1.

0 Unit I: Introduction to Computers

Course Objectives:
 Appreciate the history of computers
 Understand the generation of computers
 Know more about personal computers
1.1 History of Computer Until the development of the first generation computers based on
vacuum tubes, there have been several developments in the computing technology related
to the mechanical computing devices. The key developments that took place till the first
computer was developed include the following:
Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for
counting of large numbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consisted of
bars in horizontal positions on which sets of beads ware inserted. The horizontal bars had
10 beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc.
Napier’s bones was a mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 by
an English mathematician John Napier.
Slide Rule was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th
century. Using the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It was used extensively till late 1970s.
Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could
add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine was a mechanical device that could
both multiply and divide. The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz
built it around 1673. Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the
power loom in 1801. He invented the punched card reader that could recognize the
presence of hole in the 6 punched card as binary one and the absence of the hole as binary
zero. The 0s and 1s are the basis of the modern digital computer.
Babbage’s Analytical Engine. An English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical
machine to do complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823. The machine was
called as difference engine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a
general-purpose calculating machine, the analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also called
the father of computer. Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine was invented by
Herman Hollerith. The machine could read the information from a punched card and
process it electronically. The developments discussed above and several others not
discussed here, resulted in the development of the first computer in the 1940s.
1.2 Generations of Computers
The history of computer development is often discussed with reference to different
generations of computing devices. In computer terminology, the word 'generation' is
described as a stage of technological development or innovation. A major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way in which computers operates and
resulted in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful, more efficient and reliable
devices characterized each generation of computer. There are five generations of
computers and the next sections discuses them in details.
 1.2.1 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes
First-generation computers were vacuum tubes/thermionic valves-based machines. These
computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic
drum is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron oxide material on which data and
programs can be stored. The input was based on punched cards and paper tape and the output
was in the form of printouts.7 First-generation computers relied on binary-coded language,
which is also known as the machine language (i.e. language of 0s and 1s), to perform
operations and were able to solve only one problem at a time. Each machine was fed with
different binary codes and hence was difficult to program. This resulted in lack of versatility
and speed. To run on different types of computers, it required that instructions be rewritten
and recompiled. Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC and UNIVAC.
Characteristics of First-generation Computers
The following were the characteristics of first-generation computers:
 These computers were based on vacuum tube technology.
 These were the fastest computing devices of their times (the computation time was in
milliseconds).  These computers were very large and required a lot of space for installation.
 Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of heat.
Therefore, air conditioning was essential.
 These were non-portable and very slow equipment.
 These computers lacked versatility and speed
.  They were very expensive to operate and used a large amount of electricity.
 These machines were unreliable and prone to frequent hardware failures. Hence, constant
maintenance was required.
 Since machine language was used, these computers were difficult to program and use.
 Each individual component had to be assembled manually. Hence, commercial appeal of
these computers was poor.
1.2.2 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
Second-generation computers used transistors instead of vacuum tubes, which were superior to
vacuum tubes. A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like germanium and silicon.
It usually had three leads and performed electrical functions 8 such as voltage, current or
power amplification with low power requirements. Since transistor is a small device, the
physical size of the computer was greatly reduced. Computers became smaller, faster, cheaper,
energy-efficient and more reliable than their predecessors. In second-generation computers,
magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. However, they still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output. One of
the major developments of this generation includes the progress of machine language to
assembly language. Assembly language used mnemonics (abbreviations) for instructions rather
than numbers; for example, ADD for addition and MULT for multiplication. As a result,
 programming became less cumbersome. Early high-level programming languages such as
COBOL and FORTRAN also came into existence during this period.
Characteristics of Second-generation Computers
Characteristics of second-generation computers are as follows:
 These machines were based on transistor technology.
 The machines were smaller when compared to the first-generation computers.
 The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds from milliseconds.
 These computers were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, they required
less frequent maintenance.
 These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.
 Assembly language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became more
time-efficient and less cumbersome.
 Second-generation computers still required air conditioning.
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required.
1.2.3 Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the trait of the third-generation computers. An
integrated circuit, also called IC, consisted of a single chip (usually silicon) with many
components such as transistors and resistors fabricated on it (see Figure). Integrated circuits
replaced several individually wired transistors. This development made computers smaller in
size, reliable and efficient. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third-
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating
system. This allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. For the first time, computers became accessible to
majority of common people because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Examples: NCR 395 and B6500. Characteristics of Third-generation Computers Third-
generation computers have the following characteristics:
 These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology.
 These were able to reduce computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
 These were easily portable and more reliable than the second-generation computers.
 These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air conditioning
was still required.
 The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous- generation computers.
 Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
 Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
 Manual assembling of individual components was not required; therefore, it reduced the
large requirement of labor and cost. However, highly sophisticated technologies were required
for the manufacturing of IC chips.
 Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
1.2.4 Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors
Fourth generation is an extension of third-generation technology. Although, the technology of
this generation is still based on the integrated circuit, these have been made readily available
because of the development of the microprocessor (circuits containing millions of transistors)
(see Figure). The Intel 4004 chip, which was developed in 1971, took the integrated circuit one
step further by locating all the components of a computer (central processing unit, memory,
and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. A microprocessor is built onto a single
 piece of silicon, known as chip. It is about 0.5 cm along one side and not more than 0.05 cm
thick. Fourth-generation computers led to an era of large-scale integration (LSI) and verylarge-
scale integration (VLSI) technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be
constructed on one small slice of silicon material, whereas VLSI squeezed hundreds of
thousands of components on to a single chip. Ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) increased
that number to millions. This way the computers became smaller and cheaper than ever before.
Fourth-generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to the personal computer (PC) revolution. During this period, magnetic core
memories were substituted by semiconductor memories, which resulted in faster random
access main memories. Secondary memories such as hard disks became economical, smaller,
and bigger in capacity. The other significant development of this era was that these computers
could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. This generation also saw the development of graphical user interfaces (GUIs), mouse
and hand-held devices. Despite many advantages, there is only one disadvantage of this
generation, that is, it required complex and sophisticated technology for the manufacturing of
CPU and other components. Examples: Apple II, Altair 8800 and CRAY-1. Characteristics of
Fourth-generation Computers
Following are the characteristics of fourth-generation computers:
 Fourth-generation computers are microprocessor-based systems.
 These computers are very small in size.
 They are the cheapest among all the other-generation computers.
 Fourth generation computers are portable and quite reliable.
 These machines generate negligible amount of heat, hence, they do not require air
conditioning.
 Hardware failure is negligible, so minimum maintenance is required.
 The production cost is very low. In addition, requirement of labor and cost involved at
assembly stage is also minimal.
 GUI and pointing devices enable the users to learn to use the computer quickly.
 Interconnection of computers leads to better communication and resource sharing.
1.2.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence
The dream of creating a human-like computer that would be capable of reasoning and
reaching at a decision through a series of 'what-if-then' analysis has existed since the
beginning of computer technology. Such a computer would learn from its mistakes and
possess the skill of experts. These are the objectives for creating the fifth-generation
computers. The starting point of the fifth-generation computers had been set in the early
1990s. The process of developing fifth-generation computers is still in the development
stage. However, the 'expert system' concept is already in use. The expert system is defined
as a computer system that attempts to mimic the thought process and reasoning of experts in
specific areas.
Three characteristics can be identified with the fifth-generation computers.
These are as follows:
 Mega Chips: Fifth-generation computers will use super large-scale integrated (SLSI)
chips, which will result in the production of microprocessor having millions of electronic
components on a single chip. To store instructions and information, fifth-generation 12
computers shall require a great amount of storage capacity. Mega chips would enable the
computer to approximate the memory capacity of the human mind.
 Parallel Processing: Computers with one processor access and execute only one
instruction at a time. This is called serial processing. However, fifth-generation computer
will use multiple processors and perform parallel processing, thereby accessing several
instructions at one time and working on them at the same time.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI): It refers to a series of related technologies that tries to
simulate and reproduce human behaviour including thinking, speaking and reasoning. AI
comprises a group of related technologies such as expert systems (ES), natural language
processing (NLP), speech recognition, vision recognition and robotics among others.
2.0 The Personal Computer In the olden days, people used fingers and pebbles for
computing purposes. In fact, the word 'digitus' in Latin actually means 'finger' and 'calculus'
means 'pebble'. This gives a clue into the origin of early computing concepts. With the growth
of civilization, the computing needs also grew. The need for a mechanism to perform lengthy
calculations led to the invention of the first calculator and then the computers. The term
'computer' is derived from the word 'compute', which means to calculate. In its simplest term,
a computer is defined as an electronic machine, devised for performing calculations and
controlling operations that can be expressed either in logical or numerical terms. A computer
can also be described as an electronic device that performs mathematical and non-
mathematical operations with the help of instructions to process the data to achieve desired
results. Although the application domain of a computer depends totally on human creativity
and imagination, it covers a huge area of applications including education, industries,
government, medicine, scientific research, law and even music and arts.
2.1 Characteristics of Computer
Computers were developed to perform intricate operations such as calculation, data
processing as well as entertainment. Today, computers are used everywhere such as offices,
homes, appliances and automobiles. The list of were computers are used is endless. Much of
the world's infrastructure runs on computers, and the computers have profoundly changed the
way we live, mostly for the better. Below are the characteristics of a computer, which make it
an essential part of every emerging technology for human development:
1. Speed: The computers process data at an extremely fast rate, i.e. at millions or billions of
instructions per second. In a few seconds, a computer can perform a huge task that a normal
human being may take days or even years to complete. The speed of a computer is measured
in megahertz (MHz), that is, one million instructions per second.
2. Accuracy: Besides being fast, the computers are also very accurate in the way they
process data. The level of accuracy depends on the instructions and the type of machines
being used. Since the computer is only capable of doing what it is instructed to do, faulty
instructions for processing the data automatically lead to faulty results. This is instance is
referred to as GIGO, that is, garbage in garbage out.
3. Reliability: Besides the speed and accuracy, computers are also reliable. Reliability is the
measurement of the performance of a computer. It is measured against some predetermined
standard for operation without any failure. The major reason behind the reliability of the
computers is that, at hardware level, it does not require any human intervention between its
processing operations.
4. Storage Capability: Computers can store large amounts of data and it can recall the
required information almost instantaneously. In cases where the storage capability is small,
the data are stored on storage devices such as magnetic tape or disks. The data from these
devices can be accessed and brought into the main memory of the computer, as and when
required, for processing.
5. Versatility: Computers are quite versatile in nature. They can perform multiple tasks
simultaneously with the same ease. For example, at one moment it can be used to prepare a
letter, at the other moment it can be used to play music and in between one can print a 14
document as well. All this work is possible by changing the program (sequence of
instructions for computers).
6. Diligence: Computer, being a machine, does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness
and lack of concentration. If four million calculations have to be performed, then the
computer will perform the last four- millionth calculation with the same accuracy and speed
as the first calculation.
7. Resource Sharing: In the initial stages of development, computer used to be an isolated
machine. With the tremendous growth in computer technologies, today's computers have the
capability to connect with each other. This has made the sharing of costly resources like
printers possible. Apart from device sharing, data and information can also be shared among
groups of computers, thus creating a large information and knowledge base. Despite having
so many advantages, computers also have certain limitations. For example, as a machine, a
computer can perform only what it is programmed to do; nothing more and nothing less. In
addition, a computer needs a well-defined instruction to perform any operation. Therefore,
computers are unable to give any conclusion without going through intermediate steps.
Furthermore, the use of a computer is restricted to certain areas where qualitative
considerations are important. For instance, it can make plans based on situations and
information though it cannot foresee whether they will succeed or not. Although processing
has become less tedious with the development of computers, it is still time-consuming and
expensive. Sometimes, a program works properly for some period and then suddenly
produces incorrect output. This happens because of an error in the instruction provided by the
user. Therefore, computer parts require regular checking and maintenance to give correct
results. Consequently, computers need to be installed in a dust-free place. Generally, some
parts of the computers get heated up due to heavy processing. Because of this, an ambient
temperature of the computer system should always be maintained.
Exercise 1
(i) What are the advantages of transistors over vacuum tubes?
(ii) Discuss the contributions of Blaise Pascal and Charles Babbage to computing.
(iii)In which computer generation are we today?
(iv) Describe the advantages of using minicomputer over microcomputer.20
Solution to Exercise 1
i. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, energy efficient and
reliable.
ii. Charles Babbage is called the father of computers, he built a mechanical machine to do
complex mathematical calculations whereas Blaise Pascal invented the first
Adding and Subtraction Machine.
iii. Currently (today) we are in firth generation of computers.
iv. Minicomputers have high processing speed and high storage capacity than the
microcomputers.