Nervous System

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input—gathering information

§ Sensory receptors monitor changes, called
stimuli, occurring inside and outside the body
2. Integration
§ Nervous system processes and interprets
sensory input and decides whether action is
needed
3. Motor output
§ The response, or effect, activates muscles or
glands
Figure 7.1 The nervous system’s functions.

Sensory input
Integration
Sensory receptor

Motor output

Brain and spinal cord

Effector

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Nervous
System
Organization
Structural Classification

§ Central nervous system (CNS)

§ Organs
§ Brain
§ Spinal cord
§ Function
§ Integration; command center
§ Interprets incoming sensory information
§ Issues outgoing instructions
Structural Classification

§ Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

§ Nerves extending from the brain and spinal
cord
§ Spinal nerves – carry impulses to and
from the spinal cord
§ Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and
from the brain
§ Functions
§ Serve as communication lines among
sensory organs, the brain and spinal
cord, and glands or muscles
Spinal Nerves
§ Cervical = 8
§ Thoracic = 12
§ Lumbar = 5
§ Sacral = 5
§ Coccygeal = 1
§ Exit above the vertebra
for which they are
numbered
§ Numbered based on the
vertebral level at which it
exits the spinal canal
(C1, T12)
BRAIN STEM: CRANIAL NERVES
MIDBRAIN
I – Olfactory
II – Optic
III – Oculomotor
IV - Trochlear
PONS V-VIII
V – Trigeminal
VI – Abducens
VII – Facial
VIII - Vestibulocochlear
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
IX – Glossopharyngeal
X – Vagus
XI – Accessory
XII - Hypoglossal
Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

§ Nervous Tissue Cells

§ Neuroglia - support cells in CNS “the support
staff”
§ Support
§ Insulate
§ Protect neurons
§ Unable to conduct nerve impulses
§ Can divide/mitosis
§ Neurons – motor, sensory, & interneurons
 Nervous Tissue: Neuroglia

§ Astrocytes
§ “Brain Bouncers”
§ Form blood brain
barrier; determine
permeability of
substances into
brain
§ Control chemical
environment of
brain
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

§ Microglia
§ “Cucarachas” ;
Immune cells
§ Monitor health of
nearby neurons
§ Dispose of debris
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

§ Ependymal cells
§ CSF production team with capillaries
§ Line cavities of brain and spinal cord
§ Circulation of CSF
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

§ Oligodendrocytes
§ Produce myelin sheaths only in CNS
§ Myelin – white fatty substance
§ Wrap around axons
Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

§ Schwann cells – PNS neuroglia

§ Produce myelin only in PNS
§ Neurilemma – outer layer of Schwann cell
§ Satellite cells
§ Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies
 Schwann cell
cytoplasm
Schwann cell
Axon plasma membrane

Schwann cell
nucleus
(a)

(b)

Neurilemma

Myelin
sheath

(c)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
 Nervous Tissue: Neurons
§ Neurons – Nerve cells
§ Specialized cells that transmit nerve signals/impulse
§ Major regions
§ Dendrite – sensory process; carries signal to soma
§ Soma – nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
§ Nissl bodies – rough ER
§ Axon – motor process; carries signal away from
soma
§ Trigger Zone & Axon Hillock – region where
action potential is triggered – high Na+ gate
concentration
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
§ Unmyelinated Axon –
SLOW signal
§ Myelinated Axon – FAST
signal
§ Nodes of Ranvier –
gaps between myelin
that contain high
concentration of sodium
and potassium
channels
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Axon Terminals – ends of the axon that contain

synaptic knobs
§ Synaptic Knobs – contain neurotransmitter vesicles
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
§ Synaptic cleft – gap
between axon terminals
and next neuron, cell
membrane or muscle
membrane
§ Synapse – functional
junction between
neurons and its target
cell where signal is
transmitted
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Additional Terms
§ Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies in CNS
§ Ganglia – collections of cell bodies in PNS;
outside of CNS
§ Tracts – bundles of nerve fibers in CNS
§ Nerves – bundles of nerve fibers in PNS
§ White matter – collections of myelinated
fibers (tracts)
§ Gray matter – unmyelinated fibers and cell
bodies
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
§ Sensory (afferent) neurons
§ Carry signals from sensory receptors to CNS
§ Receptors – sense organs in skin;
proprioceptors in muscles and tendons
§ Motor (efferent) neurons
§ Carry signals from CNS to organs and/or
muscles and glands
§ Interneurons (association neurons)
§ Cell bodies in CNS that connect sensory and
motor neurons
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION – NEURONS

Central process (axon)

Sensory
neuron Spinal cord
Cell
(central nervous system)
body
Ganglion
Dendrites Peripheral
process (axon)

Afferent
transmission Interneuron
(association
neuron)
Receptors Peripheral
nervous
system
Efferent transmission

Motor neuron

To effectors
(muscles and glands)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
§ Structural Classification –
§ Multipolar neurons – many extensions from cell
body
§ All motor and interneurons are multipolar; most
common
§ Bipolar neurons – one axon and one dendrite
§ In special sense organs – nose and eye
§ Unipolar neurons – short single process leaving
cell body
§ Sensory neurons in PNS ganglia
§ Conduct impulses toward & away from cell body
Nervous Tissue: Neurons
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Functional Properties
§ Irritability
§ Ability to respond to stimulus and convert to
nerve impulse
§ Conductivity
§ Ability to transmit impulse to other neurons,
muscles, or glands
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Resting Membrane Potential – cell unstimulated

§ Plasma membrane is polarized
§ More positive ions on outside –
§ Na+ outside
§ Less positive ions on inside –
§ K+ inside
§ Makes inside more negative – less positive
ions
Neurons – Resting Membrane Potential

Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+
Na+ Na+
Na+

K+ K+
An- An-
K+ An-
K+ An- K+

Resting Membrane Potential – cell unstimulated

Neurons – Depolarization

§ Depolarization
§ Inward rush of Na+
§ Changes polarity at that site – local
depolarization
§ Stimulus changes permeability of
neuron’s membrane to sodium ions
§ Na+ channels open, Na+ diffuses in;
K+ channels allow some K+ to leak out
Neurons – Depolarization

K+ Na+
K+
Na+

Na+

Na+ K+ Na+ Na+

K+
An-
Na+ An-
K+ An- Na+ An-

Membrane Depolarized – cell Stimulated

Na+ rushes in….a little K+ leaks out
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Action Potential Triggered

§ Follows depolarization with voltage gates specific for
sodium open and a huge influx of sodium enters
cell
§ Activates the neuron to conduct an action
potential/nerve signal
§ All-or-none response – nerve impulse is either
propagated or it is not
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Repolarization
§ Membrane permeability changes –
§ Na+ gates close; K+ gates open
§ K+ diffuses out; repolarizes membrane
§ Restores inside of membrane to negative
charge and outside of membrane to positive
charge
 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Restore Resting Membrane Potential –

§ Na+:K+ Pump – active transport – use ATP
§ Pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in
§ Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot
conduct another nerve impulse
Summary
Nerve Signal
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Signal Transmission at
Synapses
§ Step 1: When action
potential traveling
reaches axon terminal,
electrical charge opens
calcium channels
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Signal Transmission
at Synapse
§ Step 2: Calcium
causes
neurotransmitter
vesicles to fuse with
axonal membrane
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Signal Transmission
at Synapse
§ Step 3: Entry of
calcium into the axon
terminal causes pores
to form and release
neurotransmitter into
synaptic cleft
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Signal Transmission
at Synapse
§ Step 4:
Neurotransmitter
diffuses across
synaptic cleft and binds
to receptors on
membrane of target
gland, cell, or muscle
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Signal Transmission at
Synapse
§ Step 5: If enough
neurotransmitter is
released, a graded
potential is generated that
can trigger an action
potential beyond the
synapse
Nervous Tissue: Neurons

§ Signal Transmission at
Synapse
§ Step 6: Electrical
changes by
neurotransmitter binding
are brief
§ Neurotransmitter is
quickly removed from
synapse by reuptake
or enzymatic activity
Protection of the Central Nervous System

§ Meninges
§ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
§ Blood-brain barrier (Astrocytes)
Protection of the Central Nervous System

§ Meninges – Dura mater

§ Outermost leathery layer
§ Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain
§ Folds inward in several areas
§ Falx cerebri
§ Tentorium cerebelli
§ Double-layered external covering
§ Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the
skull
Protection of the Central Nervous System

§ Meninges (continued)
§ Arachnoid layer – Middle layer
§ Subarachnoid space is filled with CSF
§ Arachnoid granulations/villi protrude
through the dura mater and absorb CSF
into venous blood
§ Pia mater – Internal layer
§ Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal
cord
 Meninges of the brain.

Skin of scalp
Periosteum
Bone of skull
Periosteal Dura
Meningeal mater
Superior
sagittal sinus Arachnoid mater
Subdural Pia mater
space Arachnoid granulation
Subarachnoid Blood
space vessel
Falx cerebri
(in longitudinal
(a) fissure only)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Meninges

Skull
Falx cerebri Scalp
Superior
sagittal sinus
Occipital lobe Dura mater
Tentorium
cerebelli Transverse
Cerebellum sinus
Temporal
Arachnoid mater bone
over medulla oblongata
(b)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cerebral Spinal Fluid

§ Cerebrospinal fluid – CSF

§ Made in ventricles
§ Similar to blood plasma in composition
§ Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
§ Choroid plexuses – capillaries in ventricles
of brain
§ CSF forms a watery cushion to protect brain
and spinal cord
§ Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord
 Ventricles & Location of CSF
Lateral ventricle

Anterior horn
Septum
pellucidum Interventricular
foramen
Inferior
horn
Third ventricle
Lateral Cerebral aqueduct
aperture
Fourth ventricle

Central canal

(a) Anterior view

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ventricles & Location of CSF

Lateral ventricle

Anterior horn
Posterior
horn
Interventricular
foramen

Third ventricle Inferior horn

Cerebral aqueduct Median

aperture
Fourth ventricle
Lateral
Central canal aperture
(b) Left lateral view

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 4
Superior
sagittal sinus Arachnoid granulation

Choroid plexuses Subarachnoid space

of lateral and Arachnoid mater
third ventricles
Meningeal dura mater
Corpus callosum
Periosteal dura mater
1
Interventricular Right lateral ventricle
foramen (deep to cut)
Third ventricle
3
Choroid plexus
of fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Lateral aperture
1 CSF is produced by the
Fourth ventricle 2 choroid plexus of each
Median aperture ventricle.
2 CSF flows through the ventricles
and into the subarachnoid space via
Central canal the median and lateral apertures.
of spinal cord
Some CSF flows through the central
canal of the spinal cord.
3 CSF flows through the
subarachnoid space.
4 CSF is absorbed into the dural
venous sinuses via the arachnoid
granulations.
(c) CSF circulation
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Blood Brain Barrier

§ Astrocytes
§ Least permeable capillaries of the
body
§ Allows gases, water, glucose, and
amino acids to pass through capillary
walls
§ Excludes many potentially harmful
substances from entering brain, such
as wastes
§ Useless as a barrier against some
substances
Brain Anatomy

§ Brain Regions
§ Cerebrum/Cerebral
hemispheres
§ Diencephalon
§ Brain stem
§ Cerebellum
Brain Anatomy

§ Cerebrum –
§ 2 Hemispheres
§ Right
§ Left
§ Longitudinal fissure –
§ Separates
hemispheres
Brain Anatomy

§ Gyrus – fold
§ Sulcus – groove in
between gyri
§ Central Sulcus –
separates frontal
lobe from parietal
lobe
§ Fissures are deeper
grooves
§ Lobes – named for
cranial bones
Brain Lobes

§ Frontal – Motor, personality, judgement, reasoning

§ Parietal – Sensory, read, write, spatial relationships
§ Central Sulcus – Separates the frontal lobe from
the parietal lobe
Brain Lobes

§ Temporal – smell, hearing, speech, memory,

comprehension
§ Insula – taste, visceral sensation/gut/bladder,
autonomic function
§ Occipital – vision
Lobes and Special Senses

§ Cerebral areas involved in special senses

§ Visual Area – Occipital Lobe
§ Auditory Area – Temporal Lobe
§ Olfactory Area – Temporal Lobe
Brain Anatomy

§ 3 main regions of
cerebral hemisphere
§ White matter –
myelinated regions
§ Cortex – superficial
gray matter
§ Basal nuclei are
deep pockets of gray
matter
Lobes and Special Senses
 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

§ Primary Somatic Sensory Area

§ Postcentral gyrus of parietal lobe
§ Receives signals from sensory receptors
§ Pain, temperature, light touch (except for special
senses)
§ Sensory homunculus is spatial map
§ Left side receives impulses from right side (and
vice versa)
Functional Anatomy of the Brain

§ Primary Motor Area

§ Precentral gyrus of frontal lobe
§ Conscious movement of skeletal muscles
§ Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal)
tract, which descends to spinal cord
§ Motor homunculus is a spatial map
Figure 7.14 Sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex.
Posterior

Motor Sensory
Motor map in Anterior Sensory map in

Shoul
precentral gyrus postcentral gyrus

Head

Ha earm
Trunk
Neck
Trunk

Elb rm
ow
Hip
L eg
d er

Knee
Elb t
Arm
Wri

Hip
Ha

s
A

r
nd

er
Fi

Fo
n

ow
s
ng

ng
d
er

Fi
Knee
Th
s

b
um

um
Foot
b

Th
Nec

e
Ey
Bro k se
w o
N
Eye Toes ce
Fa
s
F ace Genitals L ip

Lips Teeths
Gu m
Jaw
Jaw
Tongue

Tongue Primary motor Primary somatic Pharynx

cortex sensory cortex Intra-
Swallowing
(precentral gyrus) (postcentral gyrus) abdominal

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functional Anatomy
of the Brain

§ Cerebral cortex
§ Wernicke area – ability to recognize words
§ Broca’s area – motor speech area
§ Ability to speak
§ Usually in left hemisphere
§ Other specialized areas
§ Motor association area (frontal lobe)
§ Sensory/Somesthetic association area
(posterior cortex)
Lobes and Special Senses
 Longitudinal fissure Association fibers
Superior
Lateral Commissural fibers
ventricle (corpus callosum)
Corona
Basal nuclei radiata

Fornix
Internal
Thalamus capsule

Third
ventricle
Pons Projection
fibers

Medulla oblongata
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Functional Anatomy of the Brain

§ Cerebral white matter

§ Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
§ Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
§ Commissural tracts, such as the corpus
callosum, connect left and right hemispheres
§ Association fiber tracts connect areas
within a hemisphere
§ Projection tracts connect cerebrum with
lower CNS centers
Brain Anatomy

§ Basal nuclei
§ “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within
the white matter of the cerebrum
§ Regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying signals to skeletal muscles by
primary motor cortex
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
§ Diencephalon
§ Sits on top of the
brain stem
§ Enclosed by the
cerebral
hemispheres
§ Structures –
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus
Figure 7.16a Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Third ventricle
Choroid plexus of third
ventricle
Occipital lobe of
cerebral hemisphere

Thalamus
Anterior (encloses third ventricle)
commissure Epithalamus
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus Corpora
quadrigemina
Optic chiasma
Cerebral Midbrain
aqueduct
Pituitary gland
Cerebral
peduncle
Mammillary body
Fourth ventricle
Pons
Choroid plexus
Medulla oblongata (part of epithalamus)
Spinal cord Cerebellum
(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Brain Anatomy

§ Thalamus
§ Encloses the third ventricle
§ Relay station for sensory signals passing
upward to cerebral cortex
§ Transfers signals to correct part of cortex for
localization and interpretation
Figure 7.16b Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Radiations
to cerebral
cortex

Auditory
Visual impulses impulses

Reticular formation Descending

motor projections
to spinal cord
Ascending general sensory
tracts (touch, pain, temperature)
(b)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

§ Hypothalamus
§ Important autonomic nervous system center
§ Regulates body temperature
§ Regulates water balance
§ Regulates metabolism
§ Houses the limbic center for emotions
§ Hormonal regulation of pituitary gland
§ Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction
(smell)
Functional Anatomy of the Brain

§ Epithalamus
§ Forms the roof of the third ventricle
§ Houses the pineal gland
§ Secretes melatonin
§ Includes the choroid plexus—begins
production of cerebrospinal fluid
 Diencephalon and brain stem structures
Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Third ventricle
Choroid plexus of third
ventricle
Occipital lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
Thalamus
Anterior (encloses third ventricle)
commissure Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Hypothalamus Corpora
quadrigemina
Optic chiasma
Cerebral Midbrain
aqueduct
Pituitary gland
Cerebral
peduncle
Mammillary body
Fourth ventricle
Pons
Choroid plexus
Medulla oblongata (part of epithalamus)
Spinal cord Cerebellum
(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Limbic System

§ Limbic System
§ Most important
center of emotion
and learning in the
brain
§ Includes:
Hypothalamic
nuclei, thalamic
nuclei, basal nuclei,
and pre-frontal
cortex
Limbic System
§ Structures have centers for both gratification and
aversion
§ Stimulation of a gratification center
§ Produces a sense of pleasure or reward
§ Stimulation of an aversion center
§ Produces unpleasant sensations
§ Fear or sorrow
Cerebrum – Limbic System
§ Cingulate Gyrus –
§ Express emotion
through gestures
§ Involved in
resolving mental
conflicts when
frustrated
Limbic System

§ Hippocampus –
§ Role in memory
§ Modulating
behavior
§ Stem cells for
plasticity
§ Able to rewire
Limbic System
§ Amygdala –
§ Recognizes
angry or fearful
facial
expressions
§ Assesses danger
§ Elicits fear
response
§ Role in memory
Limbic System
§ Environmental Stimuli
§ Integration – smell, sight, sound
§ Most Limbic System output relayed through
hypothalamus
§ Hypothalamus clears autonomic and emotional
response
§ Acute or chronic stress can lead to visceral
illness
§ Hypertension, heartburn, psychosomatic
illness
Limbic System

§ Interaction with
prefrontal cortex
§ Relationship between
feelings & thoughts.
§ Emotions can override
logic reacting poorly
§ Can also stop
inappropriate
expression of emotion
Functional Anatomy of the Brain

§ Cerebellum
§ Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
§ Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of
white matter
§ Controls balance
§ Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity and coordination of body
movements
Brain Stem

§ Brain stem
§ Attaches to the
spinal cord
§ Parts of the brain
stem
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla
oblongata
Brain Stem

§ Midbrain
§ Extends from mammillary bodies
to pons inferiorly
§ Visual and auditory reflex
centers – 4 rounded protrusions,
corpora quadrigemina, are
§ Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal)
connects third and fourth
ventricles
§ Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral
peduncles, convey ascending and
descending signals
Brain Stem

§ Pons
§ Below midbrain
§ Mostly
composed of
fiber tracts
§ Includes nuclei
involved in
control of
breathing
Brain Stem

§ Medulla Oblongata
§ Most inferior part
§ Merges into spinal cord
§ Cardiac Center – heart rate control
§ Vasomotor Center – blood pressure
§ Respiratory Center – frequency and depth
§ Swallowing
§ Emesis Center – vomiting
§ Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and
medulla
Functional Anatomy of the Brain Stem

§ Reticular Formation
§ Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
stem
§ Involved in motor control of visceral organs
§ Reticular Activating System (RAS)
§ Role in awake/sleep cycles and
consciousness
§ Filter for incoming sensory information
Figure 7.16b Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Radiations
to cerebral
cortex

Auditory
Visual impulses impulses

Reticular formation Descending

motor projections
to spinal cord
Ascending general sensory
tracts (touch, pain, temperature)
(b)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cranial Nerves

§ 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and

neck
§ Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic
and abdominal cavities
§ Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only
§ Optic
§ Olfactory
§ Vestibulocochlear
Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves Mnemonic
MIDBRAIN
I – Oh (Olfactory)
II – Oh (Optic)
III – Oh (Oculomotor)
IV – To (Trochlear)
PONS V-VIII
V – Touch (Trigeminal)
VI – And (Abducens)
VII – Feel (Facial)
VIII – Very (Vestibulocochlear)
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
IX – Green (Glossopharyngeal)
X – Vegetables (Vagus)
XI – A (Accessory)
XII – H (Hypoglossal)
Sensory Only Cranial Nerves
I - Olfactory
§ Sense of smell
§ Can patient smell, or is there
a change?

II - Optic
§ Ability to see
§ Can patient see an object
close by, or state number of
fingers you are holding up?
Sensory Only Cranial Nerves

VIII - Vestibulocochlear
§ Cochlear –
§ Hearing
§ Have patient repeat a
phrase

§ Vestibular –
§ Equilibrium
§ Ask about sudden dizziness or onset of dizziness
§ Have patient balance on one leg then the other
(if they can stand)
Motor Only Cranial Nerves
III - Oculomotor
§ Pupils –
§ size, shape, reactivity
§ Eye movement –
§ Convergence where eyes
move medially while
following finger or object
IV - Trochlear
§ Eye movement –
§ Inferiorly at an angle –
follow moving finger or
object
Motor Only Cranial Nerves
VI - Abducens
§ Eye movement – laterally
away from nose on
transverse/horizontal plane
§ Follow moving finger or object
XI – Accessory
§ Sternocleidomastoid muscle –
rotate head left to right
§ Trapezius – elevate and retract
scapulae
Mixed (Sensory & Motor) Cranial Nerves
V - Trigeminal

§ Sensory – touch, pain,

temperature from face,
nose & mouth
§ Motor – corneal reflex
§ Motor – open and close
mouth, & move from
side to side
Mixed (Sensory & Motor) Cranial Nerves
VII - Facial
§ Sensory – taste on tongue
(anterior 2/3 for sweet, salty, sour,
bitter
§ Motor – close eyes/blink, smile,
eye tearing
XII – Hypoglossal
§ Sensory – sensation on tongue
§ Motor – tongue movement,
sticking out tongue and move
side to side
Mixed (Sensory & Motor) Cranial Nerves
IX – Glossopharyngeal
§ Sensory – posterior
taste buds,
baroreceptors for blood
pressure in carotid
arteries
§ Motor – gag and
swallowing reflexes,
salivary glands
activation
§ Have patient
swallow and cough
Mixed (Sensory & Motor) Cranial Nerves
X – Vagus
§ Sensory – signals from pharynx,
larynx, abdominal & thoracic
organs
§ Motor – pharynx & larynx,
swallowing, talking
§ Parasympathetic –
stimulation of digestion, urine
formation, reproductive
organs, resting HR, RR, BP
Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (1 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (2 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (3 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (4 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (5 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (6 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Spinal Cord
§ Foramen magnum of Cervical
spinal nerves
Cervical
skull to first or second enlargement C8
lumbar vertebra
§ Cauda equina – Dura and
Thoracic
collection of spinal arachnoid
mater spinal nerves
nerves at the inferior
end Lumbar
enlargement T12
§ Provides a two-way L2
End of spinal cord
conduction pathway to Lumbar
and from the brain Cauda
equina L5
spinal nerves

§ 31 pairs of spinal End of

meningeal
S1 Sacral
nerves arise from coverings spinal nerves
S5
spinal cord
Spinal Cord
§ Gray matter
§ Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
§ Dorsal horns house interneurons
§ Receive information from sensory neurons in
dorsal root; cell bodies housed in dorsal root
ganglion
§ Ventral horns house motor neurons of somatic
(voluntary) nervous system
§ Send information out ventral root
§ Gray matter surrounds central canal filled with
CSF
Figure 7.20 Spinal cord with meninges (three-dimensional, anterior view).

White matter Dorsal (posterior)

Dorsal root Central canal horn of gray matter
ganglion Lateral horn of
gray matter

Spinal nerve
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal root of horn of gray matter
spinal nerve

Ventral root Pia mater

of spinal nerve

Arachnoid mater

Dura mater

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spinal Cord

§ White matter
§ Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
§ Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral
columns
§ Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct signals
toward brain – Ascending
§ Motor (efferent) tracts carry signals from brain
to skeletal muscles – Descending
 White matter Dorsal (posterior)
Dorsal root Central canal horn of gray matter
ganglion Lateral horn of
gray matter

Spinal nerve
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal root of horn of gray matter
spinal nerve

Ventral root Pia mater

of spinal nerve

Arachnoid mater

Dura mater

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spinal Cord Tracts
§ Tracts
§ Pathways within
spinal cord that
contain nerve
fibers
§ Ascending tracts
§ Carry sensory
information from
the
body/periphery
back to the brain
§ Descending tracts
§ Carry motor
impulses from
brain to PNS
Spinal Nerves
§ PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS
Spinal Nerves

§ Ventral root
§ Motor signals –
voluntary &
sympathetic exit
spinal cord through
this root
§ Efferent
fibers/signals motor
Spinal Nerves

§ Dorsal root
§ Sensory signals
enter spinal cord
through this root
§ Afferent fibers/signals
sensory
Spinal Nerves

§ Dorsal root
ganglion
§ A collection of
nerve cell
bodies on the
dorsal root of
each spinal
nerve
Figure 7.22 Structure of a nerve.

Axon

Structure of a Nerve Myelin sheath

Endoneurium

§ Nerves are bundles of neurons

found outside the CNS
Perineurium
§ Endoneurium is a connective
Fascicle
tissue sheath that surrounds
each fiber
Epineurium Blood
§ Perineurium wraps groups of vessels

fibers bound into a fascicle

§ Epineurium binds groups of
fascicles

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Structure of a Peripheral Nerve

§ Mixed nerves
§ Contain both sensory and motor fibers
§ Sensory (afferent) nerves
§ Carry impulses toward the CNS
§ Motor (efferent) nerves
§ Carry impulses away from CNS
Spinal Cord Nerves
§ Cervical = 8
§ Thoracic = 12
§ Lumbar = 5
§ Sacral = 5
§ Coccygeal = 1
§ Exit above the vertebra
for which they are
numbered
§ Numbered based on the
vertebral level at which it
exits the spinal canal
(C1, T12)
Spinal Nerves Plexus

§ Plexus – organized
cluster of nerves
§ The plexuses are:
§ Cervical
§ Brachial
§ Lumbar
§ Sacral
Cervical Plexus
§ Innervates the neck
and posterior portion
of the head
§ C1-C5
§ Conduct motor
impulses to the
diaphragm
§ Phrenic nerve
Facial & Cervical Dermatomes/Sensory Distribution
Brachial Plexus
§ Innervates the
shoulder and
brachium and
posterior portion of
the head
§ C5-T1
• Axillary
• Radial
• Median
• Musculocutaneous
• Ulnar
Brachial Dermatomes/Sensory Distribution
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lumbar & Sacral (Lumbosacral) Plexus
§ Innervates lower limb
and sends some
branches to
abdomen, pelvis,
buttocks
§ L1-L4
§ L4-S4
§ Sciatic
§ Obturator nerve
§ Femoral nerve
§ Tibial nerve
§ Common fibular
nerve
 Lumbar & Sacral
(Lumbosacral)
Plexus
Femoral nerve
Lateral femoral
cutaneous nerve
Obturator nerve
Femur
Anterior femoral
cutaneous nerve

Saphenous nerve

(b) Lumbar plexus,

anterior view
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lumbar & Sacral
(Lumbosacral)
Plexus Superior gluteal
nerve
Inferior gluteal
nerve

Sciatic nerve

Posterior femoral
cutaneous nerve

Common fibular
nerve
Tibial nerve
Sural (cut) nerve
Deep fibular
nerve
Superficial fibular
nerve

Plantar branches

(c) Sacral plexus, posterior view

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lumbosacral Dermatomes/Sensory Distribution
 Table 7.3 Spinal Nerve Plexuses (2 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thoracic Spinal Nerves
§ Intercostal Nerves
§ Ventral branches
§ Rami of spinal
nerves T1 to T12
§ Supply intercostal
muscles and
muscles of anterior
and lateral trunk
§ Dorsal Branches
§ Supply skin and
muscles of
posterior trunk
Intercostal Nerves
Spinal Nerves Dermatomes

Anterior
Spinal Nerves Dermatomes
Posterior
Spinal Cord Damage

§ Flaccid Paralysis
§ Damage to ventral root results in of muscles
served
§ Nerve impulses do not reach muscles affected
§ No voluntary movement of those muscles is
possible.
§ Muscles atrophy because they are no longer
stimulated
Spinal Cord Damage

§ Spastic Paralysis
§ Results when spinal cord is transected/cut
crosswise, or crushed
§ Affected muscles stay healthy because still
stimulated by spinal reflex arcs
§ Movement occurs, but are involuntary and not
controllable
§ Loss of feeling or sensory input occurs in body
areas below point of cord destruction
Spinal Cord Damage

§ QUADRIPLEGIC:
§ All four limbs are
affected
§ PARAPLEGIC:
§ Only legs are
paralyzed
Reflexes

§ Reflexes –
§ Rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses
to stimuli
§ Reflexes occur over reflex arcs
§ Receptor > sensory neuron > integration
center > motor neuron > target/effector
§ Two types of reflexes
§ Somatic reflexes
§ Autonomic reflexes
Reflexes
§ Five elements of a reflex arc
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the
integration center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes
information and directs motor output
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an
effector
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be
stimulated
 Simple Reflex Arc

Stimulus at distal Skin Spinal cord

end of neuron (in cross section)
2 Sensory neuron
3Integration
1 Receptor center
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector Interneuron

(a) Five basic elements of reflex arc

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Reflexes
§ Somatic reflexes
§ Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
§ Involuntary
§ Example: pulling your hand away from a
hot object
§ Autonomic reflexes
§ Regulate activity of smooth muscles, heart,
and glands
§ Involuntary
§ Example: regulation food moving through
digestive tract, heart rate and blood
pressure, glandular secretions
Somatic Reflexes

§ Two-neuron
reflex arcs
§ Simplest
type
§ Patellar
(knee-jerk)
reflex
Somatic Reflexes

§ Three-neuron reflex arcs

§ Flexor (withdrawal) reflex
Somatic Reflexes

§Multisynaptic
Reflex –
§Flexor Withdrawal +
Crossed Extensor
Reflex
Autonomic Reflex
Lateral horn of Dorsal ramus
gray matter of spinal nerve
Dorsal root
Ventral ramus
of spinal nerve

Sympathetic
trunk
(a) To effector:
blood vessels,
Spinal (c) (b) arrector pili
nerve muscles, and
sweat glands
of the skin

Ventral root Gray ramus

communicans
Sympathetic Splanchnic White ramus
trunk ganglion nerve communicans

Collateral ganglion
(such as the celiac)

Visceral effector organ

(such as small intestine)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Autonomic Nervous System - ANS
Autonomic Nervous System - ANS
§ Branches
§ Sympathetic –
§ Fight, flight, freeze
§ Shock & stress
§ Adrenal Glands
§ Epinephrine
§ Cortisol
§ Parasympathetic –
§ Rest, digest, & pee
§ Relaxes the body
§ Homeostasis at rest
 Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Eye Eye
Brain stem
Salivary Skin
glands Cranial
Sympathetic Salivary
ganglia glands
Heart Cervical

Lungs Lungs
T1 Heart

Stomach
Thoracic
Stomach Pancreas

Liver
Pancreas and gall-
L1 bladder
Liver and Adrenal
gall- Lumbar
gland
bladder

Bladder Bladder
Sacral
Genitals nerves Genitals
(S2–S4)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Parasympathetic Sympathetic
Eye Eye
Brain stem
Salivary Skin
glands Cranial
Sympathetic Salivary
ganglia glands
Heart Cervical

Lungs Lungs
T1 Heart

Stomach
Thoracic
Stomach Pancreas

Liver
Pancreas and gall-
L1 bladder
Liver and Adrenal
gall- Lumbar
gland
bladder

Bladder Bladder https://www.jcdr.net/article_fulltext.asp?id=5246

Sacral
Genitals nerves Genitals
(S2–S4)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Autonomic Functioning

§ Body organs served by the autonomic nervous

system receive fibers from both divisions
§ EXCEPT!
§ Sympathetic fibers only
§ Blood vessels - smoothmuscle
§ Sweat glands & hair follicles in the skin
§ Adrenal medulla
Autonomic Nervous System - ANS
§ Two neuron system
between CNS & PNS –
§ Preganglionic – first
neuron prior to
synapse in ganglion
§ Postganglionic –
second neuron at
synapse in ganglion –
causes the autonomic
effect
ANS Branches Origination
§ Sympathetic
§ Preganglionic
neuron originates
from the lateral
horn of the
thoracic region of
spinal cord
 Lateral horn of Dorsal ramus
gray matter of spinal nerve
Dorsal root
Ventral ramus
of spinal nerve

Sympathetic
trunk
(a) To effector:
blood vessels,
Spinal (c) (b) arrector pili
nerve muscles, and
sweat glands
of the skin

Ventral root Gray ramus

communicans
Sympathetic Splanchnic White ramus
trunk ganglion nerve communicans

Collateral ganglion
(such as the celiac)

Visceral effector organ

(such as small intestine)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

SYMPATHETIC Neurons & Receptors

§ Preganglionic neuron Secretes

Nicotinic NorEPI
§ Acetylcholine Receptors
Adrenergic
Receptors

§ Cholinergic Fiber

§ Postganglionic neuron Secretes ACh

Sweat Glands
Muscarinic
Receptors

§ Acetylcholine
§ Cholinergic
Digestive
§ Sweat Glands Urinary

§ Norepinephrine
§ Adrenergic Fiber
Parasympathetic Branch
§ Craniosacral
§ Preganglionic
neurons
originate in the
brain stem and
the sacral region
of spinal cord
Parasympathetic Neurons
§ Preganglionic neurons originate
§ Cranial nerves
§ III – Oculomotor
§ VII – Facial
§ IX – Glossopharyngeal
§ X – Vagus
§ Sacral nerves
§ S2 through S4 of spinal cord
§ Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal
ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend
to organs that are served
PARASYMPATHETIC Neurons & Receptors

§ Preganglionic neuron § Postganglionic neuron Adrenal Medulla,

Vessels, Heart, Lungs
§ Acetylcholine § Acetylcholine NorEPI

§ Cholinergic Fiber § Cholinergic Fiber

§ Nicotinic § Muscarinic
receptors
ACh
receptors Sweat Glands

Preganglionic Neuron Postganglionic Neuron

ACh

ACh
Nicotinic Muscarinic
Receptors Receptors
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors
§ Cholinergic axons/nerves –
§ Signal travels down axon and secretes
acetylcholine (ACh)
§ Acetylcholinesterase –
§ Enzyme that breaks down ACh after signal is
transmitted
§ Cholinergic receptors – 2 types
§ Nicotinic –
§ Always excitatory/stimulate
§ Muscarinic –
§ Can be inhibitory or stimulatory
§ Depends on what organ they are on
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors
§ Cholinergic Nicotinic
Receptors –
§ Always
excitatory/stimulate
§ On parasympathetic Nicotinic
Receptors

and sympathetic
postganglionic
neurons (dendrites
and soma)
Nicotinic
§ Adrenal medulla Receptors
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors

Sweat Gland

§ Cholinergic Muscarinic
Receptors – ACh

§ Can be excitatory or Muscarinic Receptors

inhibitory

ACh

Muscarinic Receptors
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors
§ Cholinergic Muscarinic receptors –
§ Excitatory/Stimulate
§ Sweat glands
§ Digestive organ function
§ Reproductive organ function
§ Inhibitory/Not stimulate
§ Decrease Heart Rate
§ Decrease Respiratory Rate
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors

§ Sympathetic Adrenergic receptors –

§ Receive norepinephrine from sympathetic
postganglionic neuron/Adrenergic fiber

§ 2 Categories –
§ Alpha receptors
§ Beta receptors
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors
§ Sympathetic Adrenergic axons/nerves –
§ Signal travels down postganglionic neuron and
secretes NorEpinephrine (NorEPI) on target
organ/cell
§ Monoamine Oxidase –
§ Enzyme that breaks down NorEPI after
signal is transmitted
§ Adrenergic receptors – 2 types
§ Alpha –
§ Beta –
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors

§ Alpha Adrenergic Smooth

Muscle of
Arteries &

receptors – Veins

NorEPI
§ Alpha1
§ Located on smooth Alpha1 Receptors

muscle of blood
vessels
§ Alpha2
§ Decrease motility
of gut and
formation of urine
in kidneys
ANS Neurotransmitters and Receptors

§ Beta Adrenergic Heart

receptors – (NorEPI) OR
Lungs
NorEPI
§ Beta1
§ Located in heart Beta1 Receptors (Heart)
Or

§ Increases HR Beta2 Receptors (Lungs)

§ Beta2
§ Located in lungs
§ Dilation of
bronchioles
§ Increased air flow
ANS Innervation Cardiac
Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus
Vagus nerve
(parasympathetic) Cardioinhibitory center
decreases heart rate
Cardioacceleratory center

Medulla oblongata

Sympathetic trunk ganglion

Thoracic spinal cord
Sympathetic trunk

Sympathetic cardiac nerves

increase heart rate and force of
contraction

AV node
SA node
Parasympathetic fibers
Sympathetic fibers
Interneurons
Figure 18.15
ANS Drug Effects

§ Anticholinergic Medications
(Parasympatholytic) –
§ Inhibit Acetylcholine (ACh)
§ Atropine –
§ Blocks muscarinic receptors
§ Prevents salivation
§ Dries up respiratory system secretions
ANS Drug Effects
§ Sympathomimetic Drugs –
§ Mimic NE and EPI
§ Stimulate alpha adrenergic receptors
§ Stimulate beta adrenergic receptors
§ Blocks muscarinic receptors
§ Prevent salivation
§ Dry up respiratory system secretions
§ Examples –
§ Caffeine
§ Ritalin
§ Amphetamines
Figure 7.26 Comparison of the Somatic
and Autonomic Nervous Systems
Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (1 of 2)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (2 of 2)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.