Soil and water conservation (consolidated notes)

(Unit -1)
Soil erosion: soil erosion is the detachment, transportation and deposition of soil material
from one place to another through the action of rain, wind and water in motion.
Causes of soil erosion: The main causes of soil erosion can be enumerated as:

1. Destruction of Natural Protective Cover by :-

(i) deforestation

(ii) overgrazing
(iii) forest fires
2. Improper Use of the Land
(i) keeping the land barren subjecting it to the action of rain and wind,

(ii) growing of crops that accelerate soil erosion,

(iii) removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by injudicious cropping patterns,

(iv) cultivation along the land slope, and

(v) faulty method of irrigation.

Types of soil erosion:

(1) geological erosion: soil erosion caused due to natural phenomena is called geological
erosion.

Rate of formation of soil is equal to rate of loss of soil generally.

Relatively slow, continuous process that often get unnoticed.

Responsible for the formation of topographical features such as

stream channel, valley etc.

(2) accelerated erosion: also refers to as anthropogenic or man induce erosion.

Rate of formation of soil is not equal to rate of loss of soil
generally.
Fast process as compared to geological erosion.
It is two types:
1.water erosion
 2. wind erosion

Agents of erosion:

Water erosion:
Mechanics of water erosion:
1.Hydraulic Action: The hydraulic action takes place when water runs over the soil surface
compressing the soil, as a result of which the air present in the voids exerts a pressure on the
soil particles and this leads to the soil detachment. The pressure exerted by the air voids is
called hydraulic pressure. The soil particles so detached from their places, are scoured by the
running water.

2. Abrasion: Soil particles mixed with the running water create an abrasive power .

3. Attrition: This form includes mechanical breakdown of particles.

4. Solution: This form is associated with the chemical action between running water and
soil.

5. Transportation: The process of soil transportation by running water is completed under

the following forms:
1) Solution: the water soluble contents present in the water are transported by the water in
solution form.
2) Suspension: it involves the transportation of finer soil particles, which are present in
suspension form in the flowing water.
3) Saltation and Surface Creep: it involves transportation of medium size soil particles
that are not able to stand in suspension form, but are mixed in water and flow over the stream
bed in the form of mud. The surface creep action is responsible for transporting the coarser
soil particles.

6.Deposition: Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force is greater than
the forces holding the particles in water.

Factors affecting water erosion:

1 Climatic Factors: Climate includes rainfall characteristic, temperature and wind velocity.
 Rainfall characteristics- it includes amount, intensity, frequency and duration of
rainfall.
 Temperature, also has a influence on soil erosion. Frozen soils are relatively erosion
resistant.
 Wind ,contributes to the drying of soil and increases the need for irrigation for new
plantings and for applying wind erosion control practices.
2 Soil Characteristics: Soil characteristics include texture, structure, organic matter content
and permeability. In addition, in many situations, compaction is significant. These
characteristics greatly determine the erodibility of soil.

3 Vegetation Cover: Vegetative cover is an extremely important factor in reducing erosion

at a site.
 Vegetation create a surface obstruction for direct falling of raindrops on the land. A
good vegetative cover completely negates the effect of rainfall on soil erosion.
 It absorbs energy of raindrops thereby reducing splash erosion.
 roots of vegetation binds soil particles.
4 Topographic Effect: The main topographic factors which influence the soil erosion are
land slope, length of slope and shape of slope.
 A flat land has no problem of erosion, while sloping land predominantly effected by
erosion .
 As the slope increases, the runoff coefficient, kinetic energy and carrying capacity of
surface runoff also increase thereby decreasing the soil stability.

Types of water erosion:

1.raindrop erosion or splash erosion:
  First stage of erosion.
 it is caused by the impact of raindrops on exposed soil surface.
The process of raindrop erosion can be described as:
 when raindrop strikes on open soil surface it forms a crater.
 This is accomplished by forming a blast which bounces the water and soil up and
returns back around the crater.
 The soil may be splashed into the air up to a height of 50 to 75 cm depending upon
the size of rain drops. At the same time the soil particles also move horizontally as
much as 1.50 m on level land surface. On sloping land, more than half of the splashed
particles move down with the runoff

2.sheet erosion: second stage of erosion.

Sheet erosion may be defined as more or less uniform removal of soil in the form of a thin
layer or in “sheet” form by the flowing water form a given width of sloping land .
It is an inconspicuous type of soil erosion because the total amount of soil removed during
any storm is usually small.
In the sheet erosion two basic erosion processes are involved.
First process is the one in which soil particles are detached from the soil surface by falling of
raindrop .
Second process is one in which detached soil particles are transported away by surface runoff
from the original place..

3.rill erosion:
 It is regarded as a transition stage between sheet erosion and gully.
 It is sometime known as micro channel erosion.
 It is the removal of soil by running water with the formation of a areas of small
branching channels.
 Rills are small in size and can be leveled by tillage operations.

4.Gully erosion: it is advanced stage of channel or rill erosion in which the size of rills is so
enlarged which cannot be smoothened by tillage operations.

Stages of development of gullies: The gully development is recognized in four stages: (imp)

1.Formation Stage: during this stage, the channel erosion and deepening of the gully takes
place. It normally proceeds slowly where the top soil is fairly resistant to erosion.
2.Development Stage: Causes upstream movement of the gully head and enlargement of the
gully in width and depth. The gully cuts to the C-horizon of soil, and the parent materials are
removed rapidly as water flows.
3.Healing Stage: Vegetation starts growing in the gully. No appreciable erosion takes place.
4.Stabilization Stage: Gully reaches a stable gradient, gully walls attain a stable slope and
sufficient vegetation cover develops over the gully surface to anchor the soil and permit
development of new topsoil.
Classification of gullies:

Gullies can be classified based on three factors viz. their size, shape (cross section) and state
of gully.

1 Based on Size (depth and drainage area)

Gully classification based on size
Tejwani and Narayana have also given the following gully classifications:

Classification symbol specifications

Very Small 3m deep, bed width<18m, side

G1
gullies slope varies.

3m deep, bed width>18m, side

Small gullies G2
slope varies.

3m-9m deep, bed width>18m,

Medium gullies G3
side are uniformly sloping.

>9m deep, bed width varies,

Deep and narrow
G4 side slope varies, mostly steep
gullies
and vertical.

2 Based on Shape:
U-Shaped: These are formed where both the topsoil and subsoil have the same resistance
against erosion. Because the subsoil is eroded as easily as the topsoil, nearly vertical walls
are developed on each side of the gully.
V-Shaped: These gullies develop where the subsoil has more resistance than topsoil against
erosion. This is the most common form of gully.

3 Based on the stage:

Active Gullies: dimensions enlarge with time. Found in plain areas generally.
Inactive Gullies: dimensions constant with time . found in rocky areas.

5.Stream Bank erosion:

Stream channel [bank] erosion is the sourcing of material from the side and bottom of a
stream or water channel and the cutting of bank by running water. It is mainly due to
removal of vegetation, over grazing or cultivation on the area near to the streams banks.
 Unit -2
Universal soil loss equations:

Wischmeier and Smith (1965) developed the universal soil loss equation given below
A=R.K.L.S.C.P.
where, A = average annual soil loss soil (t ha-1 yr -1)
R = rainfall erosivity factor
K = soil erodibility factor
L = slope length factor
S = slope steepness factor
C = cover management factor
P = conservation practice factor
Rainfall Erosivity Factor (R)
It refers to the rainfall erosivity index, which expresses the ability of rainfall to erode the soil
particles from an unprotected field. It is a numerical value.
From the long field experiments it has been obtained that the extent of soil loss from a
barren field is directly proportional to the product of two rainfall characteristics: kinetic
energy of the storm and its 30-minute maximum intensity.
The product of these two characteristics is termed as EI or EI30 or rainfall erosivity.

Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

The soil erodibility factor (K) in the USLE relates to the rate at which different soils erode.
The formula used for estimating K is as follows:

where, K = soil erodibility factor, A0 = observed soil loss, S = slope factor, and ΣEI = total
rainfall erosivity index.

Topographic Factor (LS)

.
The two factors L and S are usually combined into one factor LS called topographic factor.
This factor is defined as the ratio of soil loss from a field having specific steepness and
length of slope (i.e., 9% slope and 22.13 m length) to the soil loss from a continuous fallow
land. The value of LS can be calculated by using the formula given by Wischmeier and
Smith (1962):

where, L = field slope length in feet and S = percent land slope.

Wischmeier and Smith (1978) again derived the following equation for LS factor in M.K.S.
system, based on the observations from cropped land on slopes ranging from 3 to 18% and
length from 10 to 100 m. The derived updated equation is:
 where, λ = field slope length in meters, m = exponent varying from 0.2 to 0.5, and θ = angle
of slope.

Crop Management Factor (C)

The crop management factor C may be defined as the expected ratio of soil loss from a
cropped land under specific crop to the soil loss from a continuous fallow land, provided that
the soil type, slope and rainfall conditions are identical.
five recommended crop stages introduced by Wischmeier (1960). The five stages are:
Period F (Rough Fallow): It includes the summer ploughing or seed bed preparation.
Period 1 (Seed Bed): It refers to the period from seeding to 1 one month thereafter.
Period 2 (Establishment): The duration ranges from 1 to 2 months after seeding.
Period 3 (Growing Period): It ranges from period 2 to the period of crop harvesting.
Period 4 (Residue or Stubble): The period ranges from the harvesting of crop to the
summer ploughing or new seed bed preparation.

Support Practice Factor (P)

This factor is the ratio of soil loss with a support practice to that with straight row farming up
and down the slope. The conservation practice consists of mainly contouring, terracing and
strip cropping. The soil loss varies due to different practices followed.

Use of USLE:
There are three important applications of the universal soil loss equation. They are as
follows:
 It predicts the soil loss;
 It helps in identification and selection of agricultural practices; and
 It provides the recommendations on crop management practices to be used.

Limitations of Universal Soil Loss Equation

The following are some of the limitations of the USLE:

1.Empirical
The USLE is totally empirical equation. Mathematically, it does not illustrate the actual soil
erosion process. The possibility to introduce predictive errors in the calculation is overcome
by using empirical coefficients.

2.Prediction of Average Annual Soil Loss

This equation was developed mainly on the basis of average annual soil loss data; hence its
applicability is limited for estimation of only average annual soil loss of the given area.
3.Non-computation of Gully Erosion
This equation is employed for assessing the sheet and rill erosions only but can not be used
for the prediction of gully erosion.

4.Non-computation of Sediment Deposition

The equation estimates only soil loss, but not the soil deposition.

Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE):

The USLE was modified by Williams in 1975 to MUSLE by replacing the rainfall energy
factor (R) with another factor called as ‘runoff factor’. The MUSLE is expressed as

where, Y = sediment yield from an individual storm (in metric tones),

Q = storm runoff volume in m3 and
qp = the peak rate of runoff in m3/s.
All other factors K, (LS), C and P have the same meaning as in USLE

OR
Y=95(Q×qp).56 K(LS)CP
Y = sediment yield for an individual storm (tones)
Q = volume of runoff (acre-feet)
qp = peak flow rate (cfs)
All other factors K, (LS), C and P have the same meaning as in USLE .

Erosivity:
 It may be defined as the potential ability of rain to cause the erosion.
 It is a property of rainfall.
 It is the input force to detach the soil particles.
 Erosivity is a fun of characteristics of rainfall.

Factors Affecting Rainfall Erosivity:

The various factors, which affect the erosivity of rain storm, are given as under:
1) Rainfall Intensity
The kinetic energy is related to the intensity of rainfall by the equation proposed by
Wischmeier and Smith (1958) as follows:

where, KE = kinetic energy of rainfall,( tons per ha per cm of rainfall)

I = rainfall intensity (cm/h).

2) Drop Size Distribution

The relationship between the median drop size (D50) and rainfall intensity, is given as under
(Laws and Parsons, 1943):

In which, D50 is the median drop size (inch) and I is the intensity (inch/h).

3) Terminal Velocity
The kinetic energy of rain storm has following relationship with terminal velocity, as:
where,
Ek = rainfall energy (watts /m2)3, I = Intensity of rainfall (mm/s), and V = Terminal velocity
of rainfall before impact (m/s).

4) Wind Velocity
Wind velocity affects the power of rainfall to cause soil detachment, by influencing the
kinetic energy of rain storm.

5) Direction of Slope
The direction of land slope also develops significant effect on rainfall erosivity. Slope
direction in the direction of the rain storm, effectively alters the actual kinetic energy of the
rain drop. It increases the impact force of the raindrop as the velocity component in the
direction of slope becomes more.

Estimation of Erosivity from Rainfall Data:

The rainfall erosivity is related to the kinetic energy of rainfall. The following two methods
are widely used for computing the erosivity of rainfall.
1. EI30 Index method and
2. KE > 25 Index method.

1. EI30 Index Method:

 This method was introduced by Wischmeier (1965).
 It is based on the fact that the product of kinetic energy of the storm and the 30-minute
maximum rainfall intensity gives the best estimation of soil loss.
 The greatest average intensity experienced in any 30 minute period during the storm is
computed from recording rain gauge charts by locating the maximum amount of rain
which falls in 30 minute period and later converting the same to intensity in mm/hour.
This measure of erosivity is referred to as the EI30 index and can be computed for
individual storms, and the storm values can be added over periods of time to give
weekly, monthly or yearly values of erosivity.
 The rainfall erosivity factor EI30 value is computed as follows:

where KE is rainfall kinetic energy and I30 is the maximum rainfall intensity for a 30-minute
period. Kinetic energy for the storm is computed
as KE=916+331 log10I
Limitation
The EI30 index method was developed under American condition and is not found suitable
for tropical and sub-tropical zones for estimating the erosivity.

2. KE > 25 Index Method:

 This is an alternate method introduced by Hudson for computing the rainfall erosivity
of tropical storms.
  This method is based on the concept that erosion takes place only at threshold value of
rainfall intensity.
 From experiments, it was obtained that the rainfall intensities less than 25 mm/h are
not able to yield the soil erosion in significant amount. Thus, this method takes care of
only those rainfall intensities, which are greater than 25 mm/h.
 That is why the name is K.E. > 25 Index method. It is used in the same manner as the
EI30 index and the calculation procedure is also similar.

Erodibility:
It is the vulnerability or susceptibility of the soil to get erosion.
It is the property of soil.
It act as a resistance force to make resistance against erosivity.
Erodibility is a function of physical characteristics of soil (texture, structure, organic matter,
land use pattern)
Bouyoucos (1935) suggested that the soil erodibility depends on mechanical composition of
soil, such as sand, silt, and clay, presented by the ratio as:

The range of particle diameter of clay, sand and silt is:

Clay = < 0.002 mm
Silt = 0.002 – 0.006 mm
Sand = 0.06 - 2.0 mm.

Agronomical Measures of Water Erosion Control:

1. Contour Cropping:
 Contour Cropping is a conservation farming method that is used on slopes to control
soil losses due to water erosion. Contour cropping involves planting crops across the
slope instead of up and down the slope .
 Use of contour cropping protects the valuable top soil by reducing the velocity of
runoff water and inducing more infiltration.
 On long and smooth slope, contour cropping is more effective as the velocity of flow
is high under such situation and contour cropping shortens the slope length to reduce
the flow velocity. Contour cropping is most effective on slopes between 2 and 10
percent.

2.Strip Cropping

Strip cropping is the practice of growing alternate strip of close growing and intertilled crops
across the land slope. Strip cropping is laid out by using the following three methods:
i) Contour strip cropping: In contour strip cropping, the crops are planted in strip along
the contour at right angle to the direction of natural land slope. Contour strip cropping is
adopted on the level land across the slope instead of up and down hill.

ii) Field strip cropping: it is modified form of contour strip cropping in which crop strips
are laid parallel across the land slope but not always exactly on the contour. This is used
where topographic is either too irregular or undulating, as it makes accurate layout of
contour strip cropping impractical.
iii) Buffer strip cropping: in buffer strip cropping the strip of grasses or legume crops are
laid b/w contour strip crops in regular rotation. The width of these strip may or may not be
even. The buffer strips are usually 2-4 metre wide and are placed at 10-20 meter intervals.

3. conservation tillage:
Tillage is defined as the mechanical manipulation of soil to provide a favourable
environment for good germination of seeds and crop growth.
1.till no more than necessary.
2.till only, when soil moisture is in the favourable limit.
3.vary the depth of ploughing.

4. Mulching :-application of any plant residues or other materials to cover the top soil
surface for :
 breaking the energy of raindrops,
 prevent splash and dissipation of soil structure,
 obstruct the flow of runoff to reduce their velocity and prevent sheet and rill erosion
Fig.
 They also help in improving the infiltration capacity by maintaining a conductive soil
structure at the top surface of land.

Types of mulching material: To protect the land from erosion different types of materials are
used as listed below.
Cut grasses or foliage
Straw materials
Wood chips
Saw dusts
Papers
Stones
Glass wools
Metal foils
Cellophanes
Plastics
The mulches may be broadly classified into the following five types:
Synthetic mulch: It includes organic and inorganic liquids that are sprayed on the soil surface to form a thin
film for controlling the various atmospheric agents acting on the soil surface. The different synthetic
mulching materials are: resins, asphalt emulsions, latex and cut back asphalt, canvas etc.

Petroleum mulch: The petroleum mulches are easier to apply and also less expensive. These mulches are
available in the form of emulsions of asphalt in water, which can be sprayed on the soil surface at ambient
temperature to form a thin film in continuous form that clings to soil, but does not penetrate deep inside the
soil.

Conventional mulch: The mulches such as hay or straw are more effective than the petroleum mulches.
These mulches not only conserve the moisture and reduce the fluctuation of soil temperature, but also
protect the soil from rain drop impacts and hold the excess surface water in contact with the soil, so as to
increase the infiltration rate and thereby reduce the runoff and soil erosion.

Stone mulch: It involves the spreading of stone pieces on the ground surface to conserve the moisture and
also to reduce the wind erosion.

Organic mulch: The tree branches, twigs, leaves, leaf litter, grasses, weeds etc. are used as organic mulch
to cover the soil surface.
 Unit -4
Grassed Waterways:
Grassed waterways are natural or man made constructed channels established for the transport of
concentrated flow at safe velocities from the catchment using adequate erosion resistant vegetation which
cover the channels.

Purpose :
 Grassed waterways are used as outlets to prevent rill and gully formation.
 The vegetative cover slows the water flow, minimizing channel surface erosion. When properly
constructed, grassed waterways can safely transport large water flows to the down slope.
 These waterways can also be used as outlets for water released from contoured and terraced systems
and from diverted channels.
 This best management practice can reduce sedimentation of nearby water bodies and pollutants in
runoff.
Design of Grassed Waterways
Size of Waterway
The cross-sectional area is calculated using the following formula:

where, a = cross-sectional area of the channel,

Q = expected maximum runoff, and
V = velocity of flow.

Shape of Water Way

Fig. Trapezoidal Cross-section. (Source: Murty, 2009)

In the figure, d is the depth of water flow, b is bottom width, t is the top width of maximum water
conveyance, T is top width after considering free board depth, (D - d) is the free board and slope (z) is c/d.
The design dimensions for trapezoidal and parabolic waterways are given in Tables 27.1 and 27.2
respectively.
Table 27.1. Design Dimensions for Trapezoidal Cross-section
Fig. Parabolic Cross-section. (Source: Murty, 2009)
Table Design Dimensions for Parabolic Cross-Section

Channel Flow Velocity

The velocity of flow in a grassed waterway is dependent on the condition of the vegetation and the soil
erodibility. It is recommended to have a uniform cover of vegetation over the channel surface to ensure
channel stability and smooth flow. The velocity of flow through the grassed waterway depends upon the
ability of the vegetation in the channel to resist erosion. Even though different types of grasses have
different capabilities to resist erosion; an average of 1.0 m/sec to 2.5 m/sec are the average velocities used
for design purposes. It may be noted that the average velocity of flow is higher than the actual velocity in
contact with the bed of the channel. Velocity distribution in a grassed lined channel is shown in Fig. 27.3.
Recommended velocities of flow based on the type of vegetation are shown in Table 27.3. The permissible
velocities of flow on different types of soils are given in table 27.4.

Fig. Velocity Distribution in Open Channel (Source: Murty, 2009)

Table Recommend Velocities of Flow in a Vegetated Channel.
 Flow velocity, (m/s)
Type of vegetation cover
Type Magnitude

Spare green cover Low velocity 1-1.15

Good quality cover Medium velocity 1.5-1.8

Excellent quality cover High velocity 1.8-2.5

Design of Cross-Section
The design of the cross-section is done using Equation 27.1 for finding the area required and Manning’s
formula is used for cross checking the velocity. A trial procedure is adopted. For required cross-sectional
area, the dimensions of the channel section are assumed. Using hydraulic property of the assumed section,
the average velocity of flow through the channel cross-section is calculated using the Manning’s formula as
below:

where, V = velocity of flow in m/s; S = energy slope in m/m; R = hydraulic mean radius of the section in m
and n = Manning’s roughness coefficient.
The Manning’s roughness coefficient is to be selected depending on the existing and proposed vegetation to
be established in the bed of the channel. Velocity is not an independent parameter. It will depend on n which
is already fixed according to vegetation, R which is a function of the channel geometry and slope S for
uniform flow. Slope S has to be adjusted. If the existing land slope gives high velocity, alignment of the
channel has to be changed to get the desired velocity.

Problem 27.1: Design a grassed waterway of parabolic shape to carry a flow of 2.6 m3/s down a slope of 3
percent. The waterway has a good stand of grass and a velocity of 1.75 m/s can be allowed. Assume the
value of n in Manning’s formula as 0.04.
Solution: Using, Q = AV for a velocity of 1.75 m/s, a cross-section of 2.6/1.75 = 1.485 m2 (~1.5 m2) is
needed.
Assuming, t = 4 m, d = 60 cm.

The velocity exceeds the permissible limit. Assuming a revised

t = 6 m and d = 0.4 m
The velocity is within the permissible limit.
Q = 1.6 × 1.7 = 2.72 m3/s
The carrying capacity (Q) of the waterway is more than the required. Hence, the design of waterway is
satisfactory. A suitable freeboard to the depth is to be provided in the final dimensions.

Wind Erosion: the detachment, transportation and deposition of soil material from one
place to another through the action wind in motion.

Fig. An Illustration of Wind Erosion.

Factors Affecting Wind Erosion:

 Climate,
 soil and
 vegetation are the major factors affecting wind erosion at any particular location.
1. The climatic factors that affect the wind erosion are the characteristics of wind itself
(velocity and direction) in addition to the precipitation, humidity and temperature.
2. Soil moisture conditions, texture, structure, density of particles, organic matter content
are the soil characteristics that influence erosion by wind. Soil movement is initiated as
a result of wind forces exerted against the surface of the ground. For each specific soil
type and surface condition there is a minimum velocity required to move soil particles.
This is called the threshold velocity. Once this velocity is reached, the quantity of soil
moved is dependent upon the particle size, the cloddiness of particles, and wind
velocity itself.
3. vegetation or other artificial cover (mulching etc) have the protective effect on wind
erosion problem as surface cover increases the roughness over the land surface and
thus reduces the erosive wind force on the land surface.
14.3 Mechanics of Wind Erosion
The overall occurrence of wind erosion could be described in three distinct phases. These
are:
1. Initiation of Movement
2. Transportation
3. Deposition.
. For example, for the most erodible soils of particle size about 0.1 mm; the required
threshold velocity is 16 km/h at a height of 30 cm above the ground.

1. Initiation of Movement: The initial movement of the soil particles are of three distinct
types and occur depending upon size of the soil particles.
Suspension, saltation, and surface creep are the three types of soil movement .

Fig. Mechanics of Wind Erosion.

1. Suspension: It occurs when very fine dirt and dust particles are lifted into the
atmosphere..

2. Saltation: The major fraction of soil moved by the wind is through the process of
saltation. Saltation is referred as movement of soil particles in a series of low bounces over
the soil surface.

3.Surface Creep: The large particles which are too heavy to be lifted into the air are moved
through a process called surface creep.

2. Transportation: transportation of soil particles from one place to another.

3. Deposition: Deposition of soil particles occurs when the gravitational force is greater
than the forces holding the particle in the air. This generally happens when there is a
decrease in the wind velocity caused by vegetative or other physical barriers like ditches or
benches. Raindrops may also take dust out of air.

Estimation of Soil Loss Due to Wind Erosion:

An equation in the form of universal soil loss equation has been developed and can be used
for estimating soil loss by wind. However, the evaluation of the constants in the equation for
wind erosion is comparatively difficult than the universal soil loss equation. The equation is
of the form,

Where, E is soil loss by wind erosion, I is soil cloddiness factor, R is surface cover factor, K
is surface roughness factor, F is soil textural class factor, C is factor representing local wind
condition, D is wind direction factor, and B is wind barrier factor, W is field width factor.
Another model of wind erosion estimation used in USA is as follows:

Where, E is estimated average annual soil loss (t/ha/yr), I is soil erodibility index (t/ha-yr), K
is ridge roughness factor, C is climate factor, L is unsheltered length of eroding field (m),
and V is vegetative cover factor.
The soil erodibility index (I) can be estimated as given below

(14.3)
Where, F is % of dry soil fraction greater than 0.84 mm, K is ridge roughness factor; a
measure of ridges made by tillage implements on wind erosion and can be estimated as given
below

(14.4)
Where, Kr is ridge roughness, h is ridge height in mm, d is ridge spacing in mm, and K can
be estimated as a function of ridge roughness.

(14.5)
The climatic factor (C) depends on wind velocity and soil surface moisture. The mean wind
velocity profile above the soil surface is estimated as given below.
Wind Erosion Control Measures:
Three basic methods can be used to control wind erosion:
 Vegetative Measures
 Tillage Practices
 Mechanical Measures
1. Vegetative Measures
Vegetative measures can be used to roughen the whole surface and prevent any soil
movement.
It is one of the most effective and economical means to reduce the effect of wind on the soil.
Vegetative measures can be of two types:
1. Temporary Measures
2. Permanent Measures
Generally, in practice two types permanent measures are adopted to control the wind erosion;
i) wind breaks and ii) shelter belts.
1 Wind Breaks
 It is most effective vegetative measure used for controlling severe wind erosion.
 The term wind break is defined as any type of barrier either mechanical or vegetative
used for protecting the areas like building apartments, orchards or farmsteads etc. from
blowing winds.
 The wind break acts as fencing wall around the affected areas, normally constructed
by one row or maximum up to two rows across the prevailing wind direction.
2 Shelter Belts
 A shelterbelt is a longer barrier than the wind break, is installed by using more than
two rows, usually at right angle to the direction of prevailing winds.
 The rows of belt can be developed by using shrubs and trees. It is mainly used for the
conservation of soil moisture and for the protection of field crops, against severe wind
erosion.
 Shelterbelt is more effective for reducing the impact of wind movement than the wind
break. Apart from controlling wind erosion, it provides fuel, reduces evaporation and
protects the orchard from hot and cold winds.
Woodruff and Zingg (1952) developed the following relationship between the distance of
full protection (d) and the height (h) of wind break or shelter belt.

Where, d is the distance of full protection (m),

h is the height of the wind barrier (wind break or shelter belt) (m),
vm is the minimum wind velocity at 15 m height required to move the most erodible soil
fraction (m/s),
v is the actual velocity at 15 m height,
θ is the angle of deviation of prevailing wind direction from the perpendicular to the
wind barrier.
This relationship (equation) is valid only for wind velocities below 18 m/s. This equation
may also be adapted for estimating the width of strips by using the crop height in the
adjoining strip in the equation. The value of vm for a bare smooth surface after erosion has
been initiated and before wetting by rainfall and subsequent surface crusting is about 9.6 m/s.

3 Tillage Practices
The tillage practices, such as ploughing are importantly adopted for controlling wind
erosion.
The common tillage practices used for wind erosion control are as under:
1. Primary and Secondary Tillage
2. Use of Crop Residues
3. Strip Cropping
4 Mechanical Measures
This method consists of some mechanical obstacles, constructed across the prevailing wind,
to reduce the impact of blowing wind on the soil surface. These obstacles may be fences,
walls, stone packing etc., either in the nature of semi-permeable or permeable barriers. The
semi-permeable barriers are most effective, because they create diffusion and eddying effects
on their downstream face. Terraces and bunds also obstruct the wind velocity and control the
wind erosion to some extent.

Sand Dunes Stabilization

A ‘Dune’ is derived from English word ‘Dun’ means hilly topographical feature. Therefore a
sand dune is a mount, hill or ridge of sand that lies behind the part of the beach affected by
tides. They are formed over many years when windblown sand is trapped by beach grass or
other stationary objects.
Some methods employed for sand dune stabilization are:
1. Vegetation/Vegetative Measures
2. Mechanical Measures
3. Straw (Checkerboard and Bales)/Mats and Netting
4. Chemical Spray

1 Vegetative Measures
This method is most common and preferred worldwide for sand dune stabilization. It is a
most effective, least expensive, aesthetically pleasing method which mimics a natural system
with self‐repairing provision. However, it has some disadvantages as the plant establishment
phase is critical, it needs irrigation and maintenance until self-sustaining system is
developed. Most common practices adopted under this are:
1.1 Raising of Micro Wind Breaks
It is preferred in those areas where wind velocity is intensive and rainfall is less than 300 mm
per year. The raising of wind break should be completed before the onset of monsoon. Twigs
or brush woods are inserted into the soil parallel to one another at about 5 m spacing. The
spacing depends on the intensity of erosive wind velocity, if the velocity is more spacing is
less and vice versa. The fencing of dunes using brush woods reduces evaporation loss and
also enriches the humus content in the soil.
1.2 Retreating the Dunes
In this, the micro wind breaks are treated again by planting tree saplings and grasses in the
space left. The grasses grown in the intersection of plants of wind break reduce the soil loss
from the dune surface significantly.

2 Mechanical Measures
Wind breaks, shelterbelts, stone pitching, fences etc., either manmade or natural barriers are
helpful to reduce the wind velocity thereby favoring the stabilization of sand dunes.

3 Straw Checker Boards

This technique of sand dunes stabilization is extensively used in China since 1950’s. Wheat
or rice straw or reeds (50 – 60 cm in length) are placed vertically to form the sides of the
checkerboard, which are typically 10 to 20 cm high. Optimum grid size of checker ranges
from 1 x 1 m to 2 x 2 m, depending on local wind and sand transport conditions. Smaller
grids are used in areas where winds are stronger.

4 Chemical Spray
Sometimes crude oils are used for the successful stabilization of sand dune. The oil is heated
to 50 °C and sprayed on the dune at the rate of 4 m3/ha. It is a temporary measure, lasting
only for 3-4 years and during those years, it is expected that the vegetation growth will take
place in that area. This method is costly and suitable only for small areas.
 Unit -3
Engineering measure of soil erosion: bunds and terraces
terrace:

Objective of soil erosion:

Bunds are embankments like structures, constructed across the land slope
Types of Bund:
The different types of bund used in practice are given as under:
1. Contour Bund – The bunds constructed exactly on contour or with permissible deviation from the
contour, are called contour bunds.
2. Side Bunds – These bunds are formed at the extreme ends of the contour bund, running along the land
slope.
3. Lateral Bunds – Lateral bunds are constructed between two side bunds along the slope for preventing the
concentration of water at one side, and also to break the length of contour bund into convenient bits.
4. Supplemental Bunds – The bunds constructed between two contour bunds to limit the horizontal spacing
by its maximum extent, are nomenclatured as supplemental bunds.
5. Marginal Bund – These bunds are formed at the margin of the field, road, river etc., to demarcate their
boundary.
6. Shoulder Bund – Such type of bunds are formed at the outer edge of the bench terraces, to hold the
runoff over the top of the terrace, and also to provide stability to the terrace.

Classification of Bunding System:

The bunding systems are grouped according to their function, which they perform.
The classification of bunding system is given as under:
(A) Contour Bunding: ( firstly-introduced in Maharashtra (India) as famine relief work.)
(B) Graded Bunding:
Various limitations of this practice are as follows:
1. This practice is suitable for those areas, which receive the annual rainfall upto 600mm and soil involves
greater permeability.
2. It is not used in clay soils.
3. Contour bunding is not technically feasible on the land slopes, greater than 6%.
B. Graded Bunding:
The graded bund is also known as channel terrace, used in the areas having annual rainfall greater than 700
mm. However, it can also be used in less rainfall areas, provided that the soil of area is in heavy texture. In
such areas when rainfall takes place a large portion of water is ponded over the surface. To remove this
water at fast rate some grade is provided to the channel.
The grade should be within non-erosive limit. Normally, minimum 0.1 to maximum 0.5% is allowed. It
should also be taken care that the grade of channel must be less than the actual land slope. In this condition,
the water flows at slow speed to that which is flowing directly down the slope, causing not taking place of
soil erosion from there.
The main functions of graded bunds are given as follows:
i. It reduces the length of slope, as result the soil erosion gets reduce.
ii. It also disposes the surplus water very safely to a suitable point.
iii. Contour bunding is followed by the construction of graded bunds to remove excess water which is not
required by the crop.
Apart from above functions, the graded bund has some limitations also, which are cited as under:
i. It requires establishment of grassed waterway as an outlet for safe disposal of surplus water, accumulated
in the bunded area.
ii. Graded contour bunding is not suitable on the land slopes less than 2% or on the slopes greater than 8%.
iii. The grassed waterway needs an extra care about control of grazing of grasses, grown-
grown in the section of
waterway.
In India, the graded bunds have been constructed in the areas receiving the annual rainfall more than 80cm,
irrespective of soil types. However, in clay soils the graded bunds have been constructed even in the areas
having the annual rainfall less than 80 cm.
In a study at Dehradun (India) on channel terraces in alluvial soils with 3 to 4% slope for two different Vis,
i.e. 0.3 (S + 2) and 0.3 (S + 3) it was found
ound that there is no much difference in runoff; however the soil loss
per mm of runoff was found more from the vertical interval of 0.3 (S + 3), but was within permissible limit.
The study indicates that the V.I. of 0.3 (S + 3) can be adopted safely, there. The findings are presented in
Table 12.5.

Stone Bunds:
These bunds are constructed on the eroded or abandoned lands. For better performance, they are also
constructed at the contour of the area. The contour lines are marked on the ground with the help of hoe.
The contour interval is kept 15 to 30 m. After deciding the position of contour lines, a shallow foundation
trench is dug. The foundation depth is kept 5cm and width from 30 to 40cm. For construction of bund,
initially large size stones are packed in the foundation.
And smaller stones are placed to build the rest of the bund height. The stones are packed carefully,
especially at the bottom. After packing the stone pieces, the earth materials obtained from the foundation
trench are piled in front of the bund. If the land is abandoned plot, then stone bunds are left for a year to
catch the eroded soil particles. In stone bunded area, the cultivation should be started from the second
season.
Types of Graded Bunding:
It is divided in following two types:
i. Narrow base graded bunding; and
ii. Broad Base Graded Bunding
The narrow base graded bunding makes obstruction in crossing of farm implements; the natural vegetation
covers the sides; more height is attained for the same cross-section; though additional height may not be
required. The main limitation of this practice is to get lost a large cultivable area.
The broad based grade bunding is concerned; it creates no hindrance in movement of farm machineries and
entire area is available for cultivation purposes.
This system also involves some limitations, which are as follows:
1. Due to crossing of farm implements the soil of bund’s section gets loosened and lost.
2. The original cross-section of bund gets disturbed in very short period of time due to running of farm
machineries. To maintain the bund section in proper form a proper maintenance is required.
Design Criteria of Bund Construction:
The design criteria of bund construction is based on following points:
1. Land Submergence:
Submergence of land for longer duration affects greatly to the crop yield. Therefore, the design of outlet or
surplus arrangement for the bunds should be done on the basis of allowable submergence of land, cropping
practice to be adopted and infiltration rate of the soil.
2. Water Conservation:
The water conservation for growing some crops like paddy which requires enough water for its growth, the
dimension of bunds should be fixed in such a range that the total surface runoff passing through the area
must be harvested by the bund.
For other crops such as wheat, maize etc., the storage capacity of bund should be decided on the basis of
their average consumptive use and maximum length of dry period of the area. The height of waste weir
should be fixed based on the crop water requirement.
3. Economy of Construction:
The economy of bund construction mainly depends on the following two points:
(i) Total earthwork involved in construction; and
(ii) Average land lost under bund construction.
As for as possible the sum of above two items cost should be minimum for any bunding project.
4. Critical Length:
It is that spacing of bund, beyond which erosion gets start, depending on the slope and soil condition.
Theoretically, the spacing of the bund should be equal to the critical length to control the erosion. Use of
closer spacing increases the construction cost. In addition to this, the field also becomes very narrow that
hinders the agricultural operations.
5. Seepage Consideration:
Seepage through bund is mainly affected by the depth of water collected towards upstream face of the bund,
side slope and permeability of the construction material. The design of bund cross-section should strictly be
followed by considering the seepage rate through the bund due to accumulation of surface runoff behind it.
.

A. Contour Bunding:
The bunds passing through the points of equal elevation (i.e. on contour) of the land, are
known as contour bunding
Vx/xzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz
zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

http://www.soilmanagementindia.com/soil-erosion/bunding/bunding-classification-design-construction-soil-
management/15201