the physical behavior of the model.

Various quality checks are available in pre-processing software to help you decide if your mesh meets the
criteria for analysis. Typical quality checks for 2D and 3D elements include the following (the names may
differ somewhat among software):
• Aspect ratio
• Taper
• Skew angle
• Warp angle
• Interior angle
• Face Skew
• Jacobian

Section 7 - Mesh Validation and Error Checking Page | 55

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Tools for Mesh Quality Evaluation

Most FEA software packages include tools for mesh quality assessment, providing visual and quantitative
ways to evaluate the mesh. These tools allow engineers to identify elements that do not meet specific
quality criteria and make necessary adjustments. Common practices include highlighting elements with
high aspect ratios or skewness and assessing the distribution of element sizes and shapes across the
model.

Using these tools, engineers can refine the mesh in targeted areas, ensuring that the overall mesh quality
is within acceptable limits. This process is iterative, often requiring several rounds of refinement and
reassessment to achieve an optimal mesh.

Error Estimation and Convergence Testing

Understanding Error Estimation

Error estimation in FEA is a method to quantify the uncertainty or potential error in simulation results due
to the discretization of the mesh. This estimation helps in determining how close the FEA results are to
the 'true' solution. Common techniques for error estimation include energy norm methods, which evaluate
the difference in strain energy between the meshed model and an ideal solution.

Importance of Convergence Testing

Convergence testing is a critical part of mesh validation. It involves refining the mesh incrementally and
observing the changes in the results. The goal is to reach a point where further refinement does not
significantly alter the outcome, indicating that the mesh is sufficiently fine to capture the essential
behavior of the model.

Convergence testing is typically done by observing key quantities of interest, such as stress or
displacement, and checking their variation with successive mesh refinements. A stable trend in these
quantities suggests that the mesh is adequately refined for accurate results.

Section 7 - Mesh Validation and Error Checking Page | 56

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Real-world Examples of Mesh Validation

Case Studies in Industry

Real-world examples provide valuable insights into the application and importance of mesh validation in
various industries. For instance, in the aerospace industry, where safety and precision are paramount,
rigorous mesh validation is a standard part of the design process. Detailed case studies often reveal how
iterative mesh refinement and quality assessment were used to ensure the integrity and reliability of
critical components like wing structures or engine parts.

Learning from Practical Applications

Another example can be found in the automotive industry, particularly in crash simulations. These
simulations involve complex interactions and material behaviors, making mesh validation a crucial step.
Case studies show how engineers used error estimation and convergence testing to validate the mesh,
ensuring that the simulations accurately predicted the structural response in crash scenarios.

These real-world examples underscore the importance of thorough mesh validation in ensuring the
accuracy and reliability of FEA results. They highlight the need for a systematic approach to mesh quality
assessment, error estimation, and convergence testing, tailored to the specific requirements and
complexities of each project.

Section 7 - Mesh Validation and Error Checking Page | 57

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Section 8. Guidelines for Effective Mesh Generation

This section provides practical guidelines and a step-by-step approach to effective mesh generation in
FEA, incorporating best practices for different types of analysis and tips from industry experts. These
guidelines are designed to help engineers and analysts create efficient, accurate meshes, leading to
reliable and insightful analysis results.

Step-by-Step Approach for New Projects

Initial Assessment and Planning

Starting a new FEA project involves an initial assessment of the project requirements. This includes
understanding the geometry of the part or assembly, the material properties, the types of loads and
constraints, and the expected behavior under these conditions. Planning also involves determining the
goals of the analysis: whether it's for validating design concepts, optimizing design, or failure analysis.

Geometry Preparation and Simplification

The next step is preparing and simplifying the geometry for meshing. This involves removing unnecessary
details that won't significantly affect the analysis results, like small fillets and holes, to make the meshing
process more straightforward and efficient. It is called “Defeaturing”. However, care must be taken to
ensure that these simplifications don’t compromise the accuracy of the model.

Mesh Generation and Refinement

With the prepared geometry, the next phase is generating the initial mesh. This involves choosing the
appropriate element type (1D, 2D, or 3D) and size, based on the complexity of the geometry and the
analysis requirements. After the initial mesh generation, it’s essential to refine the mesh in areas where
higher accuracy is needed, such as regions with high stress gradients, complex geometries, or around load
applications and boundary conditions.

Section 8 - Guidelines for Effective Mesh Generation Page | 58

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Best Practices in Meshing for Different Types of Analysis

Structural Analysis
In structural analysis, the focus should be on areas of high stress and potential failure. The mesh should
be fine enough to capture stress concentrations but not so fine as to make the analysis impractically long.
For dynamic analysis, consider the frequency content of the loading and refine the mesh to accurately
capture the dynamic behavior of the structure.

Thermal Analysis
For thermal analysis, the mesh must be capable of accurately modeling heat flow and temperature
distribution. This often requires a different meshing strategy than structural analysis, focusing on areas of
high thermal gradient. Special attention should be given to the interfaces between different materials, as
these can be critical in thermal analysis.

Fluid Dynamics
In fluid dynamics, the quality of the mesh is paramount, especially near boundaries where the flow
behavior is complex. The mesh should be fine enough to capture boundary layers and potential flow
separation areas. Adaptive mesh refinement based on flow characteristics can be particularly effective in
fluid dynamics simulations.

Section 8 - Guidelines for Effective Mesh Generation Page | 59

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Tips from Industry Experts

Leveraging Experience and Case Studies

Industry experts often emphasize the importance of learning from past projects and case studies. This can
involve understanding how mesh refinement strategies were successfully implemented in similar projects
or how specific challenges were addressed.

Continuous Learning and Adaptation

The field of FEA is continually evolving, with new techniques and technologies emerging regularly. Staying
updated with the latest developments in meshing algorithms, software capabilities, and best practices is
crucial for effective mesh generation. Experts also recommend regular training and engagement with the
FEA community to share insights and learn from others’ experiences.

Section 8 - Guidelines for Effective Mesh Generation Page | 60

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Conclusion
Recap of Key Takeaways

Essential Role of Meshing in FEA

Throughout this guide, we've emphasized the critical role that mesh generation plays in Finite Element
Analysis. A well-constructed mesh is the foundation upon which accurate and reliable FEA simulations are
built. From the basics of mesh types and quality assessment to advanced techniques for complex analyses,
effective meshing strategies are indispensable for successful FEA outcomes.

Adaptation to Different Analysis Needs

We've explored how meshing strategies must adapt to various analysis. This adaptability is crucial, as the
effectiveness of a mesh is highly context-dependent. The case studies and applications discussed highlight
how tailored meshing approaches are employed across different industries, underscoring the mesh’s role
in addressing specific engineering challenges.

Common Pitfalls and Best Practices

The guide also delved into common pitfalls in mesh generation, such as over-refinement and inappropriate
element choice, and provided practical guidelines to avoid these issues. Best practices, drawn from
industry expertise, emphasize the importance of a methodical approach to mesh generation, balancing
accuracy with computational efficiency, and the need for continuous learning and adaptation.

Conclusion Page | 61

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

The Future of Mesh Generation in FEA

Emerging Technologies and Trends

Looking ahead, the future of mesh generation in FEA is intertwined with advancements in technology.
Emerging trends like AI and machine learning are set to revolutionize meshing processes, potentially
automating complex decisions and optimizing mesh quality beyond current manual capabilities. These
technologies promise to enhance efficiency, reduce human error, and open new possibilities in simulation
complexity.

Integration with Design and Manufacturing

Another future direction is the closer integration of FEA meshing with design and manufacturing
processes. As additive manufacturing and digital twins become more prevalent, the need for meshing
techniques that can seamlessly interface with these technologies grows. This integration will enable more
streamlined workflows from design to analysis to production, enhancing the overall efficiency and
effectiveness of engineering projects.

Adapting to Complex and Multiphysics Analyses

As engineering problems become more complex, involving multiphysics scenarios and advanced materials,
the demand for sophisticated meshing capabilities will increase. Future developments in mesh generation
must focus on accommodating these complexities, enabling more accurate and comprehensive
simulations. The ability to effectively mesh for multiphysics problems will be a critical factor in advancing
the capabilities of FEA.

Conclusion Page | 62

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

Meshless Solutions in Finite Element Analysis

Introduction to Meshless Methods

Meshless methods, as the name suggests, are techniques in Finite Element Analysis that do not rely on a
traditional mesh. These methods, emerging as a significant advancement in computational mechanics, use
points scattered throughout the domain to represent the geometry and properties of the model. The
appeal of meshless methods lies in their ability to handle large deformations, complex geometries, and
highly dynamic problems more efficiently than traditional mesh-based FEA.

Advantages Over Traditional Meshing

One of the primary advantages of meshless methods is their flexibility in dealing with complex geometries
and boundaries. Unlike traditional meshing, which can become exceedingly complex and time-consuming
for intricate models, meshless methods can adapt more easily to such variations.

Challenges and Limitations

Despite their advantages, meshless methods also come with challenges. One of the main limitations is
that setting up a meshless simulation can be complex, demanding a deeper understanding of the
underlying algorithms and their implementation. There is also the challenge of integrating meshless
methods with existing FEA software and workflows, which are predominantly mesh-based.

Current Applications and Future Potential

Meshless methods are currently used in specialized applications such as fracture mechanics,
biomechanics, and fluid dynamics. Their potential for handling problems that are difficult or impossible to
address with traditional meshing makes them a valuable tool in the FEA arsenal. As computational power
increases and algorithms become more refined, it's expected that the use and capabilities of meshless
methods will expand, opening up new possibilities in simulation and analysis.

Integrating Meshless Solutions into Conventional FEA Practices

Conclusion Page | 63

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

 An Introduction to the Fundamentals of Mesh Generation in Finite Element Analysis

The integration of meshless solutions into conventional FEA practices is an area of ongoing research and
development. This integration promises to combine the strengths of both approaches, offering more
robust and versatile tools for analysis. Future FEA software might seamlessly transition between mesh-
based and meshless methods, choosing the most effective approach based on the problem at hand. Such
hybrid approaches could significantly enhance the accuracy, efficiency, and scope of simulations in various
fields of engineering and applied sciences.

Conclusion
In conclusion, this guide has provided a thorough exploration of mesh generation in Finite Element
Analysis, covering essential concepts, practical strategies, and industry-specific applications. The future of
mesh generation is poised for significant advancements, driven by technological innovations and the
evolving needs of engineering analysis. As FEA continues to be an indispensable tool in engineering, the
importance of skilled, informed, and innovative meshing techniques will only grow, underlining the need
for continuous learning and adaptation in this dynamic field.

Conclusion Page | 64

© 2023 – FEA ACADEMY

www.fea-academy.com