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Copyright © 2009, 2002 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

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or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or
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emailed to [email protected]

ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2938-1

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS
4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002
Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com
 Dedicated to
“My Master Parthasarathi Rajagopalachary (chariji garu)”
Shri Ram Chandra Mission, Chennai
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 Preface to the First Edition

Manufacturing Science and Technology is a core subject for mechanical, industrial and production
engineering students at both degree and diploma levels. Keeping the requirements of these students
in mind, this book has been written in simple language accompanied by the relevant specifications,
description and with pictorial views for easy understanding of the conventional methods of
production.
The highlights of the book are:
In Part A, various manufacturing processes like foundry, plastic deformation processes, welding
and powder metallurgy are discussed in detail with examples and figures.
In Part B, various machine tools used in manufacturing like lathe, capstan and turret lathe, as
well as milling, drilling, shaping and grinding machines are discussed with their constructional
features, mechanics, operation details, various tools and attachments used.
This book covers the syllabus requirements satisfactorily for all universities having engineering
courses.
I wish to thank Sri Sada Siva Reddy, Correspondent of Siddipeta Engineering College, Siddipeta
and K. Krishna Reddy, Correspondent of Newton’s Institute of Engineering College, Macherla
for their encouragement to write this book.
I wish to record my indebtedness to Dr. P. Jayarami Reddy, Principal, GPREC for his
encouragement and support in the preparation of the manuscript. I thank Dr. B.D. Sarma, Y.V.
Mohan Reddy, V. Satish Kumar, V. Veeranna of I.P.E. department for editing the manuscript.
I am grateful to the publishers for their help in bringing out this book in a short time.
x Preface to the First Edition

I thank my wife Jaya, my daughter Vani and my son Vijay for their understanding and moral
support in completing this book.
Suggestions to improve this book are most welcome.

Prof. K. Vara Prasada Rao

 Preface to the Second Edition

It is a great pleasure for me to present the revised edition of Manufacturing Science and
Technology. This is a core subject for mechanical industrial and production engineering students
at both degree and diploma levels. Some more chapters are added to fulfil the need of students.
This book covers the syllabus for 1st Semesters Part A, covers various manufacturing processes
which is sufficient for 3rd B.Tech 1st Semester students. Part B covers various machine tools.
This is more than sufficient for 3rd B.Tech 2nd Semester students. This book covers the syllabus
prescribed by JNTU, Hyderabad and also satisfies the syllabus of all other universities. Objective
type questions and answers are given in Appendices I & II at the end of Part A and Part B these
are very very useful for students to score more marks in online examinations.
I wish to thank Sri M.V. Koteswara Rao (Chairman of Narasaraopet Engineering College,
Mittapalli Engineering College, Narasaraopet Institute of Technology, MCA, MBA, Chairman
B. Pharmacy College) for his encouragement. I wish to thank Secretary M. Satyanarayana Rao,
Joint Secretary M. Ramesh Babu for their support.
I am extremely thankful to Dr. B.V. Rama Mohan Rao, Principal, Narasaraopet Engineering
College for his encouragement.
My thanks to Prof. Raghu Ramulu, Sanjeev Reddy, Jayarami Reddy, Dr. B.D. Sarma,
Dr. Veeranna of GPREC Kurnol, Smt. K. Lakshmi Chaitanya Asst. Professor of Narasaraopet
Engineering College for their timely help.
My thanks to wife Jaya, daughter Vani and son Vijay for their tolerance, understanding and
moral support in completing this book.
Last but not the least I am thankful to Mr. Saumya Gupta, Managing Director, M/s New Age
International (P) Limited, Publishers and the editorial department for their untiring effort to publish
the book in a short span of time with nice get up.

Prof. K. Vara Prasada Rao

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 Contents

Preface to the Second Edition vii

Preface to the First Edition ix

PART A

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
1. FOUNDRY 3–55
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The Sequence of Steps Involved in Casting 3
1.3 Solidification of Castings 50
Questions 55

2. PLASTIC DEFORMATION PROCESSES 57–89

2.1 Introduction 57
2.2 Differences Between Hot Working and Cold Working 57
2.3 Forging 58
2.4 Rolling 73
2.5 Extrusion 80
2.6 Metal Spinning 84
2.7 Wire Drawing 87
2.8 Tube Drawing 88
2.9 Stretch Forming 88
Questions 89
xii Contents

3. WELDING 91–129
3.1 Introduction 91
3.2 Classification of Welding Processes 91
3.3 Soldering and Brazing 120
3.4 Defects in Welding 121
3.5 Welding Equations 122
3.6 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 124
Questions 128

4. POWDER METALLURGY 131–139

4.1 Introduction 131
4.2 Characteristics of Metal Powder 131
4.3 Basic Steps of the Process 132
4.4 Design Considerations for Powder Metallurgy Parts 137
4.5 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy 138
4.6 Limitation of Powder Metallurgy 138
4.7 Applications of Powder Metallurgy 138
Questions 139

5. PLASTICS 141–150
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 Types of Plastics 141
5.3 Comparison Between Thermosetting Plastics and Thermoplastics 142
5.4 Advantages of Plastics 142
5.5 Disadvantages 142
5.6 Applications of Plastics 142
5.7 Methods of Processing 143
5.8 Welding of Plastics 146
5.9 Machining of Plastics 148
Questions 149

6. PRESSES 151–166
6.1 Introduction 151
6.2 Types of Presses 151
6.3 Selection of Press 155
6.4 Components of Simple Die 156
6.5 Types of Press Tools or Types of Dies 156
6.6 Cutting Action in a Die and Punch Operations (Shearing Action) 158
6.7 Punch Force 159
6.8 Control of Hole and Blank Sizes by Clearance Location 160
6.9 Angular Clearance 161
 Contents xiii

6.10 Sheet Metal Operations 161

6.11 Scrap Strip Layout 165
Questions 166

APPENDIX I: Objective Type Questions 167–176

PART B
MACHINE TOOLS
7. FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CUTTING 179–204
7.1 Introduction 179
7.2 Classification of Cutting Tools 179
7.3 Elements of Single Point Tool 181
7.4 Geometry of a Single Point Tool (Tool Angles) 181
7.5 Tool Signature 183
7.6 Tool Nomenclature Systems (Tool Angle Specification Systems) 183
7.7 Types of Metal Cutting Process 187
7.8 Comparison of Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting Processes 187
7.9 Chip Formation 188
7.10 Types of Chips 188
7.11 Chip Control 190
7.12 Chip Thickness Ratio 191
7.13 Forces on the Chip 193
7.14 Velocity Ratio 195
7.15 Machinability of Metals 196
7.16 Tool Life 196
7.17 Tool Wear 198
7.18 Kinds of Tool Damage 200
7.19 Cutting Fluids 201
7.20 Types of Cutting Fluids 201
7.21 Methods of Application of Cutting Fluids 202
7.22 Selection of Cutting Fluids 203
Questions 204

8. LATHE 205–232
8.1 Introduction 205
8.2 Principal Parts of Lathe 205
8.3 Specifications of Lathe 209
8.4 Types of Lathes 209
8.5 Lathe Operations 210
8.6 Lathe Accessories 219
xiv Contents

8.7 Drive Plates and Carriers 223

8.8 Mandrels 223
8.9 Steady Rest 224
8.10 Follower Rest 224
8.11 Lathe Attachments 224
8.12 Lathe Tools 226
8.13 Tool Nomenclature 227
8.14 Cutting Tool Materials 229
8.15 Cutting Parameters 230
Questions 232

9. CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES 233–243

9.1 Introduction 233
9.2 Difference Between Centre Lathe and Turret Lathe 233
9.3 Types of Turret Lathes 234
9.4 Difference Between Capstan and Turret Lathes 235
9.5 Turret Indexing Mechanism for Capstan and Turret Lathe 236
9.6 Bar Feeding Mechanism in Capstan and Turret Lathes 237
9.7 Work Holding Equipment 238
9.8 Tool Holding Devices 239
9.9 Tooling Layout 242
Questions 243

10. DRILLING MACHINES 245–262

10.1 Introduction 245
10.2 Types of Drills 245
10.3 Twist Drill Nomenclature 247
10.4 Types of Drilling Machines 248
10.5 Specification of Drilling Machines 253
10.6 Work Holding Devices 254
10.7 Tool Holding Devices 256
10.8 Drilling Machine Operations 258
10.9 Speed, Feed and Machine Time 259
Questions 262

11. MILLING MACHINE 263–289

11.1 Introduction 263
11.2 Types of Milling Machines 263
11.3 Size of Milling Machine 270
11.4 Milling Machine Attachments 270
11.5 Milling Cutters 271
 Contents xv

11.6 Cutter Materials 272

11.7 Elements of a Plain Milling Cutter 272
11.8 Milling Methods 274
11.9 Milling Operations 275
11.10 Indexing and Dividing Head 278
11.11 Indexing Methods 280
11.12 Machining Time Calculations 286
Questions 289

12. SHAPER, SLOTTER AND PLANER 291–312

12.1 Shaper Machine 291
12.2 Slotting Machine (Slotter) 300
12.3 Planer 304
Questions 312

13. GRINDING AND GRINDING MACHINES 313–333

13.1 Introduction 313
13.2 Grinding Wheels 313
13.3 Manufacturing of Artificial Abrasives 314
13.4 Bonds and Bonding Processes 314
13.5 Grit, Grade and Structure of Grinding Wheels 316
13.6 Types of Wheels 317
13.7 Method of Specifying a Grinding Wheel 318
13.8 Selection of Grinding Wheels 318
13.9 Dressing and Truing of Grinding Wheels 319
13.10 Balancing of Grinding Wheel 320
13.11 Types of Grinding Machines 321
Questions 333

14. JIGS AND FIXTURES 335–352

14.1 Introduction 335
14.2 Uses of Jigs and Fixtures (Advantages) 335
14.3 Differences Between a Fixture and Jig 336
14.4 Principles of Jigs and Fixtures Design 336
14.5 Types of Jigs and Fixtures 337
14.6 Principles of Location 337
14.7 Six Point Location of a Rectangular Block 338
14.8 Locating Devices 338
14.9 Types of Clamping Devices 339
14.10 Jig Bushes 340
14.11 Jigs and Fixtures 343
xvi Contents

14.12 Milling Fixtures 345

14.13 Milling Methods 345
14.14 Elements of a Milling Fixture 345
14.15 Types of Milling Fixtures 345
14.16 Pneumatic Milling Fixture 348
14.17 Grinding Fixtures 348
14.18 Turning Fixtures 350
Questions 352

15. BROACHING 353–360

15.1 Introduction 353
15.2 Principal Parts of a Broach 353
15.3 Broach Classification 354
15.4 Geometry of the Broach Teeth 354
15.5 Considerations in Broach Design 355
15.6 Cutting Speed and Power Requirements 357
15.7 Broach Tool Materials 358
15.8 Broaching Machines 358
15.9 Applications of Broaching 360
15.10 Advantages of Broaching 360
15.11 Limitations of Broaching 360
Questions 360

16. SUPER FINISHING PROCESSES 361–377

16.1 Introduction 361
16.2 Lapping 361
16.3 Abrasives and Lap Materials 361
16.4 Lapping Methods and Machines 361
16.5 Honing 365
16.6 Material of Honing Stones 365
16.7 Honing Process 365
16.8 Fixture for Honing Tools 365
16.9 Honing Machines 366
16.10 Advantages of Honing Process 367
16.11 Disadvantages of Honing Process 367
16.12 Polishing 367
16.13 Buffing 368
16.14 Super Finishing 368
Questions 369

APPENDIX II: Objective Type Questions 371–377

INDEX 379–384
 PART A
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
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 1
1
Foundry

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Foundry is the most ancient industry deals with the manufacturing of metal castings. Metal casting
is the process of pouring a material in a liquid form into a mould and allowing it to solidify to
produce the desired product. Sand casting is a very old technique, but improved methods such as
shell molding, investment casting, die casting, centrifugal casting, etc. are finding wider applications.

1.2 THE SEQUENCE OF STEPS INVOLVED IN CASTING

1. Pattern making
2. Mould and core making
3. Melting and pouring
4. Fettling
5. Inspection and testing
1.2.1 Pattern Making
Pattern is the replica or full size model of the casting to be made. It gives shape to the mould
cavity where the molten metal solidifies to the desired its form and size. The process of making a
pattern is known as ‘pattern making’.
1.2.1.1 Difference between Pattern and Casting
(a) Pattern is slightly larger in size than casting because pattern is given shrinkage
allowance and machining allowance.
(b) Pattern is slightly tapered because it is given draft allowance of 1° for external and 3°
for internal surfaces.
4 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Pattern is provided with core prints to support the core to make holes in the casting.
(d) Pattern may be made in two or three pieces where as casting is a single piece.
(e) Pattern may not have all slots and holes of casting because they are machined
afterwards.
1.2.1.2 Pattern Materials
The following materials are generally used for making patterns:
(a) wood (c) plasters (e) wax
(b) metals (d) plastics
(a) Wood patterns
Wood is the most common material used for making patterns. As pattern material, it offers the
following advantages:
(i) It is cheap
(ii) Easy of availability
(iii) Ease of shaping
(iv) Light in weight
(v) Its surface can be easily made smooth by sanding
(vi) Its surface can be preserved by shellac coating
(vii) Wood can be cut and fabricated into many forms.
However, it has the following disadvantages:
(i) It is affected by moisture, thereby it swells or shrinks.
(ii) It deforms on drying.
(iii) It wears out quickly as a result of sand abrasion.
(iv) If not stored properly, it may warp.
(v) Its strength is low and tends to break on rough usage.
The following kinds of wood are most commonly used for patterns.
(i) Pine wood (iii) Mahogany
(ii) Teak wood (iv) Deodar
(b) Metal patterns
Metal patterns are used for mass production of castings. Compare to wood patterns, metal patterns
offer the following advantages:
(i) Strong and durable
(ii) They do not deform in storage
(iii) Wear resistance and maintains dimensional stability
On other hand metal patterns have the following disadvantages:
(i) Metal patterns are heavy
(ii) More difficult to repair and modify
(iii) They are liable to rust
 Foundry 5

The metals mainly used for making patterns are:

(a) Steel: It posses excellent wear resistance and strength, but it has poor resistance to
corrosion. These can be easily repaired and are used for mass production.
(b) Cast Iron: Cast Iron is cheap and strong. It posses good cast ability and machinability
and gives good smooth mould surface.
(c) Brass: Brass pattern is strong, easy working, corrosion resistant and posses high
machinability and wear resistance. But brass patterns are very heavy and expensive.
These are extensively used for making small patterns.
(d) Aluminium: Aluminium and its alloys are the most commonly used for pattern. It is
probably the best metal because of low melting point, soft, and easy to shape, and
corrosion resistant. However, due to low strength, it is subjected to damage by rough
usage.
(e) Plaster Patterns: Gypsum cement know as plaster of paris is used for making patterns.
It has a high compressive strength (upto 300 kg/cm2) and controlled expansion. When
the plaster is mixed with water, it forms a plastic mass capable of being cast into a
mould made by a sweep pattern or a master pattern in order to obtain a plaster
pattern. Plaster is used for making small and intricate patterns and core boxes.

(c) Plastic patterns

Plastics have replaced other materials and finding their place as a modern pattern materials.
Thermo-setting resigns (phenolic resign, Epoxy resign) have the desired properties of a pattern
material.
Advantages
(i) Durable
(ii) Provides a smooth surface
(iii) Moisture resistant
(iv) Light weight
(v) Wear and corrosion resistant
(vi) Plastic patterns are easy to make
(vii) They posses good compressive strength
(viii) Good resistance to chemicals
(ix) Better adhesive qualities.
Limitations
(i) Plastic patterns are fragile and thus light sections may need metal reinforcements.
(ii) Plastic patterns may not work well when subject to shocks as in machine molding
(jolt machines).
6 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(d) Wax patterns

Wax patterns provide high degree of surface finish and dimensional accuracy to castings. After
being molded, the wax pattern is not taken out of the mould like other patterns, rather the mould is
inverted and heated, the molten wax comes out of the mould. Thus, there is no chance of the
mould cavity getting damaged while removing the pattern. Wax patterns are made in water cooled
moulds or dies.
The most commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, carnauba wax, shellac wax, bees wax,
ceresin wax.
Wax patterns are excellent for the investment casting process.

1.2.1.3 Factors Affecting the Selection of Pattern Materials

The selection of pattern materials depends on the following factors:
(a) The number of castings required
(b) Dimensional accuracy required (e.g. minimum thickness desired, intricacy of parts,
finish required in the casting).
(c) Moulding process used (e.g. Hand moulding or Machine moulding).
(d) Size and shape of the casting.

1.2.1.4 Pattern Allowances

A pattern differ from the casting in certain dimensions. When the pattern is prepared, certain
allowances are given on the sizes of casting. These are known as pattern allowances. Pattern
allowances are as follows:
(a) Shrinkage or Contraction allowance
(b) Draft or taper allowance
(c) Finishing or machining allowance
(d) Shaking or rapping allowance
(e) Distortion or camber allowance.

(a) Shrinkage or Contraction allowance

Almost all metals used for casting shrink or contract volumetrically after solidification and cooling
in the mould. Hence to compensate this shrinkage, the pattern must be made larger than the
finished casting by an amount known as ‘Shrinkage Allowance’. Although contraction is
volumetrically, the correction for it usually expressed linearly as a ratio, a percentage or in mm
per meter.
Pattern makers use special measuring rules (Shrinkage Rules) that take account of different
contraction that occur when casting various metals. The rule have slightly larger divisions so that
they measure over size. Shrinkage allowances for different cast metals are given in Table 1.1.
 Foundry 7

Table 1.1: Shrinkage Allowances for Various Metals

Metals/Alloys Shrinkage Allowance (mm/m)
Gray Cast Iron 10.5
White Cast Iron 20.0
Plain Carbon Steel 21.0
Chromium Steel 20.0
Manganese Steel 25.0–38.0
Aluminium 17.0
Aluminium Alloys 12.5–15.0
Brass 15.5
Bronze 15.5–20.8
Copper 16.0
Magnesium 17.0
Zinc 24.0

Example 1.1: Calculate the dimensions of the pattern for the casting shown in Fig.1.1(a) for
shrinkage allowance. The casting is made of white cast iron.

150 153

200 204

300 206

(a) Casting Dimensions (b) Pattern Dimensions

Fig. 1.1 Provision of Shrinkage Allowances

Shrinkage allowance from Table 1.1, for white cast iron = 20 mm/m
= 20/1000 = 0.02 mm
Allowance on Dimension 300 = 300 * 0.02 = 6 mm
Dimension = 300 + 6 = 306 mm
Allowance on Dimension 200 = 200 * 0.02 = 4 mm
Dimension = 200 + 4 = 204 mm
Allowance on Dimension 150 = 150 * 0.02 = 3 mm
Dimension = 150 + 3 = 153 mm
Allowance of Q100 = 100 * 0.02 = 2 mm
As the dimension of wall thickness will be reduced, this allowance should be subtracted from
the actual dimension.
Dimension = 100 – 2 = 98 mm
8 Manufacturing Science and Technology

The actual dimensions of pattern after taking the shrinkage allowances are shown in Fig.
1.l (b).
(b) Draft or Taper allowance
When a pattern is removed from the mould, there is always some possibility of damaging (tearing
of edges) the edges of the mould around the pattern. This is greatly reduced if the vertical
surfaces of the pattern are tapered slightly inward. This is known as ‘draft’. The draft is expressed
in mm per meter on a side or in degrees (see Fig. 1.2). The amount of taper depends on (i)
Method of moulding, (ii) Shape and size of the pattern (iii) Moulding material.

Draft

Fig. 1.2 Draft Allowance

Draft values of various pattern materials are shown in the Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Draft Values for Patterns
Draft
Pattern Materials (degrees)
External Surface Internal Surface
Wood 0.25 to 3.00 0.5 to 3.0
Metal 0.35 to 1.50 0.5 to 3.0
Plastic 0.25 to 1.0 0.35 to 2.25

Example 1.2: Provide draft allowances on wood pattern for Fig.1.3(a)

314

153 153

306
306
(a) Pattern (b) Pattern Dimensions

Fig. 1.3 Provision of Draft Allowances

 Foundry 9

Assume 1° taper for external and 3° for internal.

It is provided on the vertical face of the casting only.
External = 153*tan 1° = 4 mm
Internal = 153*tan 3° = 8 mm
Outer dimension = 306 + 4 + 4 = 314 mm
Inner dimension = 98 – 16 = 82 mm
After giving the draft allowance, the pattern is shown in Fig. 1.3(b).
(c) Finishing or Matching allowance
The finish of the casting obtained in sand casting is generally poor. To bring the casting to the
desired level of quality, it has to be machined. For this some extra material has to be provided on
the pattern. This is known as ‘machining allowance’. Therefore the size of the pattern increases
due to machining allowance. This allowance depends on casting metal, size and shape of the
casting, method of machining and the degree of finish required. Table 1.3 gives approximate
machining allowances on pattern for various metals.
Standard finishing allowance for ferrous metals is 3 mm and for non-ferrous metal it is 1.5
mm.
(d ) Shaking or Rapping allowance
Before withdrawing the pattern, the pattern is shaked or rapped for easy withdrawal. By doing
so, the cavity in the mould is slightly increased in size. This causes the size of casting also to
increase. In order to compensate for this increase the pattern should be made initially smaller than
the required size.
Table 1.3: Machining Allowances for Patterns
Metal/Alloy Machining Allowances (mm)
(on surface)
Cast Iron
Medium castings 3
Large castings 10
Cast Steel
Medium castings 4.5
Large castings 12
Non-Ferrous
(brass, bronze, aluminium) 1.5
Medium castings 5
Large castings

In small and medium sized castings, this allowance can be ignored, but for large sized castings
or where high precision is desired, rapping or shaking allowance is provided by making the pattern
slightly smaller.
10 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(e) Distortion or Camber allowance

Some castings have a tendency to distort or warp during cooling. This is the result of uneven
shrinkage due to uneven metal thickness or due to one surface being more exposed than the other
causing it to cool more rapidly. To allow for this the shape of the pattern is modified in such a
way that it bends in opposite direction of the distortion.
A ‘U’ shaped casting is an example of this feature. On cooling, the legs diverging instead of
parallel. To compensate for this in the pattern, the legs are kept convergent so that on cooling the
legs become parallel. The distortion allowance varies from 2 mm to 20 mm depending upon the
size of the casting.
1.2.1.5 Types of Patterns
The type of pattern used depends upon the design of casting, complexity of shape, the number of
castings required, moulding process, surface finish and accuracy.
The most common types of patterns are:
(a) Solid (single piece) pattern
(b) Split pattern
(c) Loose piece pattern
(d) Cope and drag pattern
(e) Match-plate pattern
(f) Gated pattern
(g) Sweep pattern
(h) Segmental pattern
(i) Skeleton pattern
(j) Built up pattern Front View
(k) Follow board pattern
(l) Pattern colour code.
(a) Solid (single piece) pattern (Fig 1.4)
Solid pattern is made without joints. The mould cavity of this pattern is
either in the drag or in the cope. Single piece pattern is generally used
for large casting of simple shape.
(b) Split pattern (Fig 1.5)
Top View
Many patterns cannot be made in a single piece because of difficulties
encountered in moulding operations (e.g. withdrawing the pattern from Fig. 1.4 Single Piece Pattern
the mould etc.).
Suppose a spherical pattern is to be made, it cannot be done in single piece pattern. If the
pattern is inserted in a cope or drag while withdrawing it, the cavity will become semi-sphere.
Such objects can be cast with split pattern only.
 Foundry 11

Dowel Pin
Dowel Hole

(a) Sphere (b) Flange Pipe

Fig. 1.5 Split Patterns

The split patterns are made in two parts so that one part may produce the lower half of the
mould and the other, the upper half These are held in their proper relative positions by means of
dowel pins. Sometimes it is necessary to construct three or more parts of pattern instead of two
for complicated castings.
(c) Loose piece pattern (Fig. 1.6)

Fig. 1.6 Loose Piece Pattern

This type of pattern is required when it is not possible to withdraw the pattern as such from the
moulding sand. In this case main pattern is removed first and then the loose pieces.
In these patterns, the projections or over hanging parts have to be fastened to the main
pattern by means of wooden dowel pins. When the mould is made, such loose pieces remain in
the mould until main pattern is withdrawn. Then the loose pieces are taken out separately through
the cavity formed by the main pattern.
(d) Cope and drag pattern
A cope and drag pattern is another form of split pattern. This pattern is made up of two halves,
which are mounted on different plates. In this case, cope and drag parts of the mould are made
separately and then assembled. These are used for very large castings.
(e) Match-plate pattern (Fig. 1.7)
Match-plate patterns are mostly used in machine moulding as well as for producing large number
of small casting by hand moulding. Cope and drag parts of pattern are mounted along with the
gating system on opposite sides of wooden or metal plate.
12 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 1.7 Match Plate Pattern

(f) Gated pattern (Fig. 1.8)

Pattern

Gate

Fig. 1.8 Gated Pattern

In gated pattern, gates and riser for producing casting is included in the pattern itself. The use of
gated pattern eliminate the time required to cut the gating system by hand. These are suitable for
small quantity production.
(g) Sweep pattern (Fig. 1.9)
It is not a true pattern, but a template made of wood
or metal revolving around a fixed axis in the mould,
shapes the sand to the desired contour. It is suitable
for producing large or medium size symmetrical
castings. •
• • • • • • • • •
•
• • • •
• • • •
• • • • • • • •

(h) Segmental pattern (Fig. 1.10)

• •
• • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • •
• • • • • • • •

These are also known as ‘Part Patterns’. These are

• • • •
• • • • • •
• • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•
• • • • • • • • • •
• • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • •

used for producing a large circular castings such as

• • • • • •
• •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • •

rings, Wheel rims and gears. This pattern revolves

about centre and after ramming one section, it moves
to another section to complete the mould. Fig. 1.9 Sweep Pattern
 Foundry 13

Fig. 1.10 Segmental Pattern

(i) Skeleton pattern (Fig. 1.11)

For very large castings, the patterns would require a large amount of timber for full solid pattern.
If the number of castings required is small, it may not be economical to prepare solid pattern. In
such cases, the pattern is made of wood frame and rib construction so that it will form a partially
outline of the castings. This framework is called ‘Skeleton’.

Fig. 1.11 Skeleton Pattern

( j) Built up pattern (Fig. 1.12)

Built up patterns are composed of two or more pieces. Patterns for special pulleys are built up of
segments of wooden strips. These segments are made by cutting strips of wood to the curvature
required.

Fig. 1.12 Built up Pattern

14 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(k) Follow board pattern (Fig. 1.13)

A follow board pattern is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin
and fragile. With the follow board support under the pattern, the drag is rammed and the follow
board is removed.

Flg. 1.13 Follow Board Pattern

(l) Pattern colour code

Patterns are painted with different colours to indicate different surfaces. There is no universal
accepted standard for representation of different types of surfaces. The colour code adopted by
most of the foundries are given in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: Pattern Colour Code
S.No. Part of the Pattern Colour
1. Surface to be left unmachined Black
2. Surface to be machined Red
3. Core prints and seats for Yellow
loose core prints
4. Seats for loose pieces Red stripes on yellow
background.
5. Stop-offs or supports Black stripes on
yellow background

1.2.2 Mould and Core Making

1.2.2.1 Moulding Sands
Moulding sand is one of the most important material in production of sand casting. Sand is formed
by breaking up of rocks due to natural forces such as frost, wind, rain and action of water.
 Foundry 15

1.2.2.2 Classification of Moulding Sands

1.2.2.2.1 Classification according to the nature of its origin
(a) Natural sand (b) Synthetic sand
(a) Natural Sand: Natural sand is collected from the river beds or it is dug from pits.
Natural sand contains sufficient amount of binding material (clay) in it so that it can
be used directly. It has the following advantages:
Advantages
(i) Natural sand maintains moisture content for a pretty long time
(ii) They are cheap
(iii) The time for mixing the binder is saved
(iv) No extra equipment for mixing sand and binder.
Disadvantages
These are less refractory than synthetic sands because of impurities present. Natural sands
are used for casting cast iron and nonferrous metals.
(b) Synthetic Sand: Synthetic sands are basically clay free high silica sands. They are
mixed with desired amount of clay (3–5% bentonite) and water to, develop required
moulding properties. It is used for steel castings. The advantages of synthetic sands
over natural sands are:
(i) High permeability and refractoriness
(ii) Modulability with less moisture
(iii) Easier control of properties
However synthetic sands have the following disadvantages:
(i) It is more costly.
(ii) It needs extra time, equipment and men to prepare the sand.
1.2.2.2.2 Classification according to their initial conditions and use
(a) Green Sand, (b) Dry Sand, (c) Loam Sand, (d) Facing Sand, (e) Parting Sand, (f) Backing
Sand.
(a) Green Sand: Foundry sand containing moisture is known as green sand. Green refers
to the moisture content, it is a mixture of silica sand with 20 to 30% clay and water
from 6 to 8%. This is suitable for moulding purposes without any further conditioning.
Green sand is generally used for casting small or medium sized moulds.
(b) Dry Sand: Sand free from moisture is called dry sand. It passes greater strength than
green sand and can be used for making larger castings.
(c) Loam Sand: Loam sand is a mixture of sand and clay (50%). It is used far making
large castings such as large cylinders, paper rolls.
(d) Facing Sand: It forms the face of the mould and is in contact with the molten metal
25% of coal dust or graphite is used to prevent the metal from burning into the sand.
16 Manufacturing Science and Technology

It may have the thickness of 20 to 30 mm. It should have sufficient strength and
refractoriness.
(e) Parting Sand: Parting sand is sprinkled over the rammed drag to avoid the sticking of
drag with cape. Similarly it is sprinkled over the pattern to avoid its sticking to the
green sand, powder free from clay is used for this purpose. Very fine brick powder
can be used as parting sand.
( f) Backing Sand: It is the sand which backs up the facing sand and to fill the rest of the
flask it is the floor sand which is already used.
1.2.2.3 Properties of Moulding Sand
A moulding sand should possess the following properties:
(a) Permeability or Porosity: Molten metal always contains a certain amount of dissolved
gases which are evolved when the metal solidifies, also when the molten metal comes
in contact with the moisture sand, generates steam and water vapour. If these gases
and water vapour do not find passage to escape completely through the mould they
will form gas holes and pores in the casting. The ability of the sand to allow the gas to
pass through it is called ‘permeability’. It depends on size and shape of grains, moisture
content and degree of ramming.
(b) Plasticity or Flow ability: This refers to the ability of the moulding sand to acquire a
predetermined shape under pressure and retain the same when the pressure is removed.
This will increase with increase in clay moisture content.
(c) Adhesiveness: The property to adhere with other materials is adhesiveness. Moulding
sand particles should stick to the surface of the moulding boxes. This enables the
mould to retain in a box during handling.
(d) Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the ability of sand particles to stick to each other.
Lack of this property would result in breaking of the mould when molten metal is
poured. This depends on grain size (decreases with grain size) and clay content
(increases with clay) of sand.
(e) Green Strength: It is the strength of the sand in green or moist state. A mould having
adequate green strength will not disturb or collapse even after removing the pattern
from the mould box in the absence of green strength, dimensional stability and accuracy
cannot be obtained.
( f ) Dry Strength: It is the strength of the moulding sand in dry condition. A mould should
possess adequate dry strength to withstand erosive force and pressure of molten
metal.
(g) Hot Strength: It is the strength of sand of mould cavity above 100°C. If hot strength
is inadequate, the mould is likely to enlarge, break or get cracked.
(h) Refractoriness: The capability of the moulding sand to withstand the high temperatures
of the molten metal without fusing is known as refractoriness.
 Foundry 17

(i) Chemical Resistivity: The moulding sand should not react chemically with the molten
metal, otherwise the shape of casting will be distorted and smooth surface will not be
obtained.
( j) Collapsibility: It is the property of the moulding sand that permits it to collapse (break)
easily during its knockout from the casting.
(k) Fineness: Finer mould sand resists metal penetration and produces smooth casting
surface fineness and permeability are opposite to each other. Hence these should be
balanced for optimum results.
(l) Coefficient of Expansion: Moulding sands should possess low coefficient of expansion.
(m) Bench Lift: It is the ability of mould sand to retain its properties during storing, handling
or while standing (i.e. in case of any delay).
1.2.2.4 Principal Ingredients of Moulding Sand
(a) Silica Sand Grains (c) Water
(b) Clay (d) Additives
(a) Silica Sand Grains: They impart refractoriness, chemical resistivity and permeability
to the sand. The sand grains may vary in size from a few micrometers to a few
millimeters. The shape of the grains may be round, sub-angular, angular and compound.
The size and shape of the sand grains effect the properties of moulding sand.
(b) Clay: Clay can be defined as natural earthy material that becomes plastic when water
is mixed with. It’s purpose is to impart necessary bonding strength to the moulding
sand so that the mould does not loose its shape after ramming. Clay consists of flaked
shaped particles about 20 microns in diameter. The most popular clays are kaolite and
bentonite. Kaolite has a melting point of 175 to 1787°C and Bentonite has melting
point of 1250 to l300°C of the two, bentonite can absorb more water which increases
its bonding power.
(c) Water: Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of
water (1.5 to 8%). When water is added to clay it penetrates into the mixture and
forms a micro film which coats the surface of each flake. Too little water will not
develop proper strength and plasticity. Too much water will result in excessive plasticity.
(d) Additives: Materials other than basic ingredients (sand binder and water) are also
added to mould sand for improving existing properties. Additives include (i) Facing
materials, (ii) Cushion materials.
(i) Facing Materials: Facing materials are used to get smoother and cleaner
surfaces of castings and help easy peeling of sand from the casting surface
during shake out, e.g. coal dust, graphite, silica flour.
(ii) Cushion Materials: Cushion materials burn when the molten metal is poured
and thus give rise to space for accommodating the expansion of silica sand at
the surfaces of mould cavity, e.g. wood flour cellulose, perlite.
18 Manufacturing Science and Technology

1.2.2.5 Sand Conditioning

In general the natural and long used sands are not suitable for moulding directly. There is a need
for conditioning the sand mixture for better results.
The basic steps in sand conditioning are as follows:
(i) The first step is remove all foreign and undesirable matters such as nails, fins, hard
sand lumps from the moulding sand.
(ii) The second step is mixing of its ingredients, proper amounts of pure sand, clay and
other additives are mixed and water is spread over the entire volume. Muller is used
for mixing all the ingredients of sand.
(iii) In the third step, the sand is passed through a mechanical aerator to separate sand
grains into individual particles. It is performed to increase the flow ability of sand.
1.2.2.6 Sand Testing
Periodic tests are necessary to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand. The sand can be
tested either by chemical or mechanical methods. In most cases, the mechanical tests are employed.
The most important tests to be conducted are grain fineness, permeability and strength test. In
addition to them, moisture content, clay content and hardness tests are conducted.
(a) Grain Fineness Test: The grain size is determined by grain fineness number. It can be tested
with the help of an equipment called sieve shaker (Fig. 1.14). It consists of set of standard sieves
having varying number of meshes 6, 12, 20, 30, 40, 50, 70, 100, 140, 200 and 270. The sieve with
minimum mesh number has largest aperture (opening) and so on.

Fig. 1.14 Sieve Shaking Machine

The sample of sand is first washed to remove clay from it, then it is dried. A weighed quantity
of this sand is now placed on the top sieve and the whole unit is shaken for a definite period with
the help of electric motor. The sand falls through the apertures, and the sand of smallest size
comes to the bottom pan. The sand in each sieve is collected and weighed separately and expressed
as a percentage of the original sample weight. The percentage retained in each sieve is multiplied
 Foundry 19

by it’s own multiplier and all the products are added to obtain the total product. The grain fineness
number is calculated by using the following equation.
Total product
Grain Fineness number =
Total percentage of sand retained sieves
A typical example is shown in Table 1.5.
4800
Grain Fineness Number = = 50
96
Table 1.5: Calculation of G.F.N.
Mesh Sand Retained in the Sieves
Multiplier Product
By Weight (Wt) %Wt Retained =2*Wt
6 0 0 3 0
12 0 0 5 0
20 0 0 10 0
30 3.5 7 20 140
40 2.0 4 30 120
50 15.2 31 40 1240
70 18 36 50 1800
100 5 10 70 700
140 4 8 100 800
200 0 0 140 0
270 0 0 200 0
Pan 0 0 300 0
Total 96 4800

(b) Permeability Test: Permeability is the property of moulding sand which permits the
escape of steam and other gases generated in the mould during metal pouring. It is
measured by means of an apparatus called ‘Permeability meter’ (refer Fig 1.15).

Fig. 1.15 Permeability Tester

20 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fix the proper orifice (1.5 mm dia or 0.5 mm dia) in position. Now keep the specimen
in the tube over the orifice. Keep it tank on ‘0’ mark and allow the air to pass through
the sand specimen. When the tank comes to 0N position, note the manometer reading.
From this manometer reading, find the corresponding permeability number from the
calibrated chart attached to the equipment.
(c) Strength Test: To find out the holding power of various bonding materials in green and
dry sand moulds, strength tests are performed. It is done on universal sand testing
machine (Fig. 1.16). Moulding sand is tested for compressive, tensile strength, shear
strength and traverse strength.

Fig. 1.16 Universal Sand Testing Machine

The specimen is held between the grips. Hand wheel when rotated, actuates mechanism
to build pressure on the specimen. Dial indicator fitted on the tester measures the
deformation occurring in the specimen. There are two manometer one for low strength
sand and other for high strength sands. The shape of the specimen for measuring
compressive, shear, tensile and traverse strengths are shown in Fig. 1.17.

Fig. 1.17 Specimens for Sand Strength Test

 Foundry 21

(d) Moisture Content Test: Moisture content is determined by the loss of weight after
evaporation. A sample of sand (50 m) is dried at 106°C–110°C. The drying is carried
in an oven. The sand is cooled to room temperature and weighed again. The loss of
weight gives the amount of moisture which can be expressed in percentage.
loss of weight in the sample
% moisture content = *100
weight of sample before healing
As the conventional method is time consuming, direct reading instruments are available.
One such instrument is moisture teller. It works on the pressure of acetylene gas
generated by the reaction of calcium carbide with the moisture present in the sand.
Weighed amount of sand and calcium carbide are placed in the compartment of
moisture teller and allowed to mix by shaking the container. The pressure of the
generated acetylene gas gives directly the reading on the scale of pressure gauge
which is the percentage of moisture content.
(e) Clay Content Test: (Fig. 1.18) Clay content in the sand is determined by the loss of
mass of sand sample after washing 50 grams of dry moulding sand is taken into clay
jar. Add 475cc of distilled water and 25cc of NaOH to it and shake it. Next the bottle
is filled with water to a height of 150 mm and agitated vigorously by the stirrer and
allowed to settle again for 10 minutes. The water in which clay is dissolved is removed
by a syphon. The operation is repeated until water is clear after settling period (5
minutes). The remaining sand in the clay jar is dried and weighed. The percentage of
clay is determined by the difference in the initial and final weight of the sample.

Fig. 1.18 Clay Content Tester

1.2.2.7 Moulding Processes

The moulding processes are classified as follows:
1.2.2.7.1 According to the method used
(a) Bench moulding
(b) Floor moulding
(c) Machine moulding
22 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(a) Bench moulding: It is carried on a bench of convenient height. It is used for preparing
small moulds. Green sand and dry sand moulds may be made by bench moulding.
(b) Floor moulding: It is used for preparing medium and large size castings. The mould
is made in the foundry floor.
(c) Machine moulding: Moulding by hand is slow and laborious process and also does
not yield good results as it does not impart uniform hardness to the mould. In machine
moulding production becomes faster, labour is minimised. It is used in batch and mass
production. Moulding machines are classified according to:
1. The method of compacting the moulding sand.
2. The method of removing the pattern.
1(a) Squeezer Machine (Fig. 1.19)
The pattern is placed on the mould board which is clamped on the table. The flask is placed on
the mould and the sand frame on the flask. The flask and frame are filled with moulding sand and
levelled off. Next the table is raised by the table lift mechanism against the platen of the stationary
squeeze head. The platen enters the sand frame up to the dotted line and compact the moulding
sand. After the squeeze, the table returns to its initial position.

Fig. 1.19 Squeeze Machine

1(b) Jolt Machine (Fig.1.20)

The table with the flask having pattern and moulding sand is raised to 30 to 80 mm by the plunger
when compressed air is admitted through the hole and channel. The air is next released through
the hole (opening) and the table drops suddenly and strikes the guided cylinder at its bottom. This
sudden action causes the sand to pack evenly around the pattern.
 Foundry 23

Springs are used to cushion the table blows and thus reduce the noise and prevents destruction
of the mechanism and the foundation. The sand is rammed hardest at the parting plane and
around the pattern and remain less dense in top layer. So hand ramming is necessary after jolting
action is complete. Jolt and squeeze machine overcome drawbacks of jolt machine and squeeze
machine.

Fig. 1.20 Jolt Machine

1(c) Sand Slinger (Fig. 1.21)

Fig. 1.21 Sand Slinger

The overhead impeller head consists of the housing in which the blade rotates at a very high
speed. The sand is delivered to the impeller through the opening by means of a belt conveyor. The
impeller head by the rotation of the blade throws the sand through the outlet down into the flask
over the pattern. The density of sand can be controlled by the speed of the blade.
24 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Classification of moulding machines according to the method of removing the pattern from
the mould.
(a) Straight-Draw Moulding Machine (Fig. 1.22)

Fig. 1.22 Straight-draw Moulding Machine

In this machine the pattern is fixed on the table

and mould box is placed over it and filled with
sand. The squeeze head is next swung over in
position and it squeezes the mould. The flask is
then lifted from the pattern by stripping pins.
(b) Turn-over Moulding Machine (Fig. 1.23)
This is used for large sized moulds. The flask rests
on the pattern plate during the moulding operation.
Then the flask together with the worktable is
rotated 180° and pins lift the worktable together
with pattern out of the mould.
1.2.2.7.2 According to the mould materials
used
(a) Green sand moulding
(b) Dry sand moulding
(c) Loam sand moulding
(d) Metallic moulding or Permanent
moulding
(e) Carbon dioxide moulding

(a) Green Sand Moulding: The green

sand is the sand with moisture only. It
is the simplest of all the moulding sand
as no other binding material is mixed. Fig. 1.23 Turn-over Moulding Machine
 Foundry 25

If the mould is filled with green sand, the method is known as “Green sand moulding”.
These are used for small and medium castings.
Advantages
1. It is least expensive method
2. It requires less time to prepare
Disadvantages
1. Moisture in the sand may cause defects like blow holes.
2. Surface finish of the casting is poor.
3. It is not very strong hence, liable to be damaged during handling.
(b) Dry Sand Moulding: The method of making dry sand moulds is similar to that of
making green sand mould except that the mould is dried before pouring molten metal.
Drying (or baking) is carried in oven. The time of baking depends on the binders used
in the sand mixture.
Advantages
1. Stronger than green sand moulds
2. The castings have better surface finish.
Disadvantages
1. The molding material is expensive
2. Extra equipment is required to mix the sand and binders.
(c) Loam Sand Moulding: These moulds are made of bricks and other materials to the
approximate contour of the casting and a thick coating of loam sand. The correct
shape of the mould is obtained by rotating sweep pattern as in (Fig. 1.24).

Fig. 1.24 Loam Moulding

26 Manufacturing Science and Technology

The surface of the mould is dried by forced hot air or torches. The advantages of loam moulding
is that large castings (large cylinders, paper making rolls and bells) can be made cheaply.
Disadvantages
1. Loam moulding is slow and laborious process.
2. Skilled moulders are required.
(d) Metallic Moulding or Permanent Moulding: When the mould is made of metal, it is
known as ‘Metal mould’. These are used for the production of large number of identical
castings.
Advantages
1. It has a very long life
2. It does not get eroded while pouring molten metal
3. Production rate is high
Disadvantages
1. These moulds are costly
2. The shape of the mould cannot be altered.
(e) Carbon Dioxide Moulding (CO, Process): The process consists of thoroughly mixing
clean, dry silica sand with 3 to 5% sodium silicate liquid base binder in a muller.
This mixture is packed around the pattern in the mould box by hand or molding machine.
When the packing is complete, CO2 is forced into the mould or core at a pressure of 1.5 kg/cm2
for 10 to 30 seconds.
The sodium silica present in the mould reacts with CO2 to form a substance called ‘Silica
gel’. This silica gel, hardens and acts as a cement to bond the sand grains together.
NO2SiO3 + CO2 NO2CO3 + SiO2 × H2O
....... Silica gel
The major advantages of CO2 process are:
1. Removing the pattern is easier since the mould may be hardened before the withdrawal of
the pattern.
2. The process can also be used to make cores.
3. It is the fast process of hardening the moulds.
4. Accurate castings with sharp corners can be mould.
5. Surface finish of the casting is good.
6. Semi-finished labourers can be employed.
Limitations
1. CO2 gas is expensive
2. The collapsibility of the mould is reduced.
 Foundry 27

Applications
CO2 process can be used for both ferrous and nonferrous castings.
1.2.2.8 Special Moulding Processes
(a) Shell Moulding: It is a modification of the sand mould process. In this process, the
mould is made up of mixture of dried silica sand and phenolic resin, formed into a thin
half-mould shells which are clamped together for pouring metal.
Procedure (Fig. 1.25)

Fig. 1.25 Shell Moulding Process

The sand is first mixed with either urea or phenol formaldehyde resin in a muller. Metal pattern is
heated to 205 to 230°C in an oven and sprayed with silicon grease and kept on the top of the
dump box. The dump box contains sand mixed with thermo plastic resin. The box is inverted,
causing the sand mix to fall on the hot pattern. The resin melts and flow in between the grains of
sand, acting as a bond. After 30 seconds, a hard layer of sand is formed over the pattern. Then
the dump box is inverted back to its original position. The pattern with a thin shell is cured for two
28 Manufacturing Science and Technology

minutes at 315°C. The shell is finally removed from the pattern by ejector pins. The two shells
are clamped together to form the mould and placed in the flask with backing sand.
Advantages
1. High dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.
2. The chances of blow holes or pockets are reduced since the shells are highly permeable.
3. Thin wall sections can be produced.
4. Shells can be stored for long time.
Disadvantages
1. The metal patterns are costly than wood pattern.
2. Resin is an expensive binder.
3. Specialized equipments are to be used.
Applications
Cylinders of IC engines, automobile transmission parts, chain seat brackets, small crank shafts.
(b) Investment Casting Process (Lost Wax Process): In this process the wax pattern is
melted from the mould, leaving the cavity.
Procedure: A master pattern is prepared from steel or brass. Using this pattern, bismuth alloy or
lead alloy split mould is made. This mould is used for making wax pattern. Heated wax is injected
into the mould (water cooled). Upon solidification, wax pattern is removed. Several patterns are
assembled with necessary gates and risers. This assembly (tree) is dipped in a refractory slurry
and then refractory fine sand is sprinkled over it to ensure smooth surface of the casting. The
assembly is placed in a container and filled with coarser plaster mixture. After the investment
material is set, the mould is placed upside down and heated in a oven to melt out the wax. The
casting can be produced by pouring the molten metal. When the casting solidifies, the mould is
broken and the casting is taken out.
Advantages
1. High dimensional accuracy.
2. Intricate forms having undercut can be cast easily.
3. A very smooth surface of casting can be obtained.
Disadvantages
1. The process is expensive
2. It is limited to small castings from few grams to 5 kg.
3. Skilled operators are required
4. Production rate is low.
Applications
Blades for gas turbines, parts of sewing machines, type writers, calculating machines etc.
 Foundry 29

(c) Centrifugal Casting Process: In the centrifugal casting process, the mould is rotated
and the molten metal is distributed to the mould cavity with centrifugal force. The
centrifugal casting process is classified as follows:
1. True centrifugal casting process
2. Semi-centrifugal casting process
3. Centrifuging process
1. True Centrifugal Casting Process: In this process, the axis of rotation of the mould coincides
with the axis of the casting and the molten metal is pushed outwards because of the centrifugal
force, no core is required for making the concentric hole. The axis of rotation may be
horizontal, vertical or inclined. The most commonly cast parts are cast iron pipes, liners and
cylindrical barrels. The mould may be permanent type or sand lined mould. A normal centrifugal
casting machine used for making cast iron pipes in sand moulds is shown in Fig. 1.26.
The mould flask is rammed with sand to confirm to the outer contour of the pipe to be made.
The mould is arranged between rollers (two at the bottom and two at the top) to revolve freely.
At the end of the mould is fitted with a gear which meshes with a gear on a motor driven shaft.
The ends of the hollow mould are partially covered by covers which can be detached when the
casting is to be pushed out of the mould. At both end covers, a central hole is provided. From one
side, the molten metal is poured, from a ladle and from other, the hot gases escape out.

Fig. 1.26 True Centrifugal Casting Process

Advantages
1. The inclusions get segregated towards the centre and can be easily removed by machining.
2. The castings have better mechanical properties.
3. No central core is required.
4. No gates and risers are required.
30 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Limitations
1. This method is limited to certain shapes with axis symmetric.
2. Equipment is costly.
Applications
Cast iron pipes, alloy steel pipes, liners of L.I.C. engine.
2. Semi-centrifugal Casting Process: In this process, the mould is rotated about the vertical
axis and the metal is poured into a central sprue from where it first enters the hub and then
is forced outwards to the rim by centrifugal force. If a central hole is required, core is used.
The rotating speed is not as high as in the case of true centrifugal casting.
The method is used for making large sized castings which are symmetrical about their own
axis such as pulleys, spoked wheels, gears and propellers. For high production rates, the
moulds can be stacked one over the other and fed simultaneously through a common central
sprue.
3. Centrifuging Process: In this process, also the mould is rotated while the metal is poured.
The difference between true centrifugal or semi-centrifugal and centrifuging is that in case
of true centrifugal or semi-centrifugal casting process the axis of mould coincides with the
axis of rotation where as in case of centrifuging the axis of rotation and the axis of the
mould are not same. A number of mould cavities are arranged on the circumference of a
circle and are connected to a central down sprue through radial gates. The process is
similar to semi-centrifugal casting. This is suitable only for small jobs of any shape.
(d) Die Casting Process: The term ‘die’ is used for permanent mould. In this process the
molten metal is forced into the permanent mould under high pressure.
Types of die casting machines:
1. Hot chamber die casting machine
2. Cold chamber die casting machine
1. Hot Chamber Die Casting Machine: (Fig l.27(a) and (b))

Fig. 1.27 (a) Plunger Type Hot Chamber Die Casting Machine
 Foundry 31

Fig. 1.27(a) illustrates the working of a hot chamber die-casting machine. The melting unit of
metal forms an integral part of the machine. When the plunger is raised, it uncovers an opening in
the cylinder wall, through which the molten metal enters, filling the cylinder. The molten metal is
forced into the die either by hydraulic pressure or by air pressure applied to plunger. As soon as
the metal solidifies, the pressure on the metal is relieved and the plunger travels upwards to its
original position. The casting is ejected from the die by means of ejector pins.
In another type (see Fig. 1.27(b)) direct air is applied to force the molten metal into the die.
The bottle is tilted to immerse the nozzle in the pot of hot metal and is filled by gravity. Then the
bottle is raised so that the air nozzle comes in contact with top opening of the bottle. Compressed
air is then applied directly on metal so that metal is forced into the die cavity. When solidification
is complete, the air pressure is stopped. The die is opened and casting is ejected.

Fig. 1.27 (b) Air Blown Hot Chamber Die Casting Machine

2. Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine: Fig. 1.28 shows the cold chamber machine. The
metal is melted in a furnace and transferred to the cylinder from where it is forced into the
mould by means of plunger.

Fig. 1.28 Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine

32 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Advantages
1. Very high production rates are possible.
2. Thin sections can be cast.
3. Close dimensional control can be maintained.
Disadvantages
1. Equipment is costly.
2. Due to high temperature of molten metal, dies life will decrease.
3. Die casting is limited to low melting nonferrous alloys.
(e) Slush Casting: Hollow castings are produced without the use of core in this method.
The mould is filled with molten metal and held stationary until a thin skin of solid metal
freezes against the mould walls. The mould is then inverted and the unfrozen metal
runs out from the casting. Thus a thin walled casting is obtained.
1.2.2.9 Cores
Core is a mass of sand that is put into the mould to form holes and cavities in the casting.
Characteristics of cores and core sands:
1. The core should have sufficient strength to withstand the force of the molten metal.
2. It should be highly permeable to allow gas to escape.
3. The core should withstand high temperatures of the molten metal
4. It should have good collapsibility so that the core should be disintegrated easily after
solidification.
Types of Cores
The various types of cores are as follows:
(a) Horizontal Core
This is the most common type. Horizontal cores are laid down horizontally at the parting line of
the mould (see Fig. 1.29). The ends of the core rest in the seats provided by the core print of the
pattern.
 Foundry 33

(b) Vertical Core

Vertical core is similar to the horizontal core except that it is standing vertically in the mould (see
Fig. 1.30). It is a usual practice to have greater part of the core in the drag position of the mould.
(c) Balanced Core
A balanced core is one which is supported and balanced from its one end only. In such cases the
core print should be large to support the weight of the core. This is used when a casting does not
want a through cavity. For supporting the core in the mould, chaplets are used.

Fig. 1.31 Balanced Core

(d) Hanging Core

If the core hangs from the cope and does not have any support at the bottom in the drag (see Fig.
1.32), it is called as hanging core. In such cases, it is necessary to fasten the core with wire or
rod extending through the cope.

Fig. 1.32 Hanging Core

(e) Wing Core

Wing core is used when a hole is desired in the casting either above or below the parting line (see
Fig, 1.33).

Fig. 1.33 Wing Core

34 Manufacturing Science and Technology

1.2.2.10 Core Making Machines

A number of machines have been developed for the rapid production of cores. A particular type
depends on factors such as the number of cores required, size of the core and the intricacy and
design of cores.
(a) Core blowing machine
The core sand is forced into the core box from a sand reservoir with a stream of high velocity air,
at a pressure of 6-8 kg/cm2. The core box has a number of vent holes, as the sand is introduced,
the air is escaped through these holes. Due to the high velocity air, the sand is packed in the core
box.
(b) Core shooter
Another version of core blower in which core sand is ejected from the shooter head and is made
impinge into the core box cavity under impact.
1.2.3 Melting and Pouring
After moulding, the molten metal is poured into the mould to get the casting. Various types of
melting furnaces are available for the melting purpose. The choice of the furnace depends on the
amount and the type of alloy being melted.
Furnaces most commonly used are:
(a) Cupola furnace (for melting cast iron)
(b) Crucible furnace (for melting nonferrous metals)
(c) Electric furnace (for melting steel and special alloy steels).
(a).1 Cupola Furnace (Fig 1.34)
Description: The cupola is a shaft type furnace for producing molten cast-iron. It is a vertical
cylindrical shell made of 6 to 12 mm thick boiler plate rivetted and lined inside with acid refractory
bricks. Diameter varies from 1 to 2 metres. Height 3 to 5 meters diameter. The whole shell is
mounted on brickwork foundation or on steel columns. The bottom of the cupola is provided with
drop bottom door, through which debris consists of slag, coke etc. can be removed at the end of
melt. Towards the top of the furnace, there is an opening (charging door) through which the
charge is fed. Air for combustion is blown through the tuyeres located at a height of 0.6 to 1.2
metres above the bottom of the furnace.
(a).2 Cupola can be divided into the following zones
1. Crucible Zone: It is between the top of the sand and the bottom of the tuyeres. The molten
metal comes here.
2. Tuyeres Zone: It is between the bottom of tuyeres to the top of tuyeres.
3. Combustion Zone: This zone is located above the tuyeres where the combustion of the fuel
occur by oxygen of the air blast and produces lot of heat in the cupola.
 Foundry 35

Fig. 1.34 Cross-Section of Cupola Furnace

4. Reduction Zone: This zone extends from the top of the combustion zone to the top of the
coke bed. CO2 produced in combustion zone comes in contact with hot coke and is reduced
to CO. In this zone iron and other elements are protected from oxidizing influence.
5. Melting Zone: It is the first layer of iron above the coke bed. The temperature in this zone
is as high as 1700°C. Iron is melted in this zone.
36 Manufacturing Science and Technology

6. Preheating Zone: It is located above melting zone to the charging door. Iron and coke are
preheated to this in zone.
7. Stack: Carries gases from preheating zone to atmosphere.
(a).3 Cupola Operation
Preparation of Cupola: After each heat, the slag and refuse are cleaned as soon as the
patching of the lining is completed, the bottom doors are raised and held in position by metal
props. The sand bottom is made such that it slopes towards the tap hole.
Firing the Cupola: Small pieces of wood are ignited on the sand bottom when the wood
burns well, coke is added. Air necessary for coke combustion from tuyeres. Coke is added until
the desired height is reached. Instead of placing wooden pieces, the initial coke may be ignited by
gas burners or electric spark igniters.
Charging: After coke bed is properly ignited, coke and pig iron are charged in alternative
layers until the cupola is full from charging door.
In addition of iron and coke, a certain amount of limestone is added to the first metal charge.
Besides limestone fluorspar (CaF2) and soda ash (Na2CO3) also used as fluxing material. A flux
removes the impurities in the iron and protects the iron from oxidation. Limestone reduces the
melting point of the slag and increases fluidity.
Soaking Iron: After it is charged, it is kept about 45 minutes. The charge gets preheated.
This causes the iron to get soaked.
Opening the Air Blast: At the end of the soaking period, the blast is opened. As the melting
proceeds, the molten metal appears at the tap hole.
Pouring the Molten Metal: When sufficient metal is collected, the slag hole is opened and
the slag is run off. Then the tap hole is opened. Molten metal is collected in ladles and carried to
moulds for pouring.
(b) Crucible Furnace
Crucible furnaces are used to melt nonferrous metals like bronze, brass, aluminium and zinc
alloys. Crucibles are made of either refractory material or alloy steels. Refractory crucibles can
be of clay graphite, either ceramic bonded or silicon carbide bonded types:
The crucible furnaces are the following types:
(a) Pit crucible furnace
(b) Tilting furnace
(a) Pit Crucible Furnace (See Fig. 1.35)
As the name implies, it is constructed in a pit dug in the ground. It may be coke, oil or gas fired
furnace, but usually it is fired with coke. The coke bed is formed, ignited and allowed to bum.
Now coke from the centre of the coke bed is removed and crucible with lid containing the metal
charge is placed. Coke is again added surrounding the crucible on all sides. When the metal
reaches the desired temperature, the crucible is lifted out with tongs and the metal is transferred
to the mould.
 Foundry 37

Fig. 1.35 Pit Crucible Furnace

(b) Tilting Furnace (see Fig. 1.36)

As compared to stationary furnaces, tilting type furnaces are preferred where large amounts of
metal are melted. In tilting furnace, crucible is permanently cemented in place. The furnace made
of sheet metal is lined with refractory (fire brick). It is mounted on two pedestals and is tilted with
a geared hand wheel or power. Oil or gas is used as fuel in the furnace. Combustion air is
supplied by a blower.

Fig. 1.36 Tilting Furnace

(c) Electric Furnace

These are used for the production of high quality castings:
1. Direct arc furnace
2. Indirect arc furnace
38 Manufacturing Science and Technology

1. Direct arc furnace (see Fig. 1.37)

Fig. 1.37 Direct Arc Furnace

Three-phase direct arc furnace is the most popular one for melting steel in the foundry. In operation,
scrap steel is placed on the hearth of the furnace. An arc is drawn between the electrodes and
the surface of the metal charge by lowering the electrodes down till the current jumps. Slag is
maintained on the molten metal to reduce
oxidation. Before pouring the liquid metal into
the ladle, the furnace is tilted back and the
slag is removed from the charging doors.
Now the furnace is tilted forward to pour
the molten metal into ladle.
2. Indirect arc furnace (see Fig. 1.38)
This is a single-phase electric furnace. This
differs from the direct arc furnace that the
electrodes do not come in contact with the
molten metal, but form an arc above the molten
metal. The furnace is mounted on rollers which
is driven by rocking unit to rock the furnace
back and forth during melting. While the
furnace rocks, liquid metal washes over the
heated refractory linings and absorb heat from
Fig. 1.38 An Indirect Arc Furnace
them. Thus the charge is heated by radiation
from the arc and conduction from the lining.
 Foundry 39

1.2.3.1 Pouring Molten Metal

The molten metal is poured into the mould through the gating system.
1.2.3.2 Gating System
It refers to all passages through which the molten metal enters into the mould cavity. A good
gating system avoids the turbulence of flow and erosion of mould walls and it prevents entering of
loose particles of sand into the moulds. The various parts of gating system are shown in Fig. 1.39.

Fig. 1.39 Components of Gating System

(a) Pouring basin

It is a funnel shaped opening made at the top of the sprue in the cope. It is used to (i) make it
easier for ladle operator to maintain the required flow rate, (ii) minimize turbulence, thereby the
molten flow is smooth, (iii) aids in separating dross and slag from the molten metal before it enter
the runner system. Fig 1.40 shows various designs of pouring basin.

Fig. 1.40 Typical Designs of Pouring Basins

(b) Sprue
It is a vertical passage through the cope and connects the pouring basin to the runner or gate. The
sprue cross-section may be circular or square or rectangular. Figure 1.41 shows the effect of sprue
design on metal turbulence. If the sprue is straight and has sharp corners, there is severe aspiration
40 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(see Fig. 1.41a), thereby causing turbulence in the metal. If the tapered corners are round, dam type
of pouring basin (see Fig. 1.41(b)) is used, aspiration is negligible and there is no turbulence.

Fig. 1.41 Effect of Sprue Design on Metal Turbulence

1.2.3.3 Gates
Gate is a channel which converts runner with the mould cavity. Types of Gates: The gates are
classified as:
(a) Parting Line Gate, (b) Bottom Gate, (c) Top Gate
(a) Parting Line Gate: In parting line gate, the metal enters the mould cavity at the
parting line (see Fig. 1.42).
The gate may contain such as Skim bob, Skimming gate, Shrink bob, Whirl gate.
A hollow recess in the
cope is known as ‘Skim bob’
is used to trap the slag and
foreign matter in the metal
due to its curvature Fig.
1.42(a).
Skimming gate is a vertical
passage through the cope.
The purpose is similar to that
of a skim bob. In this case,
the foreign matter being lighter
in weight than the metal can
rise through the vertical
passage Fig. 1.42(b).
Shrink bob may be
provided, if there is a tendency
for shrinkage defect to occur
near the ingate Fig. 1.42(c). Fig. 1.42 Parting Line Gate
 Foundry 41

Whirl gate employs centrifugal force to aid in the slag come to the centre from where it rises
up in the skimming gate Fig. l.42(d).
(b) Bottom Gate: (Fig. 1.43)
A bottom gate is made in the drag portion of the mould. In this metal fills the bottom first and
rises steadily up the mould. The main advantage is the turbulence is minimum hence mould erosion
is prevented.

Fig. 1.43 Bottom Gate

(c) Top Gate: (Fig. 1.44)

Fig. 1.44 Top Gate

In top gate, the metal is poured down directly into the mould cavity. The advantage is that the
molten metal at the top of the casting is always hot.
Area = 4 sq. cm.
1.2.2.10.3 Gating Ratio
It describes the relative cross-sectional area of sprue: Area = 3 sq. cm.
total runner area: total gate area. For example a gating
system having 4 sq cm total gate area, 8 sq cm runner
area, and 8 sq cm total gate area, the gating ratio is
1:2:2. The gating ratios are classified as pressurised
system and unpressurised system.
(a) Pressurised Gating System: If the total gate
area is smaller than the area of sprue, back Total Area = 2 sq. cm.
pressure is maintained on the gating system
Fig. 1.45 Pressurised System with Gating
due to restriction of metal flow at the gates Ratio 2:1.5:1
and the system is called pressurised gating
system. Gating ratio 2: 1.5: 1 indicates a pressurised gating system (see Fig. 1.45).
42 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(b) Unpressurised Gating System: The unpressurised gating system on the other hand
has metal flow restriction at the sprue. A system having gating ratio of I :2:3 indicates
an unpressurised gating system (see Fig. 1.46)
Area = 4 sq. cm.

Area = 3 sq. cm.

Total Area = 2 sq. cm.

Fig. 1.46 Unpressurised System with Gating Ratio 1:2:3

1.2.3.4 Runner
Runner is a common passage for molten metal to flow into the mould cavity from sprue. The
branches from runner to the mould cavity are called ingates.
1.2.3.5 Riser
Riser is a hole cut in the cope to permit the molten metal to rise above the highest point in the
casting.
Functions of Riser
(i) It enables the pourer to see the metal in the mould cavity. If the metal is not seen in
the riser, it indicates that either the metal is not sufficient to fill the mould cavity or
there is some obstruction to the metal flow between the sprue and riser.
(ii) The riser gives passage to the steam, gas and air from the mould cavity while filling
the mould with the molten metal.
(iii) It serves as feeder to feed the molten metal into mould cavity to compensate for it’s
shrinkage.
1.2.3.6 Directional Solidification (see Fig. 1.47)
Since the casting has various sections, all the parts do not cool at the same rate, some parts tend
to solidify more quickly than others. This contraction causes voids and cavities in certain regions
of the casting. These voids must be filled by liquid metal from riser. Hence the solidification
should continue progressively towards the risers which should be the last to solidify. This is known
as directional solidification. In general, the following ways are adopted for controlling the directional
solidification.
 Foundry 43

Fig. 1.47 Directional Solidification

(i) The risers should be designed and positioned properly.

(ii) The thickness of certain sections of the casting may be increased by the use of
padding.
(iii) Exothermic materials in the risers.
(iv) Chills may be used in the moulds.
(i) Design and Positioning of Risers: The riser should keep the metal in a molten state as
long as possible. This can be achieved when the riser is spherical in shape so that its
surface area is a minimum. For the same volume, the next best shape is cylindrical shape
and a square shape. Since it is difficult to mould a spherical shape, a cylindrical shape is the
best shape to adopt.
(ii) Use of Padding: (see Fig. 1.48)

Fig. 1.48 Use Padding

Padding is another method of promoting directional solidification. The padding is simply

extra metal added to the original uniform section of the casting. This extra metal, if not
desired, can be removed later by machining.
(iii) Use of Exothermic Materials: These are used to provide directional solidification. These
are provided in the riser on the top of poured metal or to the sand in the riser walls. When
the molten metal contact with these exothermic materials, chemical reaction takes place,
producing substantial heat. Thus the molten metal gets superheated and remains molten for
a longer period.
44 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(iv) Use of Chills: The thin sections of the casting solidify faster than the thicker sections. Due
to this, there will be uneven contraction, thereby giving rise to internal strains in the casting.
Even develop cracks in the casting. Hence for rapid solidification of heavy sections and to
achieve directional solidification, chills are commonly used.
Chills are classified as:
1. External Chills.
2. Internal Chills.
1. External Chills: These may be direct or indirect type. The direct type forms mould face
and contact with the molten metal. In indirect type, the chill is embedded below the mould
and no contact with the molten metal (see Fig.1.49).
2. Internal Chills: These are within the mould cavity and go into the casting when the metal
is poured.

Fig. 1.49 Use of Chills

1.2.3.7 Pouring Time

High pouring rate means turbulent flow in the mould, leads to mould erosion. Low pouring rate
may not fill the mould cavity completely, leads to defect like cold shut. Hence, optimum pouring
time is required.
Pouring times for some of the materials are given below:
(a) Gray Cast Iron, mass less than 450 kg.
t = K(l.41 + T/14.59) w
where t = Pouring time in seconds
K = Fluidity of iron in inches/40
T = Average section thickness in mm
w = Mass of the castings in kg
(b) Gray Cast Iron mass greater than 450 kg.
t = K(1.236 + T/16.65)3 w
 Foundry 45

(c) Steel Castings

t = (2.4335 – 0.3953 log w) w
Example 1.3: Calculate the optimum pouring time for casting cast iron whose mass is 50 kg and
a thickness 50 mm. Fluidity is 2.2 inches.
Solution:
Pouring time t = 22/40(1.41 + 50/14.59) 50
= 18.81 seconds.
Choke Area: It is the area at the sprue exit. It can be calculated based on Bernoulli’s
theorem.
CA = W/cdt 2gh
Where CA = Choke Area, mm2
W = Casting mass, kgs
C = Efficiency factor – a function of gating system used
D = Mass density of liquid metal, kg/mm3
T = Pouring time, seconds
G = Acceleration due to gravity mm/sec2
H = Effective liquid metal head.
The effective sprue height H, of a mould depends on the type of gating used as shown below:
Top gate H = h
Bottom gate H = h – hm/2
Parting gate H = h – hc2/2hm
Where h = height of sprue
hc = Height of mould cavity design in cope
hm = Total height of mould cavity
The values of h, hc and hm are shown in Fig. 1.50 for the various types of gating.

Fig. 1.50 Different Gating Systems

Example 1.4: Determine the diameter of taper sprue at the bottom to fill G.I. casting neglecting
the directional flow and flow losses. Casting weight 30 kg, pouring time 20 seconds, density of
melt 7gm/mm3, height of sprue is 60 mm and top gate.
46 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Solution:
Choke Area CA = W/cdt 2gh
W = 30 kg
H = h = 160
T = 20 secs
D = 7 gm/mm3 =7 × 10–3kg/l000 m3
= 7 * l0–6kg/mm3
C = for taper sprue is 0.85
Ca = 30/0.85 × 7 ×10–6 × 20 2 ×980 × 160
= 142.36mm
IID2/4 = 142.36
∴ D = 13.46mm
Example 1.5: A casting of 200 × 100 × 70 mm3 size solidifies in 10 minutes. Estimate the
solidification time for 200 × 100 × 10 mm3 casting under similar conditions (Gate Problem).
Solution:
Solidification time t = K(V/A)2
Where K = mould constant; V = volume of casting; A = surface are casting
V = lbh; A = 2(lb + bh + lh)
V1 = 200 × 100 × 70 = 14 × 105 mm3
V2 = 200 × 100 × 10 = 2 × 105 mm3
Al = 2(200 × 100 + 100 × 70 + 200 × 70) = 82000 mm2
A2 = 2(200 × 100 + 100 × 10 + 200 × 10) = 46000 mm2
tl/t2 = (Vl/Al)2/(V2/A2)2 = (14 × 105/82 × 103)/(2 × 105/46 × 103)
291.48/18.896%= 15.42
10/12 = 15.42
∴ t2 = 0.648 minutes
1.2.4 Fettling
Fettling includes:
(a) Removal of cores
(b) Removal of gates, risers and runners
(c) Cleaning the surfaces
Sand cores are generally removed by shaking. Gates and risers are removed by grinding operation.
Flame cutting using oxyacetylene gas is used for cutting gates and risers of steel castings.
Next is to remove the fins and sand adhering the casting. This is carried out by tumbling. In
this method, the castings to be cleaned are placed in the large shell or barrel which contains small,
 Foundry 47

hard, star shaped pieces of cast iron. The barrel is rotated at about 30 rpm. As the barrel rotates,
the castings tumble over each other, rub off the adhering sand.
Sand blasting is other process of cleaning the castings. In this method, sharp silica sand is blown
against the castings at high velocity.
Defects in Castings
Casting defects are usually not accidental, but due to improper control of manufacturing. The
major defects generally found in the sand castings are as follows:
(i) Gas defects
(ii) Shrinkage cavities
(iii) Moulding material defects
(iv) Pouring metal defects
(v) Metallurgical defects
(vi) Moulding and core box defects
(i) Gas Defects: These are blowholes and open blows, air inclusions and pin hole porosity.
These are due to lower permeability of the mould.
(a) Blow holes and Open blows: These are in the form of spherical, flattened or elongated
cavities present inside the cavity or on the surface as shown below Fig. 1.51.

Fig. 1.51 Blow holes

On the surface, they are called open blows holes. These are due to the moisture left in the
mould and the core. Due to heat of the molten metal, the moisture is converted into steam,
a part of which may entrapped in the casting. Apart from the moisture, they occur due to
the lower venting and lower permeability of the mould.
(b) Air Inclusions: The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the
furnace, in the laddle and during the flow in the mould when not allowed to escape,
would be trapped inside the casting. The main reason for this defect is the higher
pouring temperatures which increase the amount of gas absorption.
(c) Pinhole Porosity: This is due to the hydrogen in the molten metal. The hydrogen
while leaving the solidifying metal would cause very small diameter and long pinholes.
(ii) Shrinkage Cavities: These are caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification.
To compensate this, proper feeding of the liquid metal is required. Also proper casting design.
(iii) Moulding Material Defects: Scabs, swell, run out and drop. These defects occur because
of the moulding materials are not having required properties or due to improper ramming.
48 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(a) Scabs: These are projections on the casting which occur when a portion of the mould
face lifts and metal flows underneath in a thin layer. In other words, liquid metal
penetrates behind the surface layer of sand (see Fig. 1.52).
These scabs are of two types: 1. Expansion scabs, 2. Erosion scabs. Expansion scab
is caused by the expansion of the surface layers of the sand. It may occur where
metal has been agitated or has partly eroded the sand.

Fig. 1.52 Scab

Scabs occur due to uneven ramming, excess moisture in the sand.

(b) Swell: Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back
causing a swell in the casting.
It may occur due to in sufficient ramming of the sand, pouring the molten metal too
rapidly.
(c) Run out: This occurs when the molten metal leaks out the mould cavity. This may be
caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty moulding flask.
(d) Drop: A drop occurs when cope surface cracks and breaks, thus the pieces of sand
fall into the molten metal. This is due to either low green strength or improper ramming
of the cope flask.
(iv) Pouring Metal Defects: The defects in this category are misrun, cold shut, poured short.
(a) Misrun: When the mould is not completely filled with molten metal due to some
obstruction in the form of metal, the defect is known as misrun.
(b) Cold shut: Sometimes metal is poured from opposite directions in the mould. If the
two streams of metal approach each other, make physical contact, but do not fuse
together thus leaving a gap, the resulting defect is called ‘cold shut’. The reasons for
cold shut or misrun may be too thin sections, improper gating system, slow and
intermittent pouring, poor fluidity of metal.
(c) Poured Short: When the mould cavity is not completely filled because of insufficient
metal, the defect is called ‘poured short’.
(v) Metallurgical Defects: Hot tears and Hot spots.
(a) Hot Tears or Hot Cracks: These are internal or external ragged discontinuities or
cracks on the casting surface, due to hindered contraction occurring immediately after
the metal has solidified. These will occur when the casting is poorly designed.
 Foundry 49

(b)Hot Spots: These are caused by the chilling of the casting. For example, with gray
cast iron having small amounts of silicon, very hard white cast iron may result at the
chilled surface. This hot spot will interfere with the subsequent machining of this
region. Proper metallurgical control is essential for elimination of the hot spots.
(vi) Moulding and Core Box Defects
(a) Mould Shift (Mismatch): A shift in a mismatch
of cope and drag flasks at the parting line. Fig.
1.53 shows the mismatch of the sections of a
casting at the parting line. This is due to worn or
loose dowels in the pattern made in halves. This
defect can be prevented by ensuring proper
alignment of the patterns or die parts. Core shift
may also occur due to misalignment of cores or core halves during assembly.
(b) Fins: Thin projections of metal on the surface of the casting usually at the parting of
mould or core sections. Moulds and cores incorrectly assembled will cause fins.
Insufficient weight on the mould or improper clamping of the flasks may produce fin
defect.
1.2.5 Inspection and Testing
The aim of inspection is to reject those castings which do not meet with the specifications and
also determines the location and magnitude of various defects in the casting.
The inspection and testing of castings are broadly classified as:
(a) Destructive Testing and (b) Non Destructive Testing
The destructive testing include tensile, compressive and shear testing. In addition microscopic
examination to determine physical and metallurgical qualities of castings. The disadvantage is that
the component under test becomes unserviceable.
Non-Destructive testing consists of the following tests:
(a) Visual Inspection (d) Magnetic Particle Test
(b) Penetrant Test (e) Ultrasonic Testing
(c) Sound Test (f) Radiography Testing
(a) Visual Inspection: Visual inspection is the simplest, fastest and most commonly used
method. This is used to detect defects on the surfaces of the casting like cracks, blow
holes, swells, swifts etc. This is carried out with naked eye or using a magnifying
glass.
(b) Penetrant Test: The casting is sprayed with a liquid penetrating agent having low
viscosity. The penetrant enters the cracks. The casting is then wiped and cleaned. A
dry developer is sprayed on the casting. This draws some of the suspension from the
cracks to the surface where it flourescences and is readily visible under ultraviolet
light. This is used only for surface defects.
50 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Sound Test: In this method, the casting is given blows with hammer and listen the
sound waves produced. The defect free casting emits a clear ringing sound where as
the defective casting gives a dull sound.
(d) Magnetic Particle Test: This test consists of magnetising the casting and then sprinkling
the fine powder of magnetic material. This powder tends to be held and bridge over
defects, thus forming a visible indication and location and magnitude of the defect.
(e) Ultrasonic Testing: In Ultrasonic testing, high frequency sounds (frequency of sound
beyond audible range are passed through one end of the surface of the casting, the
waves travel through the casting to the opposite surface and are reflected back to the
original point. Any defect in the part of the waves scatter the waves and are reflected
back from the defect and return in a shorter period of time. The advantage of this
method is not only detecting but also locating accurately.
(f) Radiography Testing: This method is used to detect internal defects of the casting.
Radiant energy from the X-Ray tube is passed through the casting or section of the
casting and recorded on a film held against the opposite surface. Defects in the form
of cracks or voids are recorded as blackened areas on the film, since the radiant
energy moves more easily through the less dense regions. Defects like cracks, internal
and external, hot tears, shrinkage, gas or pin hole porosity are detected by this method.

1.3 SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTINGS

Sound Casting is one which is free from defects like porosity, shrinkage and cracks etc. In order
to produce a casting free from such defects, it is essential to know cast structure developed
during solidification of metals and alloys.
1.3.1 Recrystallization
(a) In this process, old distorted grains are replaced by new equiaxed stress free, strain
free grains by a process a nucleation and growth. This is called recrystallization.
(b) Nucleation occurs at the points of high energy and subsequently these nuclei grow at
the expense of old grains. The probability of forming a nucleus is the same at every
place a state suitable for homogeneous nucleation is said to be in the system.
(c) Nucleation occurs at the surface near the mould wall contains equidistanced grains
and the nucleation is based on the volume of the particles formed i.e., free energy and
the energy need to join the surface layer of the particle. The microstructure at the end
of recrystallization process is similar to the original structure. The grains become
equiaxed and the dislocation density gets reduced to a value of strain free metal.;
(d) Due to the change in the microstructure of the casting metal, mechanical properties
increases, internal stresses are reduced almost to the original level with increase in
corrosion resistance.
 Foundry 51

(e) The grain size of the material obtained at the end of recrystallization depends on the
temperature of heating, time of heating, heating rate and type end level of impurities.
(f) Insoluble particles lock the grain boundaries and prevent their migration. They also
reduce the energy of grain boundaries. Due to this, a fine grain size rate sharply
decreases.
1.3.2 Formation of Grains
All the metals are crystalline and crystals are made up of several atoms. The individual crystals
or grains together form the visible mass of a solid metal.
A grain is a crystal with almost external shape, but with an internal atomic structure based on
the space lattice with which it was formed. The mechanical properties of the metal varies with
the arrangement of grains. The solidification process is shown in Fig. 1.54.

Fig. 1.54 Formation of Crystal Grains

The metal begins to solidify when the temperature of the liquid metal drops below the critical
temperature. When two or more atoms associated to form a small crystal called “Nucleus”. It
happens in number of locations throughout liquid metal. They are simultaneously cooled. Slow
cooling favours growth of crystals uniformly in all directions of growth and give equiaxed crystals
i.e., the crystals with equal dimensions in all the direction. Rapid cooling always favours tree like
crystals called “dendrites” which consisting of unit cells, with straight line branches.
Crystal grows until it come in contact with the adjacent crystal of proper geometrical form
and having different orientations. They can be distorted by interference of each crystal with its
neighbours.
The boundary formed between two adjacent crystalline growth because of different orientations
of the grain is known as grain boundary.
• As shown in Fig (1.54) The formation of nucleus in straight line branches is shown in (a)
• Crystals having the same geometrical form but different in orientations can be seen in
(b) & (c)
• Grain boundaries formed between adjacent crystals can be seen in (d)

1.3.3 Grain Size

The rate of whole crystallization process is determined by the rate of nucleation (N) and rate of
crystal growth (G). The size of the grain is determined by the rate of crystal growth (G) and rate
52 Manufacturing Science and Technology

of nucleation (N). At high value of G and low value of N, coarse grains are formed. Besides rate
of cooling, the grain size also depend on factors.
• Temperature of liquid metal
• Impurities in metal
• Chemical composition.

1.3.4 Solidification of Pure Metals

Solidification process differs from pure metal to the alloys as it is the transformation of the molten
metal back to the solid state.
As the pure metal have sharply defined freezing temperature which is the same melting point
composed of the small group of atoms oriented into common crystal pattern (Fig. 1.55). The
process occurs in the overtime called a cooling curve. During the process of solidification nuclei
spring up, each nucleus grow and able to form the crystal which is visible to the eye.

Melt

Crystal Nuclei (c) Completion of crystal-

(a) Nuclei at inception (b) Partial solidification lisation growing
of freezing Dendritic nuclei crystals meet

Fig. 1.55 Progressive Freezing of a Uniformly Cooled Metal

As each nucleus grows, the atoms within it are having the same orientation. When the nucleus
have grown to the point, they absorb all the liquid atoms and come in contact with each other
along their boundaries. The boundaries do not line up the plan of atoms, change directions from
one crystal to other so solid state composed of a number of crystals of different orientation i.e.,
mixed crystals.
The actual freezing takes time called “Local solidification time” in casting during which the metals’
latent heat of fusion is released into the surrounding mould. The total solidification time is the time
taken between pouring and complete solidification. After the casting is completely solidified, cooling
gradually increases by decreasing the slope of the cooling curve as shown in Fig. 1.56.
Because of the chilling action of the mould wall, a thin skin (a thin layer) is formed at the
interface immediately after pouring. Thickness of the skin increases to form a shell around molten
metal as solidification progress inward toward the centre of the cavity. The rate of freezing
depend on the heat transfer in the mould.
As the conductivity of the mould is high, fine, equiaxed, random orientation atoms of small
crystal grows near the mould face. As the cooling progress, the grain formation in the direction
 Foundry 53

Pouring temperature

ng
oli
Co rts
sta
ing Freezing
e ez completed
Fr
Temperature

Solid
Local solidification time cooling

Total solidification time

Time

Fig. 1.56 Temperature as a Function of Time for Solidification of Pure Metal

away from the heat transfer gradually long columnar crystals, with the axis perpendicular to the
mould face are formed.
The beginning of solidification and end of solidification takes place at constant temperature in
pure metals. These two points are called congruent melting points. Perfect crystals of proper external
shape can be obtained only if crystallization develops under the degree of super cooling is very low
and the metal is having high purity. In most of the cases it leads to the formation of branches form at
right angles to the first branch (Tree-like crystals) called dendrites as shown in Fig. 1.57.

Mould
wall

Fig. 1.57 Grain Structure of Casting of Pure Metal Showing Randomly Oriented fine, Equiaxed Grains
near the Mould Wall and Large Columnar Grains Oriented towards Centre of Casting.

1.3.5 Solidification in Alloys

Most alloys freeze over a temperature range rather than at a single temperature. The exact range
depends on the alloy stem and the particular composition. This can be explained with reference to
the phase diagram as shown in Fig. 1.58.
54 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Pouring temperature

Liquid cooling

Freezing starts

Ttemperature Freezing
completed

Total solidification Solid

time cooling

Time

Fig. 1.58 Temperature as a Function of Time for Solidification of an Alloy

Just below the solidification starts the solid phase start separating out from the liquid. As the
temperature decreases, the freezing begins from the liquidus line and is completed when the
solidus is reached. As similar to the pure metal the freezing starts by forming a thin skin at the
mould wall due to large temperature gradient at the surfaces and dendrites grow away from the
surface of the mould wall where both liquid and solid metal together. This solid region has a sort
of consistency leading to its name as “Mushy Zone”. As the freezing progress the mushy zone is
relatively narrow, and exists throughout casting. As the temperature difference increases the
dendrite matrix solidify as casting drops to the solidus line for the given alloy composition.
Metals having the higher melting points favours the formation of the dendrites composition in
the solidification of alloys.
Composition imbalance can be seen in dendrites growth depending upon the segregation of
the elements (see Fig. 1.59).

Fig. 1.59 Grain structure in an Alloying Casting Showing Segregation of

Alloying Components in the Centre of Casting
 Foundry 55

The segregation is of two types

(a) Microscopic level
(b) Macroscopic level
Microscopic level: Composition varies throughout each individual grain. Each dendrite has a
higher portion of one of the elements in the alloy.
Macroscopic level: Composition varies throughout the casting as the regions of the casting
freeze first and richer in one component than the other.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain various types of pattern materials used. State its advantages and disadvantages.
2. Briefly explain the allowances provided on a pattern.
3. Sketch and explain different types of patterns used in a foundry.
4. What are the properties of a good moulding sand? Explain.
5. List out the various tests performed on a moulding sand and explain in detail.
6. Enumerate the various types of moulding machines used in a foundry.
7. Define a core. Explain various types of cores used in moulding practice.
8. Briefly describe the step by step procedure for CO2 moulding process.
9. Explain the shell moulding process with neat sketches.
10. Describe centrifugal casting process. What are its applications?
11. With a neat sketch describe the working of a pit furnace.
12. Sketch and explain die casting process.
13. What are the functions of a Riser?
14. Describe the working of a cupola.
15. Explain various castings defects.
16. Explain the inspection and testing methods used in foundry.
17. Discuss the various elements that comprise the gating system.
18. What is the difference between the solidification of pure metals and metal alloys? Explain.
 This page
intentionally left
blank
 2
1 Plastic Deformation
Pr ocesses
Processes

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Plastic deformation occurs when the metal is stretched or compressed beyond the elastic limit.
During the deformation, the metal flows plastically and the shapes of grains are changed. If the
deformation is carried out at high temperature, the growth of new grains is accelerated and
continues till the metal comprises fully of only the new grains. This process of formation of new
grains is known as recrystallisation. The temperature at which this process is complete is known
as the recrystallisation temperature. Plastic deformation of a metal above the crystallisation
temperature, but below the melting temperature is called hot working where as plastic deformation
of a metal below its recrystallisation temperature is known as cold working.

2.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HOT WORKING AND COLD WORKING

Hot Working Cold Working

1. Hot working is done at a temperature above recry- 1. Cold working is done at temperature below
stallisation but below, melting point. It can therefore recrystallisation temperature. So no appreciable
be regarded as a simultaneous process of recovery can take place during deformation.
deformation and recovery. 2. Hardening is not eliminated since working is done
2. Hardening due to plastic deformation is completely, at a temperature below recrystallisation.
eliminated by recovery and recrystallisation. 3. Cold working decreases elongation, reduction of
3. Mechanical properties such as elongation, reduction area. Increases ultimate tensile strength, yield
of area and impact values are improved. point and hardness.
Ultimate tensile strength, yield point, fatigue
strength, hardness are not affected by hot working.

(Contd…)
58 Manufacturing Science and Technology

4. Surface finish of hot worked metal is not nearly as 4. Good surface finish is obtained.
good as with cold working because of oxidation and
scaling.
5. Refinement of crystals occurs. 5. Crytallisation does not occur. Grains are only
elongated.
6. Cracks and blowholes are welded up. 6. Possibility of crack formation and propagation is
great.
7. Internal or residual stresses are not developed in the 7. Internal and residual stresses are developed in the
metal. metal.
8. Oxide forms rapidly on metal surface. 8. Cold parts possess less ductility.
9. Less force is required. 9. Higher forces are required for deformation.
10. Equipment used in hot working is light. 10. More powerful and heavier equipment’s are required
for cold working.
11. Handling and maintenance of hot metal is difficult 11. Easier to handle cold parts.
and troublesome.
12. Hot working processes: 12. Cold working processes:
(a) Hot forging (a) Cold rolling
(b) Hot rolling (b) Cold extrusion
(e) Hot spinning (c) Press work
(d) Hot extrusion (i) Drawing
(e) Welded pipe and tube manufacturing (ii) Squeezing
(f ) Roll piercing (iii) Bending
(g) Hot drawing (iv) Shearing

2.3 FORGING
2.3.1 Introduction
Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force (impact type or squeeze type)
is applied to manipulate the metal in such a way that the required final shape is obtained.
Forging enhances the mechanical properties of metals and improves the grain flow, which in
turn increases the strength and toughness of the forged component.
2.3.2 Forgeability of Metal and Alloys
It is important to know the deformation behaviour of the metal to be forged with regard to the
resistance to deformation and any anticipated adverse effects such as cracking. Hence, forgeability
can be defined as the tolerance of a metal or alloy for deformation without failure. It can be
evaluated on the basis of the following tests:
(a) Hot twist test
(b) Upset test
(c) Hot-impact tensile test
(a) Hot Twist Test: In this test, hot bar is twisted and count the number of twists until failure. A
large number of twists before failure indicate better forgeability.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 59

(b) Upset Test: This test is widely used in the forging industry. In this test, a number of cylindrical
billets are upset-forged to various thickness. The limit for upset forging without failure or
cracking is considered a measure of forgeability.
(c) Hot-Impact Tensile Test: A conventional impact-testing machine fitted with a tension test
attachment is used. The impact tensile strength is taken as measure of forgeability.
2.3.2.1 Forgeable Materials
In general, the selection of a forging material is made on the basis of certain desirable mechanical
properties inherent in the composition and for those which can be developed by forging such as
strength, resistance to fatigue, good machining characteristics, durability etc.
Following is a list indicating the relative forgeability of some alloys in a descending order (i.e.
alloys with better forgeability are mentioned first):
1. Aluminium alloys 7. Austenitic stainless steels
2. Magnesium alloys 8. Nickel alloys
3. Copper alloys 9. Titanium alloys
4. Plain carbon steels 10. Tantalum alloys
5. Low-alloy steels 11. Molybdenum alloys
6. Martensitic stainless steels 12. Tungsten alloys
2.3.3 Forging Temperatures
For forging, the metal work piece is heated to a proper temperature to attain plastic properties
before deformation which is essential for satisfactory forging. Excessive temperature may result
in burning of the metal. Insufficient temperatures will not induce sufficient plasticity in the metal
so that it is difficult to shape by hammering. Like wise finishing temperatures is also important to
possesses a fine grained structure. The temperature ranges for forging some common metals are
given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Forging Temperatures
Metal/Alloy Forging Temperature °C
Starting Finishing
Mild steel 1300 800
Wrought iron 1275 900
Medium carbon steel 1250 750
High carbon steel 1150 825
Copper, brass and bronze 950 600
Aluminium and magnesium alloys 500 350

2.3.4 Hand Forging Tools and Equipment used in Smithy

In order to carryout forging with hand, certain tools are required.
60 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(a) Anvil (see Fig. 2.1)

Hardie hole
Face
Cutting face

Punching hole
Tail
Body
Beak or horn
Base

Fig. 2.1 Anvil

The anvil forms a support for black smith’s work when hammering. It is made of wrought iron or
cast steel. The top surface of the anvil has some square and other round shaped holes. These
holes are used to bend the rods of small diameter and as a die for hot punching operations. The
horn portion of the anvil is used for bending the work pieces.
(b) Swage block (see Fig. 2.2)
A swage block has a number of slots of different shapes and sizes along its four side faces and
through holes of different shapes and sizes. This is used as a support while forming (swaging)
different shapes and in punching holes. It is made of cast iron or cast steel.

Fig. 2.2 Swage block

(c) Hammers (see Fig. 2.3)

Ball peen Cross peen

Straight peen
Set hammer Sledge

Fig. 2.3 Hammers

 Plastic Deformation Processes 61

The hammers are used by a smith in order to give the required shape to the heated metal piece.
Types of hammers:
(i) Ball peen hammer
(ii) Cross peen hammer
(iii) Straight peen hammer
(iv) Sledge hammer
(i) Ball Peen Hammer: This is best suited to practically all-hard forging operations. It is
made of cast steel or forged steel fitted to wooden handle. One end of the head is flat
which is used for striking or hardening purpose. The end opposite to face is half ball
shaped and is known as peen. This peen is used for riveting.
(ii) Cross Peen Hammer: The peen is cross. It is used for bending, stretching and
hammering into the inside portions of a component.
(iii) Straight Peen Hammer: The peen is straight i.e. parallel to the axis of the handle of
the hammer. The straight peen hammer is used for stretching the metal.
(iv) Sledge Hammer: A sledge hammer is heavier than ball peen hammer.
The weight of the hammer varies from 3 to 10 kg and are used where heavy blows
are required on the job.
(d) Tongs (see Fig. 2.4)
Tongs are used by smith for gripping and turning hot metal work pieces during forging. Tongs
have varieties of bit (mouth) shapes in order to accomodate different sized and shaped work
pieces as shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Tongs

(e) Swages (see Fig. 2.5)

Swages are used in pairs (top part and bottom part). These two parts are either separate or
connected by a strip steel handle. These are used to reduce and finish the job to the correct size
62 Manufacturing Science and Technology

and shape. The shape may be round or hexagonal.

During swaging, the hot metal is rotated between
swages, which are hammered to produce smooth round
surface on the work-piece.

( f) Fullers (see Fig. 2.6)

Fullers are a set of tools (top and bottom). The top is
provided with a handle and the bottom fits into the hole
of the anvil. Fullers are used to form grooves. They
spread the metal and reduce the thickness of the work-
piece. These are made in various shapes and sizes
according to the need.
(g) Flatter (see Fig. 2.7)
Flatters are used to give smoothness and accuracy to
the work-pieces, which have been already shaped by
fullers and swages.
(h) Punch: A punch is used for making holes in the
heated work-piece. Fig. 2.5 Swages

Fig. 2.6 Fullers Fig. 2.7 Flatter

(i) Drift: The drift can be used to enlarge a hole to a particular shape and size, which is already
made by a punch.
( j) Forge or Hearth (see Fig. 2.8)
A blacksmithy’s forge is used as a fuel to heat the job. The required air for the fire is supplied
under pressure by means of a blower through the tuyeres in the hearth. The blower may be hand
operated or power driven. Fig. 2.8 illustrates the forge.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 63

Fig. 2.8 Smith’s Forge

2.3.5 Smith Forging Operations

For giving desired shape to the products the following operations are used in a smithy shop by
hand on an anvil.
(a) Upsetting (d) Cutting
(b) Drawing down (e) Punching
(c) Bending (f) Welding
(a) Upsetting (see Fig. 2.9)
Upsetting is the process of
increasing the thickness of a bar
with a corresponding reduction in
length by end pressure. The
pressure is applied at the end of
the bar against the anvil or
clamping in vice and then
hammering. For this, force is
applied in a direction parallel to
the length axis. Fig. 2.9 Upsetting
64 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(b) Drawing Down (see Fig. 2.10)

Drawing down is used to reduce the thickness of the bar to increase its length. For this purpose,
the force is applied in a direction of the length axis.

Fig. 2.10 Drawing Operation

(c) Bending (see Fig. 2.11)

Bending is very common forging operation. This may be angular or curvilinear. It is done on the
edge of the anvil face, over the anvil horn or by inserting the end in the pritchel hole and bending
the bar with tong. Fig. 2.11 shows the stages in bending bar over the horn of an anvil using a
hammer.

Fig. 2.11 Bending Operation

(d) Cutting
Cutting off is a form of chiselling to cut a long piece of stock into several pieces of specified
lengths. For hot chiseling the work piece must be heated in a blacksmith’s furnace. A notch is first
 Plastic Deformation Processes 65

made about one-half the thickness or diameter of the stock. Then the work must be tuned through
an angle of 180° and the chisel is placed exactly opposite the notch and hit the chisel with
hammer to cut the piece.
(e) Punching (see Fig. 2.12)
Punching operation is used for making holes in the work during forging. A punch is forced about
half way through the work by striking it slightly with a hand or sledge hammer. The punch is
removed, the work is turned over and the punch driven into the metal by a sledge hammer and
thus hole is made.

Fig. 2.12 Punching Operation

(f) Welding (see Fig. 2.13)

A forge weld is made by hammering together the ends
of the two bars. In the lap weld, the ends of the pieces
to be joined must be upset and shaped slightly convex,
so that when put together the junction takes place first
at the centre and extends to the edges (see Fig. 2.13).
Wrought iron and mild steel can be satisfactorily forge
Fig. 2.13 Forge—Welding a Lap Joint
welded.
2.3.6 Types of Forging Processes
The process of reducing a metal billet between open dies or in a closed impression dies to obtain
the required shape are called smith forging or impression-die forging respectively. Depending on
the equipment used, they are further sub divided as hand forging, hammer forging, press forging,
drop hammer forging, mechanical press forging, upset or machine forging.
66 Manufacturing Science and Technology

In general the methods of forging, may therefore be classified as follows:

(1) Smith Forging (Open-Die Forging)
(a) Hand forging (c) Hammer forging
(b) Power forging (d) Press forging
(2) Impression-Die Forging
(a) Drop forging (b) Press forging (c) Machine forging or upset forging
2.3.6.1 Smith Forging
It is also called open-die forging. The accuracy of the component produced by this process is less.
(a) Hand Forging: Smith forging is known as hand forging. It is used to produce a small
number of light forgings.
(b) Power Forging: Large components cannot be forged by hand.
Moreover hand forging is lengthy process and requires repeated heating of metal.
Machines which work on forgings by blow are called hammers, while those working
by pressure are called presses.
(c) Hammer Forging: In hammer forging the hammer is lifted upto a certain distance,
and then it is allowed to fall by gravity. Depending upon the lifting mechanism the
hammers may be classified as:
(i) Mechanical hammers
(ii) Pneumatic hammers
(iii) Steam or air hammers.
(i) Mechanical hammers (see Fig. 2.14)
The mechanical hammers are helve hammers, trip hammers and lever spring hammers. Lever
spring hammer has constant lift. The arm is driven from a rocking lever acting on an elastic rod.
The rocking lever consists of a leaf spring. Mechanism is illustrated in Fig. 214.

Fig. 2.14 Mechanical Hammer

 Plastic Deformation Processes 67

(ii) Pneumatic hammers (see Fig. 2.15)

Pneumatic hammer is used for smith forging of small parts. A pneumatic hammer has a built in
compressor to provide a compressed air to ram cylinder. The upper die is connected to the lower
end of the ram. The lower die is supported on the anvil.
When compressed air enters the ram cylinder from the top of the ram (see Fig. 2.15) strikes
the hot metal placed between the dies. To move the ram up, the compressed air enters from the
bottom of the cylinder. Repeated blows are struck until the desired shape is obtained. These are
operated at 70 to 190 blows per minute.

Fig. 2.15 Pneumatic Hammer

(iii) Steam or air hammers (see Fig. 2.16)

A steam hammer operates with the help of steam and air hammer requires compressed air for its
operation. A steam or an air hammer may be (i) single acting (ii) double acting. Steam or air
pressure is usually between 6 to 8 kgf/cm2.
As shown in Fig. 2.16 steam entering from the top exerts pressure on the piston which moves
downwards and upper die applies force on the hot metal to get deformed. The steam then enters
from the bottom of the piston so that the piston moves upward. This cycle is repeated till the
required shape is obtained.
68 Manufacturing Science and Technology

2.3.6.2 Impression-Die Forging

It is used to make more complex shapes of products with greater accuracy. After forging operation,
the product should be trimmed to remove flash.
(a) Drop Forging
The ram is raised to a definite height and then it is allowed to drop or fall freely under its own
weight. The commonly used drop hammers are:
(i) Board hammer or gravity drop hammer
(ii) Air lift hammer
(iii) Power drop hammer

Fig. 2.16 Steam Forging Hammer

 Plastic Deformation Processes 69

(i) Board hammer or gravity drop hammer (see Fig. 2.17)

In these hammers, ram is fastened to a hard board as shown in Fig. 2.17. The board is lifted up
by two counter revolving rolls. When the rolls are released, the ram falls down producing a
working stroke. The height to which the board is lifted determines the striking force of this gravity
hammer.

Fig. 2.17 Board Drop Hammer

(ii) Air lift hammer

These hammers use compressed air to lift the ram which is then allowed to fall by gravity similar
to the board drop hammers.
(iii) Power drop hammer
They use air or steam. They are similar to board drop hammers except that steam or air piston
and rod are substituted for board lifting mechanism. They are the largest of forging hammers and
are made from 450 to 25,000 kgs falling weight hammers.
(b) Press Forging
The press forging is also done in impression dies. In press forging, the metal is shaped not by
means of a series of blows as in drop forging, but by means of continous squeezing action. The
manner in which the metal deformation takes place in press forging substantially differs from that
of hammer forging. Blow of hammer works only in the surface layer of forging and deformation
does not penetrate into the volume of the metal. Squeezing pressure of a press applied to the
forging gradually increases and penetrates deep into the metal. Two types of presses are used:
(i) Hydraulic press (ii) Mechanical press
(i) Hydraulic Press (see Fig. 2.18)
Fig. 2.18 illustrates a hydraulic press. The press is operated by pump which increases the pressure
in the oil or water. This pressure is transmitted to main cylinder to move the piston (ram) downward
70 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 2.18 Hydraulic Press

to squeeze the hot metal between the dies. The lifting cylinders raises the ram up. In a hydraulic
press, pressure can be changed as desired at any point in the stroke by adjusting the pressure
control valve. This will help in controlling the rate of deformation according to the metal being
forged. But in hydraulic press, the contact time between the work piece and the dies is more,
hence the die life is less.
(ii) Mechanical Press (see Fig. 2.19)
Crank type mechanical press is shown in Fig. 2.19 an electric motor drives the flywheel mounted
on the counter shaft by means of a belt drive. Torque from the counter shaft is transmitted to the
crankshaft by gearing. From the crankshaft, the reciprocating motion is given to the ram with the
help of connecting rod. The bottom die is locked in position by means of wedge mechanism. Disk
clutch is used to start and stop motion of ram, which is brought to a gradual stop by means of a
brake. Mechanical press is faster than hydraulic press and operate at about 25 to 100 strokes per
minute.
(c) Machine Forging or Upset Forging (see Fig. 2.20)
Unlike press forging, it operates in horizontal direction. As it involves the upsetting operation, it is
simply called as upset forging. Upset forging was originally developed for heading operations. But
today its scope has been widened to perform a large variety of operations such as punching,
bending, cutting and squeezing etc.
The forging machine consists of a heavy cast steel body in which three main components,
stationay die, moving die and heading punch are properly secured. The sequence of operation of
 Plastic Deformation Processes 71

Fig. 2.19 Crank Type Mechanical Press

machine is explained in Fig 2.20. First the bar stock of one end heated is placed between the
fixed and movable halved of the set of dies up to stop. Next the moving die grips the bar stock
and at the same time, a recess is formed in the closed dies for shaping the projected stock. Stop is
then brought to its initial position. Now the heading punch advances to upset the bar end and
forms the finished forging.
2.3.7 Fibrous Structure of Forgings (see Fig. 2.21)
In forging, the fibrous structure and the grain structure or the flow lines of the metal are not
interrupted, but are made to flow the contour of the forged part. The main objective of good
forging design is to control the lines of metal grain flow, so that a part with greatest strength and
resistance of fracture is produced. In addition, certain mechanical properties like elongation
percentage, resistance to shock and vibration are improved. A typical example is shown in Fig.
2.21, which illustrates fibrous structure. The crankshaft produced by casting Fig. 2.21(a) has no
grain flow and so has mechanical properties. In Fig. 2.21(b), the crankshaft has been made by
machining from a bar stock and the fibre of the metal gets interrupted and for this reason the
mechanical properties of the crankshaft will be poorer than the crankshaft made by forging Fig.
72 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 2.20 Upset Forging, Steps Fig. 2.21 Fibrous Structure

2.21 (c), where the fibre of the metal has not been interrupted and continues along the entire
length of the shaft.
2.3.8 Defects in Forged Parts
Various surface and body defects may be observed in forging. The kind of defect depends upon a
lot off actors such as forging process, poor quality of stock, improper heating, incorrect die design,
uneven cooling of stock after forging etc. The most commonly found forging defects are as
follows:
1. Mismatch: This is due to the misalingnment between the top and bottom forging dies. This
may be caused due to loose wedges. This results in a lateral displacement between the
portions of the forging.
2. Scale Pits: These are shallow surface depressions caused by not removing scale from the
dies. The scale is worked into a surface of the forging. When this scale is cleaned from the
forging, depression remains which is known as scale pits.
3. Cold Shuts or Laps: Cold shuts or laps are short cracks, which usually occur at corners and
at right angles to the surface. They are caused by metal surface folding against itself during
forging. Sharp corners in dies can result in hindered metal flow, which can produce laps.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 73

4. Unfilled Section: This defect is similar to misrun in casting and occurs when metal does
not completely fill the die cavity. It is caused by using insufficient metal or insufficient
heating of the metal.
5. Dents: Dents are the result of careless work.
6. Burnt and over Heated Metal: This defect is due to improper heating conditions and
soaking the metal too long time.
7. Cracks: Cracks occur on the forging surface may be longitudinal or transverse. These are
due to bad quality of ingot, improper heating, and forging at low temperature.
8. Fins and Rags: These are small projections or loose metal driven into forging surface.
9. Dirt, Slag and Sand: These may be present on the surface of the forging due to their
presence in the ingot used for forging.
10. Internal Cracks: Internal cracks in forging can result from too drastic a change in the
shape of the raw stock at too fast a rate.
2.3.9 Advantages of Forging
The various advantages of forging are as follows:
1. Forgings have a high strength and offer resistance to impact and fatigue loads.
2. Forging improves the grain structure of metal and hence its mechanical properties.
3. Close tolerances.
4. Less machining or no machining in some cases.
5. Smooth surface.
2.3.10 Limitations of Forging
1. High tool cost
2. High tool maintenance
3. The rapid oxidation of metal surfaces at high temperature results in scaling which wears
the dies.

2.4 ROLLING

2.4.1 Principle
The process of rolling basically
consists of passing the metal
between two rolls (Fig. 2.22)
rotating in opposite directions at
a uniform peripheral speed. The
space between the rolls is
adjusted to conform to the Fig. 2.22 Principle of Rolling
desired thickness of the rolled section.
74 Manufacturing Science and Technology

2.4.2 Hot and Cold Rolling

In hot rolling (Fig. 2.23(a)) the metal is fed between rolls after being heated above the re-
crystallization temperature. This leads to grain refinement, thereby mechanical properties are
improved. During hot rolling, the work hardening does not occur and coefficient of friction between
the rolls and the metal is higher. Heavy reduction in area of the work piece can be obtained. Hot
rolled parts does not have a good surface finish due to scaling.
In cold rolling (see Fig. 2.23(b)), the metal is fed to the rolls when it is below its recrystallization
temperature. This results in elongation of grain structure. The metal shows work hardening effect
after cold rolling. This increases hardness and decreases the ductility of the metal. Heavy reductions
are not possible. The coefficient of friction between the rolls and the metal is lower. The cold
rolled a surface is smooth and oxide free.

Fig. 2.23 Hot and Cold Rolling

2.4.3 Rolling Mill (Fig. 2.24)

Fig. 2.24 Rolling Mill

 Plastic Deformation Processes 75

A rolling mill consists of one or more roll stands, motor drive, reduction gears, flywheel and
coupling gears between units. The roll stand is the main part of the mill, where the rolling process
is performed. It basically consists of housings in which bearings are fitted, which are used for
mounting the rolls. There is a screwdown mechanism to control the gap between the rolls to get
the required thickness of product.
Depending upon the profile of the rolled product, the body of the roll may be either flat for
rolling sheets (plates or strips) or grooved for making structural members (channel, I-beam, rail).
Rolls are made from high quality steel or sometimes from high grade cast iron. This is to withstand
the very severe service conditions which the rolls are subjected during the rolling process. Cast or
forged steel are used in blooming, slabbing and section mills as well as cold rolling mills. Forged
rolls are stronger and tougher than the cast one. Alloy steel rolls are made of chrome-nickel or
chrome-molybdenum steels are used in sheet mills.
2.4.4 Classification of Rolling Mills
Rolling mills are classified according to the number and arrangement of rolls in a stand. They are
as follows:

(a) Two-high rolling mill

(b) Three-high rolling mill } Generally used for hot rolling of metals

(c) Four-high rolling mill 

(d) Tandem rolling mill  Generally used for cold rolling of metals
(e) Cluster rolling mill 

(a) Two-High Rolling Mill (see Fig. 2.25)

It consist of two heavy horizontal rolls placed one over the other.
The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering
the upper roll. The position of the power roll is fixed. The rolls
rotate in opposite direction. The work can be rolled by feeding
from one direction only. This is called non-reversing mill.
There is another type of two-high mill, which incorporates a
Fig. 2.25 Two-High Rolling Mill
drive mechanism that can reverse the direction of rotation of the
rolls. This is known as two-high reversing mill. In this, the rolled metal is passed backward and
forth through several times. This type is used in blooming and slabbing mills and for rough work.
(b) Three-High Rolling Mill (see Fig. 2.26)
It consist of three horizontal rolls placed one over the other. The upper and lower rolls rotate in
the same direction, whereas the intermediate roll rotates in direction opposite to the outer roll.
First of all the work piece passes through the bottom and the middle rolls and then returning
between the middle and top rolls so that the thickness is reduced at each pass. Mechanically
operated lifting tables are used which move vertically on either side of the roll stand. It may be
used to make plates or sections.
76 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Four-High Rolling Mill (see Fig. 2.27)

It consist of four horizontal rolls, two of smaller diameter and two of large diameter. The bigger
rolls are called back up rolls because they reinforce the smaller rolls to minimize roll deflection
thereby minimizing the tendency of producing plates and sheets thicker at the centre than at the
two outer edges. The two smaller rolls are called work rolls. It is used for both hot and cold
rolling of plates and sheets.

Fig. 2.26 Three-High Rolling Mill Fig. 2.27 Four-High Rolling Mill

(d) Tandem Rolling Mill (see Fig. 2.28)

It is a set of two or three stands of rolls set in parallel alignment so that a continous pass may be
made through each one successively without change of direction of material.

(e) Cluster Rolling Mill (see Fig. 2.29)

It consist of two working rolls of smaller diameter and one or more backup rolls of larger diameter.
The number of backup rolls may go up to 20 or more, depending on the amount of support needed
for the working rolls during the operation. Cold rolling is employed for providing a smooth and
bright surface finish.

Fig. 2.28 Tandem Rolling Mill Fig. 2.29 Cluster Rolling Mill
 Plastic Deformation Processes 77

2.4.5 Production Sequence in Getting Rolled Products (see Fig. 2.30)

Fig. 2.30 Production Sequence in Getting Rolled Products

The ingot is rolled to intermediate shapes-blooms and slabs. These blooms, billets and slabs are
further rolled into plate sheets, bar stock and structural shapes shown in Fig 2.30.
2.4.6 Roll Passes
An ingot or bloom is required to pass many times between the rolls before it is shaped into final
shape. Grooved are made in the rolls according to the shape of the product. The shape formed
when the grooves of mating rolls are matched together is called the pass.
Types of Passes
(i) Roughing passes
(ii) Leader passes
(iii) Finishing passes.
Roughing passes reduce the cross-section of the stock, leader passes also reduce the cross-
section, but along with it, the shape of the rolled part comes nearer to the final shape. Finishing
pass gives the required final shape of the rolled section.
2.4.7 Types of Roughing Passes (see Fig. 2.31)
(a) Box pass series
(b) Diamond square series
(c) Oval square series
(a) Box Pass Series (see Fig. 2.31(a))
Box passes are used for medium and large sections of blooming and billet mills. The coefficient of
elongation in this series varies from 1.1 to 1.25.
(b) Diamond Square Series
The dotted square shows the previous shape of the shape of the stock and over lapping firm line
diamond shows the reduced shape obtained in a particular pass. As shown in Fig. 2.31(b) in the
78 Manufacturing Science and Technology

first pass, the square shaped stock is changed into a diamond shape, then in the next smaller pass,
the diamonds shape of the stock is made to change to a square and in this manner the rolling
process continues. The coefficient of elongation ranges from 1.25 to 1.5.
(c) Oval Square Series (see Fig 2.31(c))
In the first pass of the square stock changed into an oval shape, then in the next smaller pass, the
oval shape of the stock is made to change to a square one by turned over by 90 and vice-versa.
The coefficient of elongation in this series varies from 1.5 to 2.5 and even higher.
Turn 90°

(a) Box pass

Turn 90°

(b) Diamond-square pass

Turn 90° Turn 45°

90°

(c) Oval square pass

Fig. 2.31 Types of Roughing Passes

2.4.8 Rolling of Rounds (see Fig. 2.32)

Figure 2.32 shows a billet is reduced to a round bar in 10 passes. Oval square passes are used for
shaping the bar.
2.4.9 Rolling of Angle Section (see Fig. 2.33)
Figure 2.33 shows the pass sequence for the rolling of angles.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 79

Fig. 2.32 Stages in Rolling a Billet into a Round Rod

Fig. 2.33 Rolling of Angle Section

2.4.10 Range of Rolled Products

The whole range of rolled products can be divided into the following:
(a) Structural Shapes
or Sections: This
includes sections
like round square,
hexa-gonal bars,
channels, H and I
beams and special
sections like rail
sections. Fig. 2.34
shows some of the
rolled structural
shapes.
(b) Plates and Sheers:
Plates and sheets are
produced by rolling. Fig. 2.34 Rolled Products
80 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Special Purpose Rolled Products: These include rings, balls, wheels and ribbed tubes.
2.4.11 Defects in Rolled Products
The various defects in rolled products are as follows:
1. Edge cracking: This defect occurs in plate or slabs because of either limited ductility or
metal or uneven deformation, especially at the edges.
2. Folds: These defects occurs during plate rolling when reduction per pass is very small.
3. Lamination: These are small cracks, which develop when reduction in thickness is quite
high.
4. Alligatoring: This defect takes place in rolling of slabs of
aluminium alloys where the work piece splits along a
horizontal plane on exit as shown in Fig 2.35.
2.4.12 Lubrication in Rolling Process
Lubrication in rolling protects the rolls against wear, reduces
friction and allows smooth flow of metal between rolls. It also
protects the metal surface from scratching and peeling. The
selection of lubricant depends on (i) Material (ii) Roll pressure
(iii) Speed of rolling. The most commonly used lubricants are (i)
Fig. 2.35 Alligatoring
High penetrating and wetting soluble oils (ii) Synthetic soluble
(iii) Oils with excellent polarity.

2.5 EXTRUSION
The process of extrusion consists of forcing a heated billet inside a chamber through a small
opening called die under high pressure. The high pressure is obtained by hydraulic press or
mechanical press. In its cross-section, the extruded metal acquires the contour and dimensions of
the die opening. Extrusion is more widely used in fabricating non-ferrous metals and their alloys.
The extrusion process can be classified as:
1. Hot extrusion process
2. Cold extrusion process.
2.5.1 Hot Extrusion Process

(i) Direct Hot Extrusion (Forward extrusion)

This is the most widely used method. A hot billet is placed in the container and the forced
through the die with the help of pressure by a hydraulic driven ram. The extruded metal comes out
of the die opening. In this process, the flow of metal through the die is in the same direction as the
movement of the ram. The length of the extruded part will depend on the size of the billet and corss-
section of die.
Direct extrusion is shown in Fig. 2.36.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 81

Fig. 2.36 Direct Hot Extrusion

(ii) Indirect Extrusion

For this type of extrusion, the ram used is hollow and the die is mounted over the bore of the
ram. In this process, the billet remains stationary, while the die is pushed into the billet by hollow
ram. The metal flows in the direction opposite to the movement of the ram (Fig. 2.37). Indirect
extrusion does not require as much force as direct extrusion because no force is required to move
the billet inside the chamber.

Fig. 2.37 Indirect Extrusion

(iii) Backward Extrusion

This is another indirect extrusion method used in manufacturing hollow sections as shown in
Fig 2.38. in direct and indirect extrusion methods the ram is of the same diameter as the bore of
the container, where as in backward extrusion the ram is smaller in diameter than the container.
In this process, the metal is extruded through the gap between the ram as the container.
Advantages
(i) It is a very fast process.
(ii) Materials and shapes that are difficult by rolling can easily extruded.
82 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(iii) Close tolerances can be achieved.

(iv) The mechanical properties ofthe products are superior than obtained by rolling process.
(v) Products of complex shapes can be easily extruded.

Fig. 2.38 Backward Extrusion

2.5.2 Cold Extrusion

(i) Forward Cold Extrusion: The forward cold extrusion is similar to that of forward hot
extrusion (direct extrusion).
(ii) Hydrostatic Extrusion: In this extrusion process, the billet is surrounded by a working fluid,
which is pressurized by ram to provide the extrusion force. When the plunger is pressed, it
increases the pressure inside the container and the resulting high pressure forces the billet
to flow through the die, Friction between billet and container is thus eliminated. This makes
it possible to extrude very long billets.

Fig. 2.39 Hydrostatic Extrusion

(iii) Impact Extrusion: The backward cold extrusion is called the impact extrusion. This process
involves striking a cold slug of soft metal (like aluminium) which is held in a shallow die-
cavity with a moving punch. The metal is then extruded through the gap between the punch
and die opposite to the punch movement. The height of the sidewalls is controlled by the
amount of metal in the slug. Various items of daily use such as tubes for shaving cream,
toothpaste and paints are made by impact extrusion.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 83

There are three types of impact extrusion processes:

(a) Reverse impact extrusion
(b) Forward impact extrusion
(c) Combination impact extrusion
(a) Reverse Impact Extrusion
Figure 2.40 indicated the process of reverse impact extrusion. In this process, the metal flows
in reverse direction of the plunger. It is used for making hollow parts with forged bases and
extruded walls. The flowing metal is guided only initially, thereafter if goes by its own inertia.

Fig. 2.40 Reverse Impact Extrusion

(b) Forward Impact Extrusion

The process of forward impact extrusion is shown in Fig. 2.41. It is mainly used for making
hollow or semi hollow products with heavy flanges.
(c) Combination Impact Extrusion
Complex shapes can be produced by a combination of the two preceding procedures, which are
performed simultaneously in the same single stroke as shown in (Fig. 2.42).
Advantages
(i) Complex parts can be produced.
(ii) Very little scrap is there in the process.
(iii) Mechanical properties of extruded parts are improved.
Disadvantages
(i) Tools are expensive.
(ii) Metal blank should be free from internal or external defects.
84 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 2.41 Forward Impact Extrusion

Fig. 2.42 Combination Impact Extrusion

2.5.3 Range of Extrusion Products

Extrusion process is used to manufacture:
(i) Rods
(ii) Tubes
(iii) A variety of circular, square, rectangular, hexagonal and other shapes both in solid or
hollow form.
(iv) Channel. I T and other sections (Fig. 2.43).

2.6 METAL SPINNING

Metal spinning is the operation of shaping thin sheets by pressing against a revolving form. This
process is generally applicable to symmetrical articles, which have circular corss-section.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 85

Fig. 2.43 Range of Extrusion Products

Deformation of the metal during spinning proceeds by a mixture of bending and stretching. The
spinning may be (i) Hot spinning and (ii) Cold spinning.
Principle of Operation (see Fig. 2.44, p. 85)
Figure 2.44 shows spinning operation setup. The form block which has the shape of the desired
object is fixed to the headstock of the spinning machine. The metal disc is held against the form
block with the help of support (tail stock). After clamping, the metal disc is rotated at its operation
speed. The metal disc is progressively formed against the form block by pressing by means of
tool made of wood or metal or roller. Spinning is normally applied only to thin materials such as
sheets of ductile metals/ alloys.
2.6.1 Spinning Lathe (see Fig. 2.45, p. 86)
The spinning lathe consists of :
1. Bed 3. Form
2. Head stock 4. Tail stock

Fig. 2.44 Principle of Operation

86 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 2.45 Spinning Lathe

The bed supports headstock, tail stock and other accessories. The form block is fixed in the lathe
spindle and turns with it. The work piece (metal disc) is bent over the form block to take its shape
by applying pressure by means of to 01. The follower supports the work piece. Steps in spinning
are shown in Fig. 2.46.

Fig. 2.46 Steps in Spinning

2.6.2 Applications
Aluminium and other soft metals are best suited for spinning. This is very suitable for making
aluminium utensils, reflectors. Components
used in chemical plants and stainless steel
dairy utensils are produced by this
process.
The three basic spin shapes are the cone,
the hemisphere and cylinder. Of these the
conical shape is the easiest to produce.
Fig. 2.47 indicates the conical a group of Fig. 2.47 Parts Produced by Spinning
products made by spinning.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 87

2.7 WIRE DRAWING

Wire is made by cold-drawing hot rolled wire rod through one or more dies as shown in Fig. 2.48
to decrease its size and increase the physical properties.
The wire rod is rolled from a single billet and cleaned in an acid to remove scale, rust and
immersed in a lime solution to neutralize the acid.

Fig. 2.48 Wire Drawing Process

Both single draft or continuous drawing processes may be used. In the first method, a coil is
placed on the reel or frame and the end of the rod is pointed so that it will enter the die. The end
is grasped by tongs on a draw bench and pulled out and wound around the reel. After the entire
coil has passed through one die, the process of drawing wire through holes of small size is
repeated until the desired diameter of the wire is obtained. A typical draw bench of this type with
three sets of dies is shown in Fig. 2.49. After the wire has passed through several dies, it becomes
brittle due to strain hardening. It should therefore be annealed.

Fig. 2.49 A Multi Die Draw Bench

88 Manufacturing Science and Technology

In continuous drawing, the wire is fed through several dies and draw blocks, which are
arranged in series. The number of dies depends upon the reduction required and also on the kind
of material being drawn.

2.8 TUBE DRAWING

Tube drawing is also similar to the other drawing processes. There are three basic types of tube
drawing processes as shown in Fig. 2.50.
Figure 2.50(a) indicates the simplest form of tube drawing process. In this process, no internal
mandrel is used hence it is called sinking process. The technique shown in Fig 2.50(b) reduces the
tube diameter and controls its thickness. However, the imitation is length of the tube by length of the
mandrel. To over come this problem, moving mandrel a shown in Fig. 2.50(c) is used. The tubes are
also first pointed and then entered through the die and on the other side of the die, this end is gripped
in tongs, which is connected to the draw bench. There may be more than one pass required to get
the final size. The reduction in one pass is about 40 per cent. The metal is annealed after every pass
in order to remove the effect of strain hardening. Hot drawn tubes are also cold drawn to provide
good surface finish, better dimensional accuracy and improved physical properties.

(a) Simplest type of tube drawing (b) Tube drawing using a fixed plug

(c) Tube drawing using a removable

Fig. 2.50 Tube Drawing Process

2.9 STRETCH FORMING

This process consists of gripping a sheet of metal at each end in suitable jaws and stretching it
over a form block of required contour until complete forming has been achieved. The material is
stretched beyond its elastic limit causing permanent set. A simple design of stretch forming press
is shown in Fig. 2.51. It consists of die or forming punch mounted on a ram placed between two
slides, which grip the metal sheet.
 Plastic Deformation Processes 89

Two types of hydraulic stretch forming presses are in common use. In the first type, the sheet is
gripped by stationary jaws and subsequently stretched by moving the form block (die) vertically
which is actuated by hydraulic system, until forming operation is completed. In the second type, the
form block is fixed and jaws are moved horizontally by hydraulic. In this type, the sheet is pre
stretched free of form block up to the yield point of the material, then wrapped until tension around
the form block and give a final stretch to set the material to the die contour. The stretching of the
blank takes place along the tangent to the die surface and thus friction forces developed between
the material and die surface are reduced. In this process the spring back is completely eliminated.
Side and top panels of car as well as aircraft wing components are manufactured by this process.

Fig. 2.51 Stretch Forming Press

QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between hot working and cold working.
2. Explain the types of forging processes.
3. Explain upset forging process.
4. What are the defects in forges parts?
5. What are the advantages and limitations of forging?
6. Sketch and explain various types of Rolling Mills.
7. Explain the sequence of passes to get a round bar from a billet.
8. Discuss various types of Extrusion processes with neat sketches.
9. Explain Backward Extrusion process, what are its advantages and limitations?
10. Briefly describe the spinning process. What are its applications?
11. Explain wire drawing process.
12. With the help of neat sketch explain the tube drawing process.
13. Explain the stretch forming process.
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 3
1
Welding

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The art of joining metals by heating and then pressing together is a very old process called smith
welding. With the developments and advancements in this field has given rise to a different
processes and techniques for welding of metals. The use of welding in present day technology is
extensive. Many common items that is automobile cars, aircrafts, electronic equipments, ships,
bridges, boilers, household appliances etc. depend upon welding for their economical construction.
Welding
What it is welding may be defined as joining two pieces of metal by application of heat with or
without application of pressure and addition of filler metal. It may be also defined as a metallurgical
bond accomplished by the attracting forces between atoms.

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

The welding processes are classified as follows:
1. Gas Welding
(a) Oxyacetylene Welding (b) Oxyhydrogen Welding
2. Arc Welding
(a) Carbon Arc Welding (b) Metal Arc Welding
(c) Submerged Arc Welding (d) Inert Gas Welding
(e) Plasma Arc Welding (i) TIG (ii) MIG
(f) Electric Slag Welding
3. Resistance Welding
(a) Spot Welding (b) Seam Welding
(c) Projection Welding (d) Butt Welding
92 Manufacturing Science and Technology

4. Solid State Welding

(a) Friction Welding (b) Ultrasonic Welding
(c) Explosive Welding
5. Thermo-Chemical Welding
(a) Thermit Welding (b) Atomic Hydrogen Welding
6. Radiant Energy Welding Process
(a) Electron Beam Welding (b) Laser Beam Welding
3.2.1 Gas Welding
Gas welding is a fusion welding process. It joins metals using the heat of combustion of an
oxygen/air and fuel gas (i.e. acetylene, hydrogen, butane) mixture. The intense heat (flame), thus
produced melts and fuses together the edges of the parts to be welded, generally with the addition
of a filler metal.
(a) Oxy-Acetylene Welding
Oxy-acetylene is used for welding almost all metals and alloys. When acetylene is mixed with
oxygen in correct proportions in the welding torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the
torch is sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal. The flame reaches a temperature of
about 3000°C. A filler metal rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to built up the seam
slightly for greater strength.
Oxygen is produced by either electrolysis or liquification of air. Electrolysis separates water
into hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it. Most commercial oxygen is
made by liquifying air and separating the oxygen from the nitrogen. It is stored in the steel
cylinders. Acetylene gas (C2H2) is obtained from the chemical reaction of water and calcium
carbide.
Ca C 2 + 2H 2O C 2H 2 + Ca (OH) 2
Calcium Water Acetylene Hydrated
Carbide Lime

The reaction provides acetylene gas and hydrated lime as sludge. A special hopper of dropping
the calcium carbide into a tank of water at controlled rate is referred as acetylene generator.
Acetylene cylinders are also readily available.
Equipment for oxy-acetylene welding
Oxy-acetylene welding equipment consists of the following: (see Fig. 3.1)
(i) Oxygen Cylinder: Oxygen is filled in the cylinder at a pressure of 150 kg/cm2. This cylinder
is made of steel and it is in black colour.
(ii) Acetylene Cylinder: Acetylene is dissolved in acetone in a cylinder containing porous calcium
silicate filler. These cylinders are usually filled to a pressure of 16 kg/cm2. The cylinder is
made of steel and it is in maroon colour.
 Welding 93

Fig. 3.1 Equipment for Oxy-Acetylene Welding

(iii) Welding Torch: It is used to mix the gases in the right proportions to control the volume of
gases burned at the welding tip and to direct the flow. It has a handle to carry it and two
inlet connections for gases at one end. Each inlet has a valve to control the volume of
oxygen or other gases. The two gases mix up in a mixer and flame is produced by igniting
the mixture at the tip of the torch.
(iv) Pressure Regulator: It is located on the top of the gas cylinder. Its function is to reduce the
pressure from the cylinder and to maintain it at constant value. The pressure regulator
located on the oxygen cylinder is called oxygen pressure regulator and the other one located
on the top of the acetylene cylinder is called the acetylene pressure regulator.
(v) Hose and Hose Fittings: The hose is a rubber tube which permits the flow of the gas.
Two hoses to carry oxygen and acetylene separately are required. They connect the regulator
mounted on cylinders to the torch. Generally, green colour is adopted for oxygen hose and
red colour for acetylene. The hose should be strong, durable, flexible and light in weight.
(vi) Goggles: Goggles fitted with coloured lenses should be provided to protect the eyes from
harmful heat and ultraviolet and infrared rays.
(vii) Gloves: These are used to protect hands from heat and the metal splashes during welding.
(viii) Spark Lighter: It is used to provide a convenient and instant means for lighting the welding
torch.
(ix) Wire Brush: Its function is to clean the surfaces of joints before and after welding.
Other equipments
Welding Rods: These are used for providing extra metal to the weld. These are also known as
filler rods. The filler rod should have the same composition and properties as that of parent metal.
The filler rods are available in 1, 1.25, 1.6, 2, 2.25, 3, 4.5, 6, 8 and 10 mm diameter. The selection
of filler rod depends on the welding technique and thickness of the base metal. Steel rods are
generally employed when welding ferrous metals. They have a higher carbon content and more
94 Manufacturing Science and Technology

manganese and silicon than the base metal. The last two components act as deoxidising agents
and prevent the inclusions of oxide in the weld. Rods containing chromium and vanadium are used
for welding alloy steels.
Flux: When the metal to be welded is heated by oxy-acetylene flame, the oxygen of the atmosphere
combines with the heated metal and forms metal oxides. These metal oxides have higher melting
point than the parent metal. Therefore, it is essential that these oxides are removed otherwise slag
inclusions will result in poor quality of weld. These oxides can be removed from the weld location
by the use of certain fluxes which react chemically with the oxides of most metals and from
fusible slag and floats at the top of the molten puddle and do not interfere with the deposition of
filler metal. Besides it also protects the molten puddle from atmospheric oxygen. Fluxes are
available in several forms such as dry powder, paste or in the form of coating on the welding rod.
For ferrous metals, borax, sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate are used as suitable fluxes. For
copper and copper alloys, mixture of sodium and potassium borates, carbonates, chlorides and
boric acid are suitable.
3.2.1.1 Types of Flames
The correct adjustment of the flame is important for the production of satisfactory welds. The
flame must be of proper size, shape and condition in order to operate at maximum efficiency. The
three types of oxy-acetylene flames, which are used in engineering works, are as follows
(see Fig. 3.2).
(a) Neutral flame.
(b) Reducing or carburising flame.
(c) Oxidising flame.
Outer blue envelop Inner cone

(a) Neutral Flame

Acetylene Inner
Outer envelop feather cone

(b) Reducing Flame

Outer envelop Inner cone

(c) Oxidising Flame

Fig. 3.2 Types of Flames

 Welding 95

(a) Neutral Flame: A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen
and acetylene are supplied to the torch. The temperature of the neutral flame is in order of
about 3260°C.
The neutral flame consists of sharp brilliant inner cone extending a short distance from the
tip of the torch and an outer cone or envelop. The first one develops heat and second
protects the molten metal from oxidation, because the oxygen in the surrounding atmosphere
is consumed by gases from flame.
The neutral flame is commonly used for welding most of the metals such as mild steel,
stainless steel, cast iron, copper, aluminium etc.
(b) Reducing or Carburising Flame: If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is
reduced, the resulting flame will be reducing flame. The temperature of the reducing flame
is of the order of 3038°C.
This flame has three zones (i) Inner cone (ii) An intermediate of whitish colour (iii) The
bluish outer cone. The outer flame envelop is longer than the other two flames.
Being rich in carbon, this flame is suitable for welding steel. It is also used for surface
hardening.
(c) Oxidising Flame: If the volume of oxygen to the neutral flame is increased, the result will
be oxidising flame. The temperature of the oxidising flame is of the order of 13000°C. It is
hotter than neutral flame.
The oxidising flame consists of 1 smaller inner cone which is more pointed than the neutral
flame. The outer envelop is shorter. Oxidising flame is used in welding brass, copper base
metals, zinc base metals and few ferrous metals such as manganese, steels and cast irons.
3.2.1.2 Types of Welded Joints (see Fig. 3.3 on p. 96)
Five basic types of joints are used in fusion welding. These are: (a) Butt joint (b) Lap joint
(c) T-Joint (d) Corner joint (e) Edge joint. These joints are shown in Fig. 3.3.
(a) Butt Joint: Figure 3.3 (a); shows the butt-joint which is used to joint the ends of two plates
or surfaces located approximately in the same plane.
(b) Lap Joint: Figure 3.3 (b); shows the lap-joint which is used to join two overlapping plates
so that the edge of each plate is welded to the surface of the other.
(c) T-Joint: Figure 3.3 (c); shows the T-joint which is used to weld two plates or sections
whose surfaces are at right angels to each other.
(d) Corner Joint: Figure 3.3 (d); shows the corner-joint which is used to join the edges of two
sheets or plates whose surfaces are at 90° to each other.
(e) Edge Joint: Figure 3.3 (e); shows the edge joint which is used in sheet metal work.
3.2.1.3 Edge Preparation (Fig. 3.4, see p. 96)
To obtain sound welds, good edge preparation is essential. Different edge preparation for butt
welds are: (a) square (b) single V (c) double V (d) single U (e) double U as shown in Fig. 3.4.
96 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 3.3 Types of Welded Joints

Fig. 3.4 Edge Preparation for Butt Welding

(a) Square Butt Weld: Square butt weld is used in welding the plates ranging from 3 mm to 5
mm. Before welding the edges are spaced about 3 mm.
 Welding 97

(b) Single V: Single V edge preparation is used for plates of 8 mm and up to 16 mm thick.
(c) Double V: Double V is used for plates of over 16 mm thick.
(d) Single U and Double U: These are used for plates of over 20 mm thick.
3.2.1.4 Gas Welding Techniques
The selection of a proper technique will depend upon the metal to be welded, its thickness and the
properties of the weld. The following methods are commonly used:
(i) Position of Welding: (a) Down hand welds (b) Vertical welds (c) Inclined welds (d) Horizontal
welds (e) Over hand welds.
(ii) Direction of Travel Welding Rod and Welding Torch: (a) Leftwards or Forwards welding
(b) Rightwards or backwards welding (c) Vertical welding.
(i) Position of welding (Fig. 3.5)
(a) Down Hand Welds (flat): These welds are deposited in any direction on a horizontal surface
so that the flame is above the face of the weld (see Fig 3.5(a)).
(b) Vertical Welds: These welds are deposited on a vertical surface in a vertical direction as
shown in Fig. 3.5(b).
(c) Inclined Welds: These welds are deposited on an inclined surface as shown in Fig. 3.5(c).
(d) Horizontal Welds: These welds are deposited on vertical surface in a horizontal direction
as shown in Fig. 3.5(d).
(e) Overhead Welds: These welds are deposited on a horizontal surface in any direction so
that the face of welds is above the flame as shown in Fig.3.5(e).

Fig.3.5 Position of Welding

98 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(ii) Direction of travel welding rod and welding torch (Fig. 3.6)
(a) Leftwards (or) Forward Welding: The welder holds torch in the right hand and filler rod in
the left hand. The weld is made working from right to left as shown in Fig. 3.6(a). Since,
the flame is pointed in the direction of the welding, it preheat the edges of the joint. This
method is suitable for mild steel, cast iron, aluminium, brass etc.
(b) Rightwards (or) Backward Welding: It is carried out from left to right as shown in Fig
3.6(b). Thicker materials can be welded by this method.
(c) Vertical Welding: It starts at the bottom of the weld joint and gives an oscillating movement
to the welding torch which points slightly upwards. (see Fig. 3.6(c).

Fig. 3.6 Direction of Welding

 Welding 99

3.2.1.5 Advantages of Oxy-Acetylene Welding

1. The equipment is comparatively in expensive.
2. Low maintenance cost.
3. The oxy-acetylene flame is generally more easily controlled and not as piercing as metallic
arc welding. Therefore, it is used extensively for sheet metal fabrication and repair works.
4. The equipment is versatile. Besides gas welding, the equipment is used for preheating,
brazing, metal cutting etc.
5. With proper technique, practically, all metals can be welded.
6. Since the source of heat and filler metal are separate, the welder has controlled over the
filler material deposition rates.
3.2.1.6 Disadvantages of Oxy-Acetylene Welding
1. It takes considerable longer for the metal to heat up than in arc welding.
2. Prolonged heating of the joint in gas welding results in larger heat affected area. This often
results in increased growth, more distortion.
3. These are safety problems involved in handling and storing of gases.
4. Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc.
5. Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.
6. Flux shielding in gas welding is not so effective as an inert gas shielding in TIG or MIG
welding.
3.2.1.7 Applications of Gas Welding
1. For joining thin materials.
2. For joining most ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
3. In automatic and aircraft industries and sheet metal fabrications.
3.2.1.7(a) Oxy-Hydrogen Welding
Oxy-hydrogen welding is used for aluminium, magnesium, lead etc. In this process hydrogen is
used in place of acetylene and the flame temperature is very low 2000°C. An advantage of this
process is that no oxides are formed on the surface of the weld.
3.2.1.8 Oxy-Acetylene Cutting (Fig. 3.7)
It is a chemical process in the sense that the metal, at the portion where it is to be cut is actually
made to oxidise under the action of flame with the following reaction.
3Fe + 2O2 Fe3O4 + 26,691 cal
Iron Oxygen Black Iron Oxide Heat
All ferrous metals can be cut by means of oxy-acetylene flame cutting. The oxy-acetylene
flame cutting process makes use of a cutting torch. The torch mixes the acetylene and oxygen in
the correct proportions to produce preheating flame and also the torch supplies a uniformly,
concentrated stream of high purity oxygen to the reaction zone. The tip has a central hole for
pure oxygen jet with surrounding holes for preheating flames as shown in Fig. 3.7.
100 Manufacturing Science and Technology

To produce a cut, the steel is heated to ignition temperature (900°C) i.e., reddish yellow colour
by preheating flame, keeping the torch 3 mm above the surface of material to be cut. A jet of pure
oxygen is directed at this heated area. This forms the iron oxide there and the same melted immediately
(burning the steel in its path). It is then blown off by the oxygen jet, thus providing a narrow slit
along the cutting line.
Oxygen cutting can be accomplished manually or by machine (automatic)
Oxygen cutting machines are further divided in two classes:

Fig. 3.7 Oxy-Acetylene Cutting Torch

1. Portable machine
2. Stationary machine
On a portable machine, the carriage supports the torch. It is usually run by an electric motor
on a straight track. The speed of the motor is adjustable to the size of the metal being cut.
The stationary type of cutting machines are designed on two different mechanical principles
for controlling the cutting torch. One is the pantograph design and the other uses a cross-carriage
mechanism.
3.2.2 Arc Welding (Fig. 3.8)
In arc welding process, the welding temperature is produced by an electric arc, established between
an electrode and the metal being welded. The temperature of the arc is 7000°C. The arc welding
set up is shown in Fig. 3.8.
 Welding 101

Welding electrode

Electrode holder

Power source
Arc

Work piece

Fig. 3.8 Arc Welding Set up

3.2.2.1 Arc Welding Equipments

The equipments required for arc welding consists of:
(a) Arc welding power source (f) Chipping hammer
(b) Electrode (g) Helmet
(c) Electrode holder (h) Safety goggles
(d) Cables, cable connectors (i) Apron
(e) Earthing clamps (j) Hand gloves
(a) Arc Welding Power Source: The power source required to maintain the arc between the
electrode and base metal is available in (i) DC generator (ii) AC transformer with DC
rectifier (iii) AC transformer.
(i) DC Generator: DC generator is run either by an electric motor or a diesel engine. These
generator supplies voltage in the range of 15 to 50 volts and output current 200 to 600 Amps.
These produce DC in either straight or reverse polarity. The heat generated is split into two
parts in the ratio of 66 per cent at positive pole and 33 per cent at negative pole. For welding
thin materials, the work is made negative and the electrode positive. This is called reverse
polarity. For welding heavy sections the electrode is made negative and the work to be
positive, this is called straight polarity. It can be used for welding ferrous and non-ferrous
metals. The disadvantage of the generator is the high investment and maintenance cost. Its
operation is noisy.
(ii) AC Transformer: AC transformer changes high voltage, low amperage to low voltage,
high amperage. The main advantage of transformer over generator is low cost and ease of
operation. Since there are no moving parts in the equipment, the operation is noiseless. The
disadvantage of the transformer is that the polarity cannot be changed.
(b) Electrodes for Arc Welding: Electrodes for arc welding may be broadly classified as:
1. Non-consumable electrodes
2. Consumable electrodes
102 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Non-consumable electrodes are usually made of carbon, graphite or tungsten. These electrodes
do not get consumed during the arc welding. These are used in carbon arc welding. TIG welding,
atomic hydrogen welding.
Consumable electrodes get consumed during the welding. These are made of various metals
depending upon the purpose and chemical composition of parent metals being welded. These
electrodes are further classified into (1) bare electrodes (2) coated electrodes.
Bare electrodes are used in submerged arc welding and Metal Inert Gas(MIG) welding.
Coated electrodes are again subdivided into (1) Light coated electrodes (2) Heavy coated
electrodes.
Light coated electrodes are used for welding non-essential jobs. The primary purpose of light
coated is to increase arc stability. These produce poor mechanical properties welds due to the
lack of protection of the weld.
Heavy coated electrodes are used to produce high quality welds. Functions of Coated
Electrode: The coating on electrodes perform the following functions:
1. Protects the weld from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen by producing a shield of gas
around the arc and weld pool.
2. Stabilize the arc.
3. Provide the slag so as to protect the weld from rapid cooling.
4. Remove oxides and impurities.
5. Add alloying elements to the weld metal.
6. Increase deposition efficiency.
3.2.2.2 Types of Arc Welding
(a) Carbon arc welding
(b) Metal arc welding
(c) Submerged arc welding
(d) Inert gas welding
(i) TIG welding (ii) MIG welding
(e) Plasma arc welding
(f) Electro slag welding
(a) Carbon Arc Welding
In carbon arc welding process the arc is obtained between the carbon electrode and the work
piece or between two carbon electrodes. This welding is suitably used in welding of steel sheets,
copper alloys and brass etc.
(b) Metal Arc Welding
Figure 3.9 shows the metal arc welding. This is also called shield Metal Arc Welding (SMAW).
Heat required for the welding is obtained from the arc struck between the coated electrode and
the work-piece The material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the work piece through
the arc and deposited along the joint to be welded. The coating produces a gaseous shield and
slag to protect from atmosphere.
 Welding 103

Fig. 3.9 Metal Arc Welding

Advantages
(i) It is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
(ii) The equipment is portable and less cost.
(iii) Wide range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
Disadvantage
(i) Mechanization is difficult due to limited length of the electrode.
Applications
(i) All commonly used metals and their alloys can be welded.
(ii) This process finds applications in ship building, aircraft industries, automobile industries
etc.
(c) Submerged Arc Welding
This process is so named because of metal arc is shielded by a blanket of flux as shown in Fig.
3.10. In this process instead of flux covered electrode, granular flux and a bare electrode is used.
Flux is deposited continuously in front of the electrode and the flame feeder and the electrode
feeder together move as the welding proceeds. The flux is sufficient depth to submerge completely
the arc column so that there is no smoke or splatter and the weld is shielded from the effect of all
atmospheric gases. As a result of this unique protection, the weld are exceptionally smooth.
The arc is started either by striking the electrode beneath the flux on the work or by placing
the steel wool between the electrode and the work piece before switching on the welding current.
The intense heat of the arc immediately, produces a pool of molten metal in the joint and at the
same time the flux adjacent to the arc column melts and floats on top of the molten metal. This
forms a blanket that eliminates spatter losses and protects the welded joint from oxidation. The
current density is 300 to 400 amps which is 5 to 6 times than that of metal arc welding. Submerged
arc welding is done manually or automatic and semi-automatic. The manual and the automatic
submerged arc welding process are most suited to the flat welding position, or slightly vertical,
down hill welding position. Backing strip of steel, copper or some refractory material is used
under the joint to avoid loosing some of the molten metal.
104 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 3.10 Submerged Arc Welding

This process is used to weld low alloy, high tensile steels as well as mild steel, low carbon steels.
Advantages
(i) Deep penetration is obtained due to the high current, density which is 5 to 6 times than
that of metal arc welding.
(ii) Welding is fast due to high melting rate of electrodes.
(iii) Minimum distortion due to high speed.
(iv) Quality of the weld is excellent and uniform.
Applications
The submerged arc welding process has many industrial applications. It is used for fabricating
pipe, boiler vessels, structural shapes and practically any job where straight line welding is required.
(d) Inert Gas Welding
In conventional arc welding, the fluxes are used to shield the atmosphere around the molten
metal. In inert gas welding, inert gases such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide are used for surrounding
the electric arc and thus keeping the atmospheric air and other contaminations away from the
molten metal pool. Two methods are employed.
(i) Tungsten-inert Gas (TIG) welding
(ii) Metal-inert gas (MIG) welding
(i) Tungsten-Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
A tungsten inert gas welding equipment is shown in Fig. 3.11. This process is also known as gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW). It uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode mounted at the
centre of the torch. The inert gas is supplied to the welding zone through the angular path surrounding
the tungsten electrode. Welding operation is done by striking the arc between the work piece and
tungsten electrode in the atmosphere of inert gas.
 Welding 105

Advantages
(i) No flux is required.
(ii) TIG welds are stronger, more ductile and more corrosion resistance than welds made
with ordinary shield arc welding.
(iii) Welding is easily done in all the position.
Disadvantages
(i) Equipment is costier.
(ii) Separate filler rod is needed.
(iii) Decrease in welding speed.
Applications
(i) It is used for fusion welding of aluminium, magnesium alloyes, stainless steel, low alloy
steel high alloy steel, brass, bronze, silver, molybdenum and a wide range of other metals.
(ii) It can also be used to weld many dissimilar metals.
(iii) The TIG process can be used to braze and to supply the heat source for braze welding.
(iv) It can also be used as heat source for the hard surfacing of the metals.

Fig. 3.11
106 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(ii) Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding (see Fig. 3.12)

MIG welding stands for Metal Inert Gas Welding. In this process, the tungsten electrode is replaced
with a consumable electrode. The electrode is continuously fed to the arc at the rate at which it is
consumed and transferred to the base metal. Arc is shielded by an inert gas, which flows from
the holder nozzle through which the electrode also passes. It is similar to submerged arc welding
in feeding the bare electrode from a reel. It differs in the fact that the shielding is done by an inert
gas and the arc is visible during the welding process.

Wire reel

Gas
Welding supply
power
source

(a) Mig Welding Set up

Consumable electrode

Power
source

(b) Simple Representation

Fig. 3.12

Advantages
(i) No flux is required
(ii) High quality welds are produced
 Welding 107

(iii) Less operator skill is required

(iv) High welding speed
(v) It is suitable for ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Disadvantages
(i) Welding equipment is more complex and costly
(ii) It is difficult to weld in small corners.
Applications
(i) It can be done on most of the commercial metals.
(ii) It is used for welding carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels nickel and its alloys,
copper alloys.
(iii) MIG welding is used in aircraft and automobile industries.
(e) Plasma Arc Welding
It is an electric arc welding process which employs a high temperature constricted arc or plasma
jet to obtain the melting and join of metals. In this process a gas (argon or hydrogen) is passed
through an electric arc, where it gets ionised. This process uses two inert gases, one forms the
plasma and second shield the arc plasma. Plasma arc welding can be divided into two basic types:

Fig. 3.13

(i) Transferred arc process

(ii) Non-transferred arc process
(i) Transferred Arc Process (Fig. 3.13(a)): The arc is formed between the electrode (–) and
work piece (+). In other words, the arc is transferred from electrode to the work-piece.
This possesses high energy density. For this reason, it is used to cut and melt the metals.
108 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(ii) Non-transferred Arc Process (Fig. 3.13(b)): The arc is formed between the electrode (–)
and water cooled constructing nozzle (+). Plasma arc comes out of the nozzle as a flame.
This arc is independent of the work-piece and the work does not form a part of electric
circuit. This arc is used only for welding.
( f ) Electro Slag Welding

Fig 3.14 Electro Slag Welding

The Fig. 3.14 illustrates the principle of electro slag welding. The pieces to be welded are positioned
vertically with necessary gap between them. Two copper shoes (water cooled) slides on either
side of the gap form a well in which flux is deposited. An electric arc is struck between the
electrode and the joint bottom with the help of a piece of steel wool. The arc melts the electrode
and flux and forms the molten slag. When enough slag accumulate, the arc action stops and
further requirement heat is provided by the resistance offered by the slag to the current flowing
through it. The molten metal temperature is 2000°C. This heat is sufficient to fuse the edges of
the work pieces and the welding electrode. The heated metal collects in the pool beneath the slag
slowly solidifies thereby forming the weld bead joining the two work pieces.
Advantages
(i) Thicker plates can be welded in a single pass and economically.
(ii) High welding speed
(iii) Minimum joint preparation
(iv) Little distortion
(v) The weld metal is totally out of contact with atmosphere and hence the best quality of
weld.
 Welding 109

Applications
It is used particularly for welding thick (30 mm over) plates and structures for turbine shafts,
boiler parts and heavy presses.
3.2.3 Resistance Welding
In resistance welding, a heavy electric arc current is passed through the metal pieces to be joint
over a limited area, causing them to be locally heated to plastic state and the weld is completed by
the application of pressure. In this process two copper electrodes are used. The metal pieces to be
welded are pressed between electrodes and current is passed through the electrodes. A transformer
in the welding machine reduces the voltage from either 120 or 240 volts to 4 to 12 volts and raises
the amperage sufficiently to produce a good heat.
The amount of heat (H) generated is given by the following relation:
H = KIRT
Where, H = The heat generated in the work in Joules
I = Electric current in amperes
R = Resistance of the joint in ohms
T = Time of current flow in seconds
K = A constant to account for the heat loss from
the welded joint.
For good resistance welding the following factors are properly controlled.
(i) Welding Current: Enough current is required to bring the work pieces to plastic state for
welding. It is properly adjusted on the current control device on the machine.
(ii) Welding Pressure: Mechanical pressure is required to hold the work-pieces and squeeze
the pieces to form the weld during plastic state.
(iii) Cycle Time: It is the combination of weld time and hold time. The duration of current
flowing through the work pieces to raise the temperature is called welding time. After this
the current is switched off while the pressure is still acting. The pressure is applied till the
weld cools and regain sufficient strength. This period is known as hold time.
Types of resistance welding:
(a) Spot welding (c) Projection welding
(b) Seam welding (d) Butt welding
(a) Spot Welding
It is the simplest and most commonly used method of overlap welding of strips, sheets or plates of
metal at small areas.
In this method, sheets of a metal to be welded are held between copper electrode (water
cooled) by applying pressure through foot pedal lever. A current of low voltage and sufficient
amperage is passed between electrode causing the parts to be brought to welding temperature.
The metal under electrodes pressure is squeezed and welded. After this, the current is turned off
110 Manufacturing Science and Technology

while the pressure is still acting. The pressure is applied till the weld cools and produce a solid
bond. Now, the pressure is released and the work is removed from the machine (see Fig. 3.15)

Fig. 3.15 Spot Welding Machine

Advantages
(i) No edge preparation is needed
(ii) Low cost
(iii) High speed of welding
Applications
(i) This technique is used mostly in thin sheetwork like making sheet metal boxes, containers
such as receptacles.
(ii) Thicker metals up to 12.5 mm have been successfully spot welded.
(iii) It finds application in automobile and aircraft industries.
(b) Seam Welding
Seam welding is similar to spot welding, except that the electrodes in spot welding are replaced by
copper rollers or wheels. The work pieces to be welded are passed between the rollers as shown in
Fig. 3.16. A current impulse is applied through the rollers to the material in contact with them. The
heat generated makes the metal plastic and the pressure from the rollers completes the weld.
In seam welding, there are two types of welds are obtained:
(i) Stitch welding
(ii) Roll welding
(i) Stitch Welding: Stitch weld is made by the current on the rollers off and on quickly enough,
so that continuous fusion zone made of overlapping nugget is obtained (Fig. 3.17(a)).
(ii) Roll Welding: It is obtained by constant and regular timed interruptions of welding current,
which causes individual nuggets to be formed.
Seam welding is used on many types of pressure tight or leakproof tanks for various purposes,
exhaust systems, barrels etc.
 Welding 111

Fig. 3.16 Seam Welding

Fig. 3.17 Types of Seam Welding

(c) Projection Welding (Fig. 3.18)

Fig. 3.18 Projection Welding

112 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Projection welding is another variation of spot welding. Small projections are raised on one side of
the sheet or plate where it is to be welded to another. The projections serve to concentrate
(localize) the welding heat at these areas and facilitate fusion without the necessity of employing
a large current. During the welding process, the heated and softened projections collapses under
the pressure of the electrodes thereby forming the weld. The working principle of projection
welding is shown in Fig. 3.18.
Advantages
(i) This method of welding gives longer electrode life.
(ii) Outer or top surfaces can be produced with no electrode marks.
Disadvantages
(i) All projections should be seated in one blow.
(ii) A prior operation is necessary to form the projection.
Applications
A common use of projection welding is attaching small fasteners, nuts, special blots, studs and
similar parts to large components.
(d) Butt Welding
Butt welding is used to join the pieces end to end. This process is best suited to rods, pipes and
many other parts of uniform cross section. Butt welding can be as follows:
(i) Upset welding (ii) Flash welding
(i) Upset Welding

Fig. 3.19 Upset Butt Welding

In upset welding, the parts are clamped and brought in solid contact and current is applied so that
the heat is generated through the contact area of the parts as illustrated in Fig. 3.19. At this point,
the two parts are pressed together firmly. This action of pressing together is called upsetting. It is
used on non-ferrous materials for welding bars, rods, tube formed parts etc.
(ii) Flash Welding
Flash welding is similar to upset welding except that the heat is obtained by means of an arc than
the simple resistance heating. The two parts are brought together and the power supply is switched
on. As the parts are moved closer, flashing or arcing raises the temperature of the parts to a
welding temperature. Now power is switched off and the parts are forced together to form a
weld (see Fig. 3.20).
 Welding 113

Fig. 3.20 Flash Butt Welding

3.2.4. Solid State Welding

The various solid state welding processes are as follows:
(a) Friction welding (c) Explosive welding
(b) Ultrasonic welding
(a) Friction Welding
This is solid state welding process in which joining is made by conversion of frictional energy into
heat and simultaneous application of axial force.
Figure 3.21 shows the sequence of friction welding process. The two parts are held axially
aligned. One part is rotated at a predetermined speed while the other remains stationary.
The non-rotating part is gradually advanced towards the rotating part till contact is made.
Axial pressure applied during rotation generates sufficient heat to facilitate fusion. When sufficient
heat is produced, the rotation is stopped and the pressure may be increased until the parts are
welded. Weld time is between 2 to 30 seconds.
Surface preparation for welding is not necessary in this process. Friction welding is mostly
used for butt welding of rods and tubes.
Applications
In aerospace, Automobile industries.

Fig. 3.21 Sequence of Friction Welding

114 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(b) Ultrasonic Welding

Fig. 3.22 Ultrasonic Welding

In ultrasonic welding, the weld joint is obtained by applying pressure and high frequency vibration
motions (20kHz). Pieces to be welded are placed between sonotrode tip and anvil as shown in
Fig. 3.22. The combined clamping pressure and vibratory forces introduce dynamic interfacial
stresses between the pieces to be joined, then local deformation occurs at the interface. Due to
pressure the work piece gets welded.
Advantages
(i) Very thin section can be welded
(ii) Surface preparations are not required
(iii) Dissimilar metals can be welded
(iv) Minimum surface deformation
Limitations
(i) It is not possible to weld heavy gauge metals.
(ii) It is not economical as compared to other processes.
(iii) The work pieces to be welded tend to get welded to the sonotrode or anvil.
(c) Explosive Welding
In this process, the weld joint is made with high relative velocity at a high pressure using high
explosives. As the plate moves at high velocity and meets the other plate with massive impact,
high stress waves created between the plates, which clears all the oxides and scales present in
the interface and make a clean joint. Explosive welding eliminates the problems, associated with
 Welding 115

fusion welding methods such as the heat affected zone etc. Generally low detonation velocity
explosives are used in explosive welding. The detonation velocity depends on the thickness of the
plate being welded.
Figure 3.23 illustrates the two common setups used in explosive welding.
It contains four basic components.
1. Target plate 3. Buffer plate
2. Flyer plate 4. Explosive and a detonator
The target plate is fixed in an anvil of large mass. When the explosive is detonated. It thrusts
the flyer plate towards the target plate. To protect the flyer plate from surface damage due to
impact, a thin layer of rubber or PVC sheet is placed between the flyer plate and the explosive.
The explosive may be in sheet form or granular form which is spread uniformly over the buffer
plate. Welding is completed in microseconds.
Detonator Explosive

Buffer plate
Flyer plate

Target plate

Anvil

(a) Parallel Stand Off

Explosive
Buffer plate

Flyer plate

Target plate

Anvil

(b) Angular Stand Off

Fig. 3.23 Explosive Welding

Applications
It is used in lap joints. Aluminium and copper can be welded to stainless steel, aluminium to nickle
alloys, tungsten to steel, stainless steel to nickel. Cladding of plates is one of the major commercial
applications.
116 Manufacturing Science and Technology

3.2.5 Thermo Chemical Welding

The various thermochemical welding process are:
(a) Thermit welding
(b) Atomic hydrogen welding
(a) Thermit Welding
This process is basically a fusion welding process in which welding is effected by pouring super
heated steel arounds the parts to be welded. In this process, neither arc is produced to the parts
nor flame is used. In this an exothermic chemical reaction is utilized for developing high temperature.
A mixture of finely divided aluminium and iron oxide called ‘Thermit mixture’ is kept in a
crucible hanging over the mould. The thermit mixture is ignited using a magnesium ribbon or
highly inflammable powder having barium peroxide. The reaction takes about 30 seconds only and
heat is liberated which is twice the temperature of melting point of steel. The following reaction
takes place as per equation:
8Al + 3F3O4 4A l2O3 + 9Fe + heat
The resultant is super heated molten iron. The molten iron is made to flow into the mould and
fuse with the parts to be jointed.
The Fig. 3.24 shows the method of preparing the mould. The two pieces to be joined are
cleaned and a gap is left between them. Then wax is poured on the joint and a wax pattern is
formed. Moulding sand is rammed around the wax pattern and pouring, heating and risering gates
are cut. A gas flame is used melt the wax pattern and at the same time it preheats the parts to be
welded. Then the preheating gate is plugged with sand.

Fig. 3.24 Thermit Welding

Advantages
(i) The welds are sound and free internal residual stresses.
(ii) Broken parts can be welded on the site itself
 Welding 117

(iii) The heat necessary for welding is obtained from a chemical reaction and thus no costly
power-supply is required.
Limitations
Thermit welding is applicable only to ferrous metal parts of heavy sections.
Applications
It is applicable in the repair of heavy parts such as rail tracks, spokes of driving wheels, broken
motor castings, connecting rod etc.
(b) Atomic Hydrogen Welding
In this process arc is maintained between two electrodes (non-consumable) and hydrogen is introduced
into the arc. As hydrogen enters the arc, its molecules are broken up into atoms and again combine into
molecules outside the arc. Due to this reaction heat is generated which is sufficient to join the work
pieces. The hydrogen also serve as a shielding gas to the molten metal. Filler rod may be added during
welding.
3.2.6 Radiant Energy Welding Processes
The various processes are:
(a) Electron beam welding
(b) Laser beam welding
(c) High frequency induction welding
(a) Electron Beam Welding
In electron beam welding, the heat required for the welding is obtained by bombarding high
velocity electron beam on to the work pieces to be joined.
In this process, the electrons emitted from the cathode of electron gun accelerated towards
anode and aligned by means of focus lenses and finally strikes the work piece. When the beam
strikes the work piece, the kinetic energy of high velocity electrons is converted into heat. This
heat is sufficient to melt and fuse the metal. It is carried in vacuum. (see Fig.: 3.25)
Advantages
(i) The heat effect zone is extremely narrow
(ii) No filler material is required
(iii) High penetration
(iv) Welding is not contaminated
Limitations
Costly equipment.
Applications
This welding is used in automobile, aeroplane industries.
118 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 3.25 Electron Beam Welding

(b) Laser Beam Welding: (See Fig. 3.26)

Ruby
crystal Electrical input
(Flash tube

Fig. 3.26 Laser Beam Welding

 Welding 119

The term laser stands for light amplified by stimulated emission of radiation. The laser beam
is highly directional, strong, monochromatic and coherent.
The ruby crystal is illuminated by the flash tube where the chromium atoms are driven to an
exited state. The photons are reflected repeatedly from one mirror to the other mirror at the two
ends of the ruby crystal increasing the exitation of chromium atoms still further, to form a narrow
beam of red light which leaves crystal through small hole in the mirror at one end of the crystal.
By suitable focussing, the control of melting for welding can be done.
Advantages
(i) Heat affected zone is very less
(ii) Deeper penetration
(iii) No vacuum is required as in electron beam welding.
Disadvantages
(i) Low welding speed
(ii) Limited to the thickness of 1.5 mm.
Applications
(i) Dissimilar metals can be welded
(ii) It can be used for cutting as well as welding
(iii) Welds with high precision can be made.
(c) High Frequency Induction Welding (See Fig. 3.27)
Weld
seam
t
curren
Induction Vee
coil

Tube
travel Pressure
roll

Fig. 3.27 HFIW Process

The high frequency current is introduced into the work piece at the surface to be welded. Due to
the skin effect, at such high frequency the current does not flow through entire thickness of the
strip, but tends to concentrate at the surface of the work piece. At the area between the squeezing
rolls the work piece material is at plastic temperature. The rollers apply pressure to the joint and
thus weld is made.
120 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Advantages
(i) It is used to make tubing from coated materials.
(ii) It eliminates surface marking by electrical contacts.
Disadvantage
(i) Not suitable for high conductive materials.

3.3 SOLDERING AND BRAZING

These are used for joining similar or dissimilar metals by a non-ferrous filler metal having a
melting point below that of a base metal. The filler is distributed by the capillary action.
3.3.1 Soldering
It is a method of joining two pieces of metal by means of a fusible alloy called solder, applied in
the molten stage. The melting point of the filler metal is below 420°C. The solder is usually an
alloy of Lead and Tin, Lead and Silver. A suitable flux is used in soldering to prevent oxidation of
the joint. Fluxes are available in the form of powder, past or liquid.
Soldering is done in the following ways:
(i) Hand soldering: The soldering iron is heated by keeping in a furnace or by means of
electrically. The joint is heated by soldering iron and solder is applied which melts and flows
around the joint by capillary action.
(ii) Dip soldering: In dip soldering, the parts to be soldered are first cleaned and dipped in flux
bath and finally dipped in the molten solder bath and lifted after the soldering is completed.
(iii) Wave soldering: In this method, parts are not dipped into the solder tank, but a wave is
generated in the tank so that the solder comes up and makes necessary joint. This is used in
electronic printed circuit board, PCB.
3.3.2 Brazing
It is a process of joining two pieces of metals in which a non-ferrous filler metal or alloy is
introduced between the pieces to be joined. The melting point of the filler metal is above 420°C,
but lower than the melting temperature of parent metal. The filler metal is distributed between
surfaces by capillary action. The copper base alloys and silver base alloys are commonly used as
filler metal in brazing. A suitable flux such as borax is used.
Brazing Methods
The selection of brazing method is based on the size and shape of the components to be joined,
the base metal and the production rate.
(a) Torch Brazing: Torch brazing is the most versatile method. It is similar to oxy-acetylene
welding. In this process, reducing flame is used to heat the joint area. A flux is applied and
as soon as it melts, the filler metal is hand fed to the joint area. When the filler metal melts,
it flows into the clearance between the base metal components by capillary action. This
method finds applications in fabrication industry and repair work.
 Welding 121

(b) Furnace Brazing: In this method the atmosphere of the furnace is controlled to prevent
oxidation by hydorgen, dissociated ammonia, nitrogen or any gas, thus allowing the molten
brazing metal to flow smoothly and uniformly around the joint.
(c) Induction Brazing: In this metals, the metals to be welded are surrounded by metallic coils
through which high frequency current is passed. This induces eddy current which produces
localized heating. The parts to be brazed are pre-fluxed and the brazing is placed in the joint
before switching on the current.
(d) Dip Brazing: In dip brazing, the parts to be brazed are dipped into a bath of molten filler
metal covered by a layer of molten flux. Surface not required to be coated with the brazing
alloy must be protected by molasses or by lamp black. This process is used for small parts.
(e) Salt Bath Brazing: The source of heating in salt bath brazing is a molten bath of fluoride
and chloride salts. This salt bath removes thin oxide films from the metals to be joined. The
filler metal replaced in the joint area and is also sometimes cladded before dipped in the salt
bath.
(f) Resistance Brazing: It is similar to spot welding. Electrical resistance is used for joining
parts. The parts to be joined are placed between the electrodes of the welding machine
with the filler metal and flux preloaded at the joint area. Current is then applied until the
filler metal melts and flows around the joint.
This method is used in the manufacture of copper transformer leads.
Advantages
(i) It gives a stronger joint than soldering
(ii) Joint is clean
(iii) Any metal can be brazed
(iv) Less distortion and residual stress
Applications
Brazing is used for the assembly of pipe fittings, carbide tips to tool shank, radiators, heat exchangers
and the repair of castings.
3.3.3 Braze Welding (or) Bronze Welding
Braze welding, also called Bronze welding due to the use of a bronze filler rod. This process is
similar to brazing except that the capillary attraction is not used to distribute the filler metal into
the joint. Instead, the filler metal is deposited by gravity since the joint gap is more. Braze welding
is extensively used for repairing of ferrous casting and steel machine parts.

3.4 DEFECTS IN WELDING

A weld may have the following defects:
(a) Porosity (d) Over penetration
(b) Cracks (e) Slag inclusion
(c) Lack of fusion
122 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(a) Porosity: Porosity in welding is caused by the presence of gases entraped during the
solidification. The gas is released during the welding.
(b) Cracks: Welding cracks may be hot cracks and cold cracks. Hot cracks occur at elevated
temperature just after the molten metal starts to solidify. Cold crack may be due to the
formation of martansite the metal very hard as a result of rapid cooling.
(c) Lack of Fusion: This defect is due to insufficient temperature rise of the base metal,
failure to remove oxide films.
(d) Over Penetration: This defects is due to excessive current in arc welding
(e) Slag Inclusion: Slag is formed by the reaction with fluxes and floats on the top of the weld
pool. Due to the arc force, the slag goes into the weld pool and solidifies inside the fusion
zone and forms slag inclusion. This defects occurs in multipass welding since the slag
solidifies in the previous pass is not cleaned before depositing the next bead.
3.5 WELDING EQUATIONS
(a) The voltage length characteristic of a D.C.’s
V = A + BL
where, V = Voltage drop across the arc
A = Electrode drop
B L = Column drop
(b) Power source characteristic equation is
OCV.I
V = OCV –
ISV
where, OCV = Open circuit voltage
ISC = Short circuit current
I = Arc current
V = Arc voltage
(c) Power = P = V.I
For maximum power
∂P
= = 0
∂I
Example 3.1: The voltage length of arc characteristic of DC arc is given by V = 20 + 40 L,
where L = arc length in cm. The power source characteristic can be approximately a straight line.
Open circuit voltage is 80 and short circuit current is 1000 amps. Determine the optimum arc
length. [GATE 1991]
Solution:
For welding arc V = 20 + 40 L ...(1)
For power source V = 80 – (80/100) I ...(2)
For stable arc (1) = (2)
 Welding 123

20 + 40L = 80 – (80/1000) I
I = 750 – 500 L
Now Power P = V.I.
= (20 + 40L) (750 – 500L)
= (20 × 50) (15+20L – 20L2)
∂P
For optimum arc length =0
∂I
= 20 – 40L = 0
∴ L = 0.5 cm.
Arc Length L = 0.5 cm.
Example 3.2: The Voltage – arc length characteristics of a power source is V = 20 + 40 L,
where V = operating voltage and L = arc length. Determine the open circuit voltage and short
circuit current for arc length ranging from 3 to 5 mm and current from 400 to 500 amps during
welding operations. [GATE 1993]
Solution: Voltage – arc length characteristic
V = 20 + 40 L ... (1)
Power source characteristic
V = OCV – (OCV/ISC) ... (2)
OCV = open circuit voltage
ISC = short circuit current
L 1 = 3mm L2 = 5 mm
11 = 400 amps I2 = 500 amps
V 1 = 20 + 40I1 = 20 + 40 × 3 = 140 V
V 2 = 20 + 40I2 = 20 + 40 × 5 = 220 V
V 1 = OCV – (OCV/ISC) I2
140 = OCV – (OCV/ISC). 500 ...(3)
V 2 = OCV – (OCV/ISC). I1
220 = OCV – (OCV/ISC). 400 ...(4)
Eqs.(3)/(4)
(140/220) = (1 –500/ISC)/(1 –400/ISC)
140 (ISC – 400) = 220 (ISC – 500)
ISC = 675 amps
From eqn. (3)
140 = OCV(1 – 500/675)
OCV = 540 volts
124 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Example 3.3: Two sheets of low carbon steel 1.5 mm thick (t) each are spot welded by
passing a current of 10000 amps for 5Hz to 50Hz supply. The maximum indentation is 10% of
sheet thickness and density of the spot weld nugget is 8 gm/mm3. If 1380 joules are required to
melt one gram of steel find the per cent of heat actually utilized in making the spot weld. Assume
effective resistance is 200 micro ohms and d = 6Öt to determine nugget diameter also assume the
nugget size to be equal to metal between the two electrodes. [GATE 1992]
Solution: Thickness of sheet t = 1.5 mm
Current I = 10000 amps
Resistance R = 200 µ ohms
Heat developed = H = I2 RT
= (10000)2 × 200 × 10–6 × 5/50
= 2000 J
Diameter of the nugget dn = 6√t = 6√1.5 = 7.35 mm
Height of the nugget h = 2 × t × (1 – indentation)
= 2 × 1.5 (1 – 0.1)
= 2.7mm
Volume of fused metal = (π /4) dn2 h
= (π/4) (7.5)2 (2.7)
= 114.56mm3
Mass = volume × density
114.56 × 8
= = 0.916 gm
10000
Heat required for 1 gm melt is 1380 J
∴ for 0.916 = 0.916 × 1380
= 1264.73 J
Percentage of heat utilization for making nugget
= (1264.73 × 100)/2000
= 63.24%

3.6 HEAT AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ): (See Fig. 3.28)

1400°C 550°C

550°C
1440°C (b) Grain Growth in
Heat affected zone
(a) Fusion Welding Heat Affected Zone

Fig. 3.28 Fusion Welding Showing Heat Afftected Zone

 Welding 125

Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is the zone where the base metal is affected metallurgically due
to the heat of welding. It is the region closed to the weld, where large thermal fluctuations are
encountered due to the fusion welding. This leads to changes in mechanical properties and structure.
Heat Affected Zone contains three regions
(a) The grain growth zone (1150°C)
(b) Grain refined zone (1150°C to 950°C)
(c) The transition zone (950°C to 750°C)
(a) The grain growth zone: It is immediately adjacent to the fusion zone. In this zone, parent
metal has been heated to a temperature above upper critical temperature. This resulted in
grain growth.
(b) The grain refined zone: Adjacent to the grain growth zone is the grain refined zone. In
this zone, parent metal has been heated just above the transition temperature where grain
refinement is completed.
(c) The transition zone: In this zone, base metal temperature is below the transition temperature.
3.6.1 Economics of Welding
Accuracy of cost estimates for welding is essential for comparison as follows:
(a) To compare the economics of welding process with other process of fabrication or
manufacturing like casting, machining etc.
(b) To determine the selling price of a product for a quotation so as to get reasonable profit to
the company.
(c) To check the vendors quotations.
(d) To decide to make a part in the plant or purchased from outside.
3.6.2 Elements of Welding Cost
For estimating the welding cost, the following cost elements should be considered.
(a) Preparation cost
(b) Actual welding cost
(a) Preparation cost
It includes the cost of edge preparation before weld, positioning the parts in fixture for welding etc.
(b) Actual cost: This includes
(i) Material cost
(ii) Labour cost
(iii) Welding finishing cost
(iv) On-cost
126 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(b) (i) Material cost

(a) Oxyacetylene welding: In this welding, cost of welding rods, flux and gases O2 and C2H2
are calculated. Cost of welding rods = welding rods consumption × welding rod price
Cost of flux = Amount of flux used × flux price
Cost of fuel gases = Amount of gases used litres × Gas price
(b) Arc welding: In this welding, cost of welding rods, shield gate, power cost are calculated.
Cost of Electrodes = Electrode consumption × Electrode price
Shield gas or flux = Flux or shield gas used × price of gas or flux
Power cost = Total kwh used × Power charges.
(b) (ii) Labour cost
It will be obtained from wage sheets. This can also be calculated as the function of time. This is
represented by operator factor or operator duty cycle and can be expressed as

Actual welding time

(K) = Operator factor = ×100
Total time
 Actual welding time 
= × 100
 Actual welding time + Preparation time 

(b) (iii) Welding Finishing Cost

This includes the expenditure made for finishing the weld joint after welding like grinding away
the unwanted bead, cleaning the bead by brushing finally heat treatment cost etc.
(b) (iv) On-cost
All overhead costs such as equipment depreciation, taxes, technical supervision and other related
costs.
3.6.3 Standard Time
The standard time is the sum of setup time(ts), the base time (tb), the auxiliary time (ta), additional
time (tad) and closing time (tc)
T = ts + tb + ta + tad + tc
Setup time (ts) = It refers to the time spent by the welder in getting the work order, reading
specifications and instruction card and setting up equipment and fixture.
Base time (tb) : It is the time during which the arc is burning.
Auxiliary time (ta) : The time spent by welder to change the electrodes, clean and inspect the
jointed welds.
Additional time (tad): The time spent to service the work place and for personal needs
Closing time (tc) : The time spent to hand over the finished job.
 Welding 127

(a) Arc Welding: In arc welding standard time (T) is quotient of the base time (tb), by the operator
factor (k) which is expresed as
tb
T=
K
d.A.L
where, tb = hours
α.I
where, d = The material density g/cm3
A = cross-sectional area of weld cm2
L = weld length cm
α = deposition ration gm/amp-hr.
I = welding current amp.
(b) Gas Welding: In oxy-acetylene welding the standard time is given by,
t
T= b
K
GL
tb =
α
where, G = Mass of weld metal deposited per metre of weld length gm/m
L = Weld length m
(c) Gas Cutting:
Lt b
T=
K
where, L = Kerf length m
tb = base time
When cutting low carbon steel, tb may be taken as 2.5 min/m for 10 mm thick plate and 5 min/m
for 60 mm thick plate.
Example 3.4: Calculate the standard time for shield metal Arc Welding of steel using 3 mm
electrode with a welding current of 120 amps and deposition ratio 10 gm/A.H. The cross sectional
area of the weld is 0.5 cm2 and its length is 1m long. Density of steel as 7.85 g/cm2 and operator
factor is 0.25.
tb
T=
K
dAL
tb =
αI
dAL
T=
α IK
7.85 × 0.5(1 × 100)
= = 1.31hours = 78.5 minutes
10 × 120 × 0.25
128 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Example 3.5: Calculate the standard time for oxy-acetylene welding cutting (butt) for 6 mm
thick plate, if mass of deposited metal is 35 gm/min, length of weld is 8m. Weld operation is down
hand, vertical and overhead positions. Take operator factor as 0.25.
GL
T=
αK
35 × 8
= = 112 minutes.
10 × 0.25
Example 3.6: Calculate standard time for cutting strips 13 m long from plates of 10 mm and
60 mm thick, using manual oxy-acetylene cutting torch. Take operator factor as 0.3.
(JNTU-2005)
(a) For 10 mm thick plates
tb . L
T=
K
for 10 mm thick plates tb = 2.5 min/mm
2.5 × 13
T= = 108.3 minutes
0.3
(b) For 60 mm thick
tbL
T=
K
for 60 mm thick plates, tb = 5
5 × 13
T= = 216.6 minutes
0.3

QUESTIONS
1. Discuss oxy-acetylene welding equipment with a neat sketch.
2. Explain the types of gas welding flames and under what conditions they are used.
3. Describe gas welding positions.
4. What are the advantages of gas welding.
5. Explain oxy-acetylene cutting process.
6. What are the function of coated electrodes.
7. Sketch and explain submerged arc welding.
8. Bring out the difference between TIG and MIG welding.
9. Draw a neat sketch and explain electro slag welding process.
10. Briefly explain the various resistance welding processes.
11. Explain the following:
(a) Friction welding (b) Ultrasonic welding (c) Explosive welding.
 Welding 129

12. With a neat sketch explain thermit welding process.

13. Explain the following:
(a) Electron beam welding (b) Laser beam welding.
14. Differentiate between
(a) Soldering and Brazing
(b) Brazing and Braze Welding.
15. Explain Butt welding and Seam welding.
16. Describe the following metal joining techniques
(a) Dip Soldering
(b) Wave Soldering
(c) Furnace Blazing
(d) Induction Blazing
17. Write short notes on the following
(a) Welding rods (b) Types of power supply for Arc Welding
18. Explain the term HAZ in welding
 This page
intentionally left
blank
 4
1
Powder Metallurgy
Metallurgy

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Powder metallurgy is a process of making components from metallic powders. Initially, it was
used to replace castings for metals which were difficult to melt because of high melting point. The
development of technique made it possible to produce a product economically, and today it occu-
pies an important place in the field of metal process. The number of material products made by
powder metallurgy are increasing and include tungsten filaments of lamps, contact points. Self
lubricating bearings and cemented carbides for cutting tools.

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF METAL POWDER

The performance of metal powders during processing and the properties of powder metallurgy are
dependent upon the characteristics of the metal powders that are used. Following are the impor-
tant characteristics of metal powders.
(a) Particle shape (b) Particle size
(c) Particle size distribution(d) Flow rate
(e) Compressibility (f) Apparent density
(g) Purity
(a) Particle Shape: The particle shape depends largely on the method of powder manufacture.
The shape may be special nodular, irregular, angular, and dendritic. The particle shape influences the
flow characteristics of powders. Special particles have excellent sintering properties. However, ir-
regular shaped particles are good at green strength because they will interlook on computing.
(b) Particle Size: The particle size influences the control of porosity, compressibility and amount
of shrinkage. It is determined by passing the powder through standard sieves or by microscopic
measurement.
132 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Particle Size Distribution: It is specified in term of a sieve analysis, the amount of
powder passing through 100, 200 etc., mess sieves. Particle size distribution influences the packing
of powder and its behaviour during moulding and sintering.
(d) Flow Rate: It is the ability of powder to flow readily and confirm to the mould cavity. It
determines the rate of production and economy.
(e) Compressibility: It is defined as volume of initial powder (powder loosely filled in cavity)
to the volume of compact part. It depends on particle size, distribution and shape.
(f) Apparent Density: It depends on particle size and is defined as the ratio of volume to
weight of loosely filled mixture.
(g) Purity: Metal powders should be free from impurities as the impurities reduces the life of
dies and effect sintering process. The oxides and the gaseous impurities can be removed from the
part during sintering by use of reducing atmosphere.

4.3 BASIC STEPS OF THE PROCESS

The manufacturing of parts by powder metallurgy process involves the following steps:
(a) Manufacturing of metal powders
(b) Blending and mixing of powders
(c) Compacting
(d) Sintering
(e) Finishing operations
(a) Manufacturing of Metal Powders
There are various methods available for the production of powders, depending upon the type and
nature of metal. Some of the important processes are:
1. Atomization 2. Machining
3. Crushing and Milling 4. Reduction
5. Electrolytic Deposition 6. Shotting
7. Condensation
1. Automization: In this method as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a), molten metal is forced through a
small orifice and is disintegrated by a powerful jet of compressed air, inert gas or water jet. These
small particles are then allowed to solidify. These are generally spherical in shape. Automation is
used mostly for low melting point metals/alloy such as brass, bronze, zinc, tin, lead and aluminium
powders.
2. Machining: In this method first chips are produced by filing, turning etc. and subsequently
pulverised by crushing and milling. The powders produced by this method are coarse in size and
irregular in shape. Hence, this method is used for special cases such as production of magnesium
powder.
3. Crushing and Milling: These methods are used for brittle materials. Jaw crushers, stamping
mills, ball mills are used to breakdown the metals by crushing and impact. See Fig. 4.1 (b) and (c).
 Powder Metallurgy 133

Fig. 4.1 Methods of Producing Metal Powders

In earlier stages of powder preparation gyratory crushers (Fig 4.1(b)) are used to crush brittle
metals. For fine powder, the metal particles are fractured by impact. A ball mill (Fig. 4.1 (c)) is a
horizontal barret shaped container holding a quantity of balls which are free to tumble about as the
container rotates, crushes and abrade the powder particles that are introduced into the container.
4. Reduction: Pure metal is obtained by reducing its oxide with a suitable reducing gas at an
elevated temperature (below the melting point) in a controlled furnace. The reduced product is
then crushed and milled to a powder.
Sponge iron powder is produced this way
Fe3O4 + 4C = 3Fe + 4CO
Fe3O4 + 4CO = 3Fe + 4CO2
Copper powder by
Cu2O + H2 = 2Cu + H2O
Tungsten, Molybdenum, Ni and Cobalt are made by the method.
5. Electrolytic Deposition: This method is commonly used for producing iron and copper
powders. This process is similar to electroplating. For making copper powder, copper plates are
placed as anodes in the tank of electrolyte, where as the aluminium plates are placed into electro-
lyte to act as anode. When D. C. current is passed through the electrolyte, the copper gets
134 Manufacturing Science and Technology

deposited on cathode. The cathode plates are taken out from electrolyte tank and the deposited
powder is scrapped off. The powder is washed, dried and pulverised to produce powder of the
desired grain size. The powder is further subjected to heat treatment to remove work hardness
effect. The cost of manufacturing is high.
6. Shotting: In this method, the molten metal is poured through a siever or orifice and is
cooled by droping into water. This produces spherical particles of large size. This method is com-
monly used for metals of law melting points.
7. Condensation: In this method, metals are boiled to produce metal vapours and then con-
densed to obtain metal powders, This process is applied to volatile metals such as zinc, magnesium
and cadmium.
(b) Blending and Mixing of Powders
Powder blending and mixing of the powders are essential for uniformity of the product. Lubricants
are added to the blending of powders before mixing. The function of lubricant is to minimise the
wear, to reduce friction. Different powder in correct proportions are thoroughly mixed either wet
or in a ball mill.
(c) Compacting
The main purpose of compacting is converting loose powder into a green compact of accurate
shape and size. The following methods are adopted for compacting:
1. Pressing 2. Centrifugal compacting
3. Slip casting 4. Extrusion
5. Gravity sintering 6. Rolling
7. Isostatic moulding 8. Explosive moulding
1. Pressing: The metal powders are placed in a die cavity and compressed to form a compo-
nent shaped to the contour of the die as illustrated in Fig. 4.2. The pressure used for producing
green compact of the component vary from 80 Mpa to 1400 Mpa, depending upon the material
and the characteristics of the powder used. Mechanical presses are used for compacting objects
at low pressure. Hydraulic presses are for compacting objects at high pressure. (See Fig. 4.2)

Fig. 4.2 Steps in Pressing Operations

 Powder Metallurgy 135

2. Centrifugal Compacting: In this method, the moulder after it is filled with powder is
centrifugal to get a compact of high and uniform density at a pressure of 3 Mpa. This method is
employed for heavy metals such as tungsten carbide.
3. Slip Casting: In this method, the powder is converted into slurry with water and poured into
the mould made of plaster of paris. The liquid in the slurry is gradually absorbed by the mould
leaving the solid compact within the mould. The mould may be vibrated to increase the density of
the compact.
This technique is used for materials that are relatively incompressible by conventional die
compaction. The main drawback of this process is relatively slower process because it takes
larger time for the fluid to be absorbed by the method.
4. Extrusion: This method is employed to produce the components with high density. Both
cold and hot extrusion processes are for compacting specific materials. In cold extrusion, the
metal powder is mixed with binder and this mixture is compressed into billet. The binder is re-
moved before or during sintering. The billet is charged into a container and then forced through the
die by means of ram. The cross-section of product depends on the opening of the die. Cold
extrusion process is used for cemented carbide drills and cutters of ram. The cross-section of
products depends on the opening of the die. Cold extrusion process is used for cemented carbide
drills and cutters.
In the hot extrusion, the powder is compacted into billet and is heated to extruding temperature
in non-oxidising atmosphere. The billet is placed in the container and extruded through a die. This
method is used for refractive berium and nuclear solid materials.
5. Gravity Sintering: This process is used for making sheets for controlled porosity. In this
process. the powder is poured on ceremic tray to form an uniform layer and is then sintered up to
48 hours in ammonia gas at high temperature. The sheets are then rolled to desired thickness.
Porous sheet of stainless steel are made by this process and popularly used for fitters.
6. Rolling: This method is used for making continuous strips and rods having controlled poros-
ity with uniform mechanical properties. In this method, the metal powder is fed between two rolls
which compress and interlock the powder particles to form a sheet of sufficient strength as shown
in Fig. 4.3. It then situated, rerolled and heat treated if necessary. The metals that can be rolled
are Cu, Brass, Bronze, Ni, Stainless steel and Monel.
7. Isostatic Moulding: In this method, metal powder is placed in an elastic mould which is
subjected to gas pressure in the range of 65-650 Mpa from all sides. After pressing. the compact
is removed from gas chamber. If the fluid is used as press medium then it is called as hydrostatic
pressing. The advantages of this method are: uniform strength in all directions, higher green com-
pact strength and low equipment cost. This method is used for tungsten, molybdenum,
niobium etc.
8. Explosive Compacting: In this method, the pressure generated by an explosive is used to
compact the metal powder. Metal powder is placed in water proof bags which are immersed in
water container cylinder of high wall thickness. Due to sudden deterioration of the charge at the
136 Manufacturing Science and Technology

end of the cylinder, the pressure of the cylinder increase. This pressure is used to press the metal
powder to form green compact.

Fig. 4.3 Rolling

(d) Sintering
Sintering involves heating of the green compact at high temperatures in a controlled atmosphere
[reducing atmosphere which protects oxidation of metal powders]. Sintering increases the bond
between the particles and therefore strengthens the powder metal compact. Sintering temperature
and time is usually 0.6 to 0.8 times the melting point of the powder. In case of mixed powders of
different melting temperature, the sintering temperature will usually be above the melting point of
one of the minor constituent [Ex : cobalt and cemented carbides] and other powders remain in
soild state. The important factors governing sintering are temperature, time and atmosphere.
The sintering temperature and time of sintering for different metal powders are given below:
Type of powders Sintering temperature °C Sintering Time
Al & its alloys 370-520 24 hrs.
Cu, Brass & Bronze 700-900 30 min.
Iron 1025-1200 30 min.
Stainless Steel 1180 20-40 min
Tungsten Carbide 1480 20-40 min

Hot pressing
Hot pressing involves applying pressure and temperature simultaneously, so that the compacting
and sintering of the powder takes place at the same time in a die. Its application is limited and can
be used for compacting. Fe and Brass powders at much lower pressure than conventional press-
ing and sintering operations.
(e) Finishing Operations
These are secondary operations intended to provide dimensional tolerances, physical and better
surface finish. They are:
 Powder Metallurgy 137

1. Sizing 5. Infiltration
2. Coining 6. Heat treatment
3. Machining 7. Plating
4. Impregnation
1. Sizing: It is repressing the sintered component in the die to achieve the required accuracy.
2. Coining: It is repressing the sintered components in the die to increase density and to give
additional strength.
3. Machining: Machining operation is carried out on sintered part to provide under cuts, holes,
threads etc. which can not be removed on the part in the powder metallurgy process.
4. Impregnation: It is filling of oil, grease or other lubricants in a sintered component such as
bearing.
5. Infiltration: It is filling of pores of sintered product with molten metal to improve physical
properties.
6. Heat Treatment: The process of heating and cooling sintered parts are to improve
(i) Wear Resistance
(ii) Grain Structure
(iii) Strength
The following heat treatment process are used to the parts made by
powder metallurgy:
1. Stress relieving
2. Carburising
3. Nitriding
4. Induction Hardening
7. Plating: Plating is carried out in order to:
1. Import a pleasing appearance (Cr plating)
2. Protect from corrosion (Ni plating)
3. Improve electrical conductivity (Cu and Ag plating)

4.4 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR POWDER METALLURGY PARTS

In designing of powder metallurgy parts, the following are the some of tooling and pressing consid-
erations.
1. Side holes and side ways are very difficult to achieve during pressing and must be made by
secondary machining operations.
2. Threads, kurling and other similar shapes should not be formed compacting. They should be
produced by machining.
3. Abrupt changes in section thickness and narrow and deeper sections should be avoided as
far as practicable.
138 Manufacturing Science and Technology

4. It is recommended that sharp corners be avoided wherever possible. Fillets with generous
radii are desirable.
5. Chambers can be made.
6. Under cuts that are perpendicular to the pressing direction can not be made, since they
prevent the part ejection.

4.5 ADVANTAGES OF POWDER METALLURGY

1. Although the cost of making powder is high there is no loss of material. The components
produced are clean, bright and ready for use.
2. The greatest advantage of this process is the control of the composition of the product.
3. Components can be produced with good surface finish and close tolerance.
4. High production rates.
5. Complex shapes can be produced.
6. Wide range of properties such as density, porosity and particle size can be obtained for
particular applications.
7. There is usually no need for subsequent machining or finishing operations.
8. This process facilitates mixing of both metallic and non-metallic powders to give products of
special characteristics.
9. Porous parts can be produced that could not be made any other way.
10. Impossible parts (cutting tool bits) can be produced.
11. Highly qualified or skilled labour is not required.

4.6 LIMITATION OF POWDER METALLURGY

1. The metal powders and the equipment used are very costly.
2. Storing of powders offer great difficulties because of possibility of fire and explosion haz-
ards.
3. Parts manufactured by this process have poor ductility.
4. Sintering of low melting point powders like lead, zinc, tin etc., offer serious difficulties.

4.7 APPLICATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY

Powder metallurgy techniques are used for making large number of components. Some of the
application are as follows:
1. Self-Lubricating Bearing and Filters: Porous bronze bearings are made by mixing copper
and tin powder in correct proportions, cold pressed to the desired shape and then sintered. These
bearings soak up considerable quantity of oil. Hence during service, these bearings produce a
constant supply of lubricant to the surface due to capillary action. These are used where lubricating
is not possible. Porous filters can be manufactured and are used to remove, undesirable materials
from liquids and gases.
 Powder Metallurgy 139

2. Friction Materials: These are made by powder metallurgy. Clutch liners and Brake bands
are the example of friction materials.
3. Gears and Pump Rotors: Gears and pump rotor for automobile oil pumps are manufactured
by powder metallurgy. Iron powder is mixed with graphite, compacted under a pressure of 40 kg/
cm and sintered in an electric furnace with an atmosphere and hydrocarbon gas. These are
impregnated with oil.
4. Refractor Materials: Metals with high melting points are termed as refractory metals.
These basically include four metals tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum and niobium. Refractory metals
as well as their alloys are manufactured by powder metallurgy. The application are not limited to
lamp filaments and heating elements, they also include space technology and the heavy metal used
in radioactive shielding.
5. Electrical Contacts and Electrodes: Electrical contacts and resistance welding electrodes
are made by powder metallurgy. A combination of copper, silver and a refractory metal like tungsten.
molybdenum and nickle provides the required characteristics like wear resistant, refractory and
electrical conductivity.
6. Magnet Materials: Soft and permanent magnets are manufactured by this process. Soft
magnets are made of iron, iron-silicon and iron-nickle alloys. These are used in D.C. motors, or
generators as armatures and in measuring instruments. Permanent magnets known as Alnico which
is a mixture of nickle, aluminium, cobalt, copper and iron are manufactured by this technique.
7. Cemented Carbides: These are very important products of powder metallurgy and find
wide applications as cutting tools, wire drawing dies and deep drawing dies. These consist of
carbides of tungsten, tantalum, titanium and molybdenum. The actual proportions of various car-
bides depend upon its applications, either cobalt or nickle is used as the bonding agent while
sintering.
Diamond Impregnated Tools
These are made from a mixture of iron powder and diamond dust. Diamond dust acts as a cutting
medium and iron powder acts as the bond. These tools are used for cutting porcelain and glass.
These bits are welded or brazed to a steel shank.

QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the characteristics of metal powders.
2. Describe various methods of producing metal powders.
3. Write shortly on (a) Centrifugal compacting (b) Extrusion (c) Slip casting.
4. Discuss advantages and limitations of powder metallurgy.
5. What are the various finishing operations used in powder metallurgy.
6. Discuss various applications of powder metallurgy.
 This page
intentionally left
blank
 5
1
Plastics

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The word plastics is from the Greek word plastikos, means is moulded and shaped. Plastics can be
easily machined, formed and joined into required shapes. Hence, plastics find place in engineering
materials and domestic applications. Plastics are available in rods, sheets, films and tubes.

5.2 TYPES OF PLASTICS

Plastics are classified as
(a) Thermosetting plastics
(b) Thermoplastics
(a)Thermosetting plastics: These are formed to shape with heat, with or without pressure,
resulting in a product that is permanently hard. The heat first soften the material, but as additional
heat or special chemicals are added, the plastic is hardened by chemical change known as “poly-
merization” and cannot be resoftened. Thermosetting plastics are Phenol-formaldehyde, Urea-
formaldehyde, Epoxy resins etc. Products made by thermosetting plastics are T.V. cabinets, tele-
phone receivers, Camera bodies and Automobile parts.
(b)Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics undergo no chemical change in moulding. They remain
soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by cooling. These plastics can be reused or
recycled by melting and remoulding. Most commonly used thermoplastics are polystyrene, poly-
tene, P.V.C.(Polyvinyl Chloride) Nylon, Teflon etc. Products made by thermoplastics are photo-
graphic films, insulating tapes, hose pipes etc.
142 Manufacturing Science and Technology

5.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN THERMOSETTING PLASTICS AND

THERMOPLASTICS
Thermosetting Plastics
1. Once hardened and set, they do not soften with the application of heat
2. These are more stronger and harder
3. Objects made by these plastics can be used at comparatively high temperatures
4. These are supplied in monomeric or partially polymerized form in which these are either
liquids or semi solids.
5. T.V. cabinets, Automobile parts are made by these plastics.
Thermoplastics
1. They can be repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by cooling
2. They are comparatively softer and less stronger
3. Objects made by thermoplastics cannot be used at higher temperatures as these tend to
soften under heat
4. These are usually supplied as granular material
5. Insulating tapes, photographic films are made by these plastics.

5.4 ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS

1. Light is weight compared to metals
2. Excellent surface finish
3. Close dimensional tolerances
4. Moisture and corrosion resistance
5. Easy to shape and mould

5.5 DISADVANTAGES
1. Low strength
2. Low heat resistance
3. Deteriorate in sunlight

5.6 APPLICATIONS OF PLASTICS

Plastics find applications in manufacturing of:
1. Photofilms in film industry
2. Insulating tapes
3. Electrical parts like plugs, switches etc.
4. Radio, T.V. cabinets
5. Furniture like chairs, tubs
6. Telephone receivers
7. Camera bodies
 Plastics 143

8. Gears and Bearings

9. Toys, bottles, buckets etc.
10. Hose pipes
11. Automobile parts

5.7 METHODS OF PROCESSING

(a) Moulding of thermoplastics
1. Injection Moulding
2. Blow moulding
3. Extrusion
4. Thermoforming (Vacuum forming)
5. Calendering
(b) Moulding of thermosetting plastics
1. Compression moulding
2. Transfer moulding
a.1 Injection Moulding: (See Fig 5.1)
Hopper
Moulding
material

[
Ram

Resistance heater unit

Mould opens

Mould water cooled

Fig. 5.1 Injection Moulding

Injection moulding machines are somewhat similar to those used for die casting. In this method,
the moulding material in the form of granules or pellets is fed through the hopper into the cold end
of the injection cylinder. Then the injection ram forces the powder into the heating section of the
cylinder where its temperature is raised to 300°C. Then the ram is moved forward by applying
hydraulic pressure to inject the soften material through die into water cooled mould. After the
mould is filled, it is allowed to cool and harden. Then the ram is retracted, the mould is opened and
the product is ejected.
Injection mould products are cups, containers, electrical and communication components.
144 Manufacturing Science and Technology

a.2 Blow Moulding (See Fig. 5.2)

1. Parison in place 2. Mould closes

3. Parison expanded 4. Bottle released

under pressure

Fig. 5.2 Blow Moulding Process

The blow moulding commences with the extrusion of (heated) tubular piece of plastic known as
parison which is transferred to the two-piece mould. The parison is gripped in the two-piece mould
and its bottom end is sealed. Compressed air is blown into the parison to force the plastic against
the walls of water cooled mould. Air pressure ranges from 0.7 to 10 kg/cm2. The mould is allowed
to cool and then opened to remove the article.
Blow moulding is used for making plastic bottles, toys, doll bodies and many other items.
a.3 Extrusion Moulding
Polymer sheets and films can be produced using a flat extrusion die. These are advantages of
extrusion process. The tooling cost is low compared to injection moulding. Material thickness can
be controlled. In addition production rates are high and intricate profiles can be produced.
a.4 Thermoforming (See Fig. 5.3)
It consists of heating a thermoplastic sheet until it softens and then forcing it to confirm to some
mould either by vacuum or air pressure.
 Plastics 145

Clamp
Heater Heater

vaccum
(a) Heating of thermoplastic sheet (b) Vacuum is applied to the mould

Fig. 5.3 Thermoforming Process

The products made by thermoforming are jelly containers used in restaurants, refrigerator
inner panels, packing containers etc.
a.5 Calendering (See Fig. 5.4)
This is an intermediate process in which extruded thermoplastic sections are reduced to sheets of
films.

Fig. 5.4 Calendering of Thermoplastic

b.1 Compression Moulding (See Fig. 5.5)

It is usually used for thermosetting plastics.
In compression moulding thermosetting material is placed in heated mould (female die). The
upper part of the mould is brought down to compress the material into the required shape and
density. When the mould is closed, the material undergoes a chemical change or polymerization,
that harden it.
The moulding temperature ranges from 150–180°C. The moulding pressure ranges from 150–
500 kg/cm2. The time required to harden the product ranges from 1 to 1.5 minutes. It also depends
on the thickness of the product.
The products made by this process include dishes, container caps etc.
b.2 Transfer Moulding (See Fig. 5.6)
Transfer moulding is a variation of compression moulding in which heat and pressure is applied to the
moulding materials outside the mould until they become fluid. The fluid material is then forced through
a series of channels from external chamber to the mould cavity where final cure takes place.
146 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Plunger

Die

Fig. 5.5 Compression Moulding

Charging chamber

Gate

Mould

Fig. 5.6 Transfer Moulding

5.8 WELDING OF PLASTICS

Welding is superior to cementing and riveting in many aspects for plastics.
5.8.1 Types of Welding
(a) Hot gas welding
(b) Heated tool welding
(c) Hot platen welding
(d) Friction welding
(e) Ultrasonic welding
(a) Hot Gas Welding (See Fig. 5.7)
In this method, instead of the oxy-acetylene torch, an electrically heated gun is used. Compressed air
passes through the heating element and strikes the joint area at about 200°C. Filler rod also can be used.
 Plastics 147

Plastic rod
Gas heated torch

Fig. 5.7 Hot Gas Welding

(b) Heated Tool Welding (See Fig. 5.8)

In this method, the thermoplastic is first softened contacting it with a heated tool and then press
together.
With films or sheet, heating wedge is placed between the surfaces to be joined and is moved
along the line of welding as the edges are softened. Roller applied pressure to the top sheet and
this welded to the bottom sheet.
Roller Sheet

Heating wedge

Sheet 2
Fig. 5.8 Heated Tool Welding

(c) Hot Platen Welding (See Fig. 5.9)

This method is used for welding large, irregular shaped plastic parts.
The parts to be joined are placed into fixtures. A heated platen is kept between the parts to be
welded. Now edges to be joined are soften due to the heat of heated platen. Then remove the
heated platen, push the parts against each other and kept for some time till they cooled. After the
welding, the fixture is opened and the complete assembly is removed.
(d) Friction Welding (See Fig. 5.10)
The two plastic rods may be fusion welded together by frictional heat.
The stationary part is bring against the spinning part. After the desired temperature is reached
due to friction, the spinning rod is brought to stop and pressure is axially applied to complete the
joint. Then the welded rods are allowed to cool.
148 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Part 2

Heated tool
Part 1

Fixture
Fig. 5.9 Hot Platen Welding

Part 2
Part 1

Pressure

Fig. 5.10 Friction Welding

(e) Ultrasonic Welding (See Fig. 5.11)

In this method, two parts to be joined are placed together and vibrations are transmitted to the
parts by a vibrating tool. Parts are soften due to friction between parts and then pressure is
applied to get welded together.
Tranducer
P

Fig. 5.11 Ultrasonic Welding

5.9 MACHINING OF PLASTICS

Machining of plastics can be satisfactorily performed with conventional machine tools used for
machining of metal. However, there are some principles of machining that apply to plastics alone
because the properties of plastics are different from metals. Further more plastics have a greater
thermal expansion rate, soften and distort at elevated temperatures. This behaviour of plastics
imposes certain precautions which include keeping the work cool to avoid sticking to the tool and
excessive expansion and deflection during machining or after machining. Air, water and oil cool-
ants are commonly used during machining of plastics.
 Plastics 149

(a) Turning (See Fig. 5.12)

Sharp tools avoid too much heat. Hence, the basic consideration in turning plastics on a lathe is the
back rake angle. The back rake of 20° will be found suitable for virtually all thermoplastics. A zero
rake angle suits for thermosets. Small depth of cut and feed should be given while machining.
Proper support to the work-piece should be given because of lack of stiffness.

Rake
angle
Fig. 5.12 Turning of Plastics

(b) Drilling (Fig. 5.13)

80°

8-12°

Fig. 5.13 Drilling of Plastic

If the chips of hot plastics adhere to the flutes of the drill, then the chips cannot escape from the
hole and temperature will rise rapidly. A point angle of 80° is recommended for drilling thermoplas-
tics and thermosetting plastics. This is very sharp point compared to drill bit used for drilling
metals. This sharp point angle gives less end thrust in drilling operation.
(c) Bending
Straight bends in thermoplastics are made by heating along the line of bend.

QUESTIONS
1. Distinguish between thermosetting plastics thermoplastics.
2. What are the advantages limitations of plastics?
150 Manufacturing Science and Technology

3. Explain Injection Moulding Process.

4. With the help of suitable figures explain the blow moulding process. Mention its applications.
5. Explain various methods of welding of plastics.
6. Explain compression moulding process.
 6
1
Presses

6.1 INTRODUCTION
A press is a machine tool used to shape or cut metal by applying force. These are used for mass
production.

6.2 TYPES OF PRESSES

Classified as follows:
(a) Based on source of power
(i) Fly Press or Hand Press
(ii) Power Press
(b) Based on design of frame
(i) Gap frame
(ii) Inclinable
(iii) Straight side
(iv) Horn Press
(c) Method of actuation of press
(i) Single action
(ii) Double action
(iii) Triple action
(d) Mechanism used for applying power to Ram
(i) Crank
(ii) Eccentric
152 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(iii) Cam
(iv) Toggle
(v) Knuckle
(vi) Rack of Pinion
(vii) Hydraulic
(a)(i) Fly Press or Hand Press (See Fig. 6.1)
The fly press is the most simple of all presses and hand operated press. It carries a robust cast
iron frame. The rotary motion of heavy balls converted into vertical motion of a ram by screw.
The top portion of the frame forms a sort of nut. Some portion of the frame below nut guide the
ram. Punch is attached to ram.

Stop collar Iron Balls

Handle

Guide
Ram

Body

Punch

Die

Bed

Fig. 6.1 Fly Press

(a)(ii) Power Press

The power press may be mechanical or hydraulic to transmit power to the ram. In a mechanical
press, the rotary motion of electric motor is converted into reciprocating motion of the ram by
using different mechanisms like crank mechanism, eccentric etc. In hydraulic press the fluid under
 Presses 153

high pressure is pumped on one side of the piston and then on the other side in a hydraulic cylinder
to get the reciprocating motion of the ram. Fig. 6.2 shows power press driven by crank and
connecting rod mechanism. Fig. 6.3 shows hydraulic press.

Motor

Flywheel

Clutch
Crank shaft
Connecting rod

Ram

Blaster
plate

Fig. 6.2 Power Press (Mechanical)

(b)(i) Gap Frame Press (See Fig. 6.4 (a))

The Gap press has a gap like opening in the frame for feeding the sheet metal from one side of
the press. This will permit the use of long and wide work-pieces.
(b)(ii) Inclinable Frame Press (See Fig. 6.4 (b))
This is the most common type of press used in industry. It has an ability to tilt back on its base, so
that, it permits the scrap and finished products to fall down from the die by gravity without the help
of any type of handling mechanism.
(b)(iii) Straight Side Press (See Fig. 6.4 (c))
The straight side frame is preferred for larger presses which provides larger bed area. This is
used for press forging, coining, deep drawing etc.
(b)(iv) Horn Press (See Fig. 6.4 (d))
In horn press, the front face of the frame is fitted with a cylindrical post called horn. This horn is
used as a support for die and used for tubular work.
154 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fluid
Hydraulic
cylinder

Ram

Guide

Blaster plate

Bed

Fig. 6.3 Hydraulic Press

(a) Gap frame press (b) Inclinable press (c) Straight side (d) Horn press
press
Fig. 6.4 Type of Pressed based on Design of Frame
 Presses 155

(c)(i) Single Action Press

This press has only one ram or slide.
(c)(ii) Double Action Press
This press has two slides moving in the same direction against a bed. This type of press is used for
deep drawing operation.
(c)(iii) Triple Action Press
This press has three slides in which two slides moves in the same direction and the third slide
moves upward through fixed bed.
(d) Mechanism Used for Applying Power to Ram
Various mechanisms used for ram movement is shown in Fig. 6.5.

Pitman

Ram

(i) Crank (ii) Eccentric (iii) Cam (iv) Toggle

(v) Knuckle joint (vi) Rack of pinion (vii) Hydraulic

Fig. 6.5 Various Types of Power Transmitting Mechanisms

6.3 SELECTION OF PRESS

The following are taken into consideration for selecting a press.
(a) Thickness of the stock
(b) Material of the stock
(c) Force required to cut the metal
156 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(d) Type of operation to be done

(e) Speed of the operation
(f) Type of the drive required

6.4 COMPONENTS OF SIMPLE DIE (See Fig. 6.6)

Fig. 6.6 Components of Die Assembly

BOLSTER PLATE: It is used for locating and supporting die assembly.

DIE BLOCK: The female part of a complete tool for producing work in a press.
PUNCH: This is the male component of the die assembly.
PUNCH PLATE: It fits closely over the body of the punch and holds it in proper relative
position.
STRIPPER PLATE: When the punch goes down for operation and starts returning, the scrapstrip
tries to go up along with it. The stripper plate prevents the upper movement of the scrap strip and
frees the punch for next operation (stroke).

6.5 TYPES OF PRESS TOOLS OR TYPES OF DIES

(a) Simple Dies
(b) Compound Dies
(c) Combination Dies
(d) Progressive Dies
 Presses 157

(a) Simple Dies

These dies are designed to perform only one operation such as blanking, piercing, notching etc.
(b) Compound Dies (See Fig. 6.7)

Blanking Piercing punch

die

Lower
die

Washer

Fig. 6.7 Compound Die

They perform two or more cutting operations such as blanking and piercing. They are usually
single action dies where all operations are completed in one ram stroke at the same station.
The lower die body has cutting edges both on its outward and inward surfaces. The outside
cutting edges serve as a punch for blanking operation and inside cutting edges acts as a die for the
piercing operation. This die is costly compared to progressive die.
(c) Combination Dies (See Fig. 6.8)
Drawing punch
Blanking punch

Die

(a) Blanking operation (b) Cup drawing operation

Fig. 6.8 Combination Die

158 Manufacturing Science and Technology

In combination dies, the cutting and forming or drawing operations are combined and carried out in
single operation.
(d) Progressive Dies (See Fig. 6.9)

Shank

Blanking
punch Punch
(Piercing)

Stripper
plate
Feed
Die
Component:
washer

Fig. 6.9 Progressive Die

It consists of multiple stations aligned in a row. The part is moved from one station to the
other. The part remains attached to the scrap, till the last station.
Washers are made by progressive dies as show about figure. At the first station, a hole is
pierced by piercing punch on the sheet. The sheet is then advanced to the next station. The
correct position is obtained by the stop. In the second operation, the pilot enters the pierced hole
and locate it and then blanking punch shears the plate. In this way, a washer is made.

6.6 CUTTING ACTION IN A DIE AND PUNCH OPERATIONS

(SHEARING ACTION) (See Fig. 6.10)
As the punch moves down, it contacts the work material supported by the die and pressure is build
up gradually increases. When the elastic limit of the work material beyond the pressure of the
punch, the material begins to flow plastically and displaced into the die cavity. A radius is formed
at the top edge and bottom edge of the blank as shown in Fig (a); compression of the blank
material against the walls of the die opening burnishes a portion of edges of the blank as shown in
Fig. (b); further advancement of the punch, causes to start fractures at the cutting edge of the
punch and die as shown in Fig. (c); finally the fracture will meet and broken away as shown in
Fig. (d).
 Presses 159

Burnished
portion of stock
Stock material
material Radius
Tensile lunch

Composition (a) (b) Burnished

portion of slug

(c) (c) (d)

Fig. 6.10 Different Stages in Blanking

6.7 PUNCH FORCE

The punch force is a function of the area of the cut edge being sheared at any instant and the
shearing strength of the material. The cut edge area is the product of the length of the cut and
thickness of the material being cut.
cutting force P is given by the equation as given below:
P = π Dfst — For circular blank
P = 2(l+b)fst — For rectangular blank
P = 4lfst — For square blank
where, fs = Shear strength of material, kgf/mm2
D = Diameter of circular blank, mm
t = Thickness of the blank, mm
l = Length of the blank
b = Width of the blank
P = Cutting force, kgf
Example 6.1: A 25 mm square hole is to be cut in sheet metal 0.75 mm thick. The shear
strength of the material is 2860 kg/cm2. Calculate the cutting force.
P = 4/fst
0.75
= 4 × 2.5 × 2860 ×
10
= 2145 kgs.
160 Manufacturing Science and Technology

6.8 CONTROL OF HOLE AND BLANK SIZES BY CLEARANCE

LOCATION (See Fig. 6.11)

Size –2c Size

Punch

c c c c

Die

Size Size+2c
(Blanking) (Piercing)

Fig. 6.11 Provision of Clearance

If a blank is to be made by the given size, then make the die to the size and punch smaller by total
clearance. If hole is to be made to the exact size, punch is made the size and die larger by total
clearance is die size controls the blank size, punch size controls hole size. It is shown in Fig. 6.11.
For Blanking Operation:
Die size = Blank size
Punch size = Blank size – 2c
For Punching operation:
Die size = Hole size + 2c
Punch size = Hole size
Clearance c= 0.0032 × t × T
where, t = sheet thickness
T = Material shear stress
Example 6.2: Determine the die and punch sizes for blanking a circular disc of 20 mm
diameter from steel having 294 kg/mm2 shear strength and thickness of the sheet is 1.5mm.
The clearance to be provided is given by
C = 0.0032 × t × T
= 0.0032 × 1.5 × 294
= 1.41 mm
For Blanking Operation
Die size = Blank size = 20 mm
Punch size = Blank size – 2c
= 20 – 2 × 1.4
= 17.2 mm
 Presses 161

6.9 ANGULAR CLEARANCE (See Fig. 6.12)

Cutting
land

1/ to 2°
8

Fig. 6.12 Angular Clearance on Die

In the shearing operation, first the material is elastically deformed and then plastically and
finally removed from the stock strip. After the final breaking, the slug will spring back due to
release of stored elastic energy. This will make the blank to cling to the die face, unless the die
opening is enlarged. This is referred as angular clearance or draft. The drat provided depends on
the material, thickness and shape. For thicker and soft materials, higher angular clearances are
provided. It is generally 1/8° to 2°.

6.10 SHEET METAL OPERATIONS

(a) Sheet Metal Cutting Operations
(b) Sheet Metal Forming Operations
(c) Sheet Metal Drawing Operations
(a) Sheet Metal Cutting Operations
(a)(i) Blanking (See Fig. 6.13)
Blank
required

Waste

Fig. 6.13 Blanking

The article punched out is called “Blank” is required product. The plate with hole left goes as
waste.
(a)(ii) Punching (See Fig. 6.14)

Waste
Blank required
Fig. 6.14 Punching
162 Manufacturing Science and Technology

It is the cutting operation by which various shaped holes are made in sheet metal. Punching is
similar to blanking except that the hole is desired product, the material punched out to form hole
being waste.
(a)(iii) Notching (See Fig. 6.15)

Fig. 6.15 Notching

Notching is a method to cut a specified small portion of metal towards the edge of the stock.
(a)(iv) Perforating (See Fig. 6.16)

Fig. 6.16 Perforating

This is a process by which multiple holes of very small and arranged in a regular pattern are
cut in the workpiece.
(a)(v) Piercing
Piercing is a punching operation. In piercing, a pointed, bullet shaped punch is forced through the
sheet metal to produce hole with a rough flange around the hole.
(a)(vi) Nibbling (See Fig. 6.17)

Fig. 6.17 Nibbling

Nibbling is removing metal in small increments. When a specified contour is to be cut in a

sheet metal, a small punch is used to punch repeatedly along the necessary contour, generating
required profile.
(a)(vii) Slitting (See Fig. 6.18)
It is the operation of cutting a sheet metal in a straight line along the length.
 Presses 163

Fig. 6.18 Slitting

(a)(viii) Lancing (See Fig. 6.19)

In this operation, a cut is made part way across the metal and then one side is bent down to form
a sort of tab or lower.

Punch

Cooler
side doors

Fig. 6.19 Lancing

(b) Sheet Metal Forming Operations

(i) Bending: In bending, the metal is stressed in both tension and compression at the two sides
of neutral axis beyond the elastic limit, but below the ultimate strength of the metal. It may
be V-bending and edge bending as shown in Fig. 6.20a and 6.20b:

Punch Pod Punch

Die

(a) V-Bending (b) Edge Bending

Fig. 6.20 Bending

(ii) Flanging (See Fig. 6.21)

Fig. 6.21 Flanging

This operation is done to make the edges of sheet metal more rigid.
164 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(iii) Curling (See Fig. 6.22)

Fig. 6.22 Curling

It is the operation in which the edges of a component are formed into a roll or a curl by bending
the sheet metal. This is done to reinforce or stiffen the edge or to provide smoothness to the
surface.
(iv) Coining (See Fig. 6.23)

Punch Holder

Die

Fig. 6.23 Coining

It is the operation of production of coins, medals or other ornaments by squeezing operation.

Tremendous pressure is applied on the blank from both ends. Under severe compressive load,
the metal flows in the cold state and fills up the cavity of the punch and die. The component thus
produced gets a sharp impression on its surfaces corresponding to the engravings on the punch
and die.
(v) Embossing (See Fig. 6.24)

Punch

Punch

Die
Fig. 6.24 Embossing
 Presses 165

It is the operation of giving impressions of figures, letters or designs on sheet metal.

Embossing differs from coining in that the work-piece will have the same design on both sides,
one side being depressed while the other is raised. Where in coining is usually used to create a
different design on each side as in coins or medals.
(vi) Crimping
This is used for assembly purposes. The bottle cap is crimped on the circumference of cold drink
bottle. The end of stove pin is crimped.
(c) Sheet Metal Drawing Operations (See Fig. 6.25)
Drawing involves shaping flat blanks into hollow components.
In drawing operation, the blank is forced by punch into the hole of die and is thus given the
required shape.
Punch
Blank
holder

Die

Fig. 6.25 Drawing Operation

6.11 SCRAP STRIP LAYOUT (Fig. 6.26 (a) and (b))

For an economical utilization of the stock, it is necessary to make a layout to show how the blanks
can be best produced from the given stock.
In single row blank layout, material will be wasted. Hence, double row blank layout as shown
in Fig. 6.26 (b) will be adopted. Double row blanks may be a single pass or double pass design.
Single pass design utilizes two punches where as double pass design utilizes single punch.
In a double pass design, the strip is to be overturned for the second pass.
166 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Curved boundaries For Straight boundaries

B = 0.75 t to 1.5 t
C = Lead = L + B
W = Scrap width
t = H + 2B
B
B H W

C L
1.5t

0.75t

(a) Single pass

(b) Doble row blank

Fig. 6.26 Scrap Strip Layout

QUESTIONS
1. Explain with a neat sketch the working of fly press.
2. Explain the hydraulic press with neat sketch.
3. Explain the following dies
(a) Simple Die
(b) Compound Die
(c) Combination Die
(d) Progressive Die
4. Sketch and explain blanking die.
5. Explain various sheet metal cutting operations.
6. What is coining? Explain the process with neat sketch.
 Appendix I: Objective Type Questions 167

Appendix I

Objective Type Questions

Type

1. Which of the following material can be used (b) Disagree

for making pattern? (c) None
(a) Aluminium (b) Wax (d) None of the above
(c) Wood (d) All of these 6. Shrinkage allowance for Cast Iron pattern
2. Metal Patterns are used for is
(a) Small castings (a) 10 mm/m (b) 20 mm/m
(b) Large scale production of castings (c) 30 mm/m (d) 25 mm/m
(c) Large castings 7. Match plate pattern is used in
(d) Complicated castings. (a) Green sand moulding
3. When a pattern is made three parts, the (b) Bench moulding
middle part is known as (c) Machine moulding
(a) Drag (b) Cheek (d) Pit moulding
(c) Cope (d) None of these 8. The material of pattern in case of investment
4. A taper provided on the pattern for its easy casting is
withdrawal from the mould is known as (a) Thermosetting resin
(a) Machining allowance (b) Special plastic
(b) Shrinkage allowance (c) Synthetic sand
(c) Draft allowance (d) Wax
(d) Distortion allowance 9. Which of the following provide an additional
5. Shrinkage allowance is made by adding to projection on the pattern and forms a seat
external dimensions and subtracting from to support and locate the core in the mould?
internal dimension. (a) Mould print (b) Core print
(a) Agree (c) Drag (d) Cope
168 Manufacturing Science and Technology

10. Loose piece pattern are (b) 50% sand and 50% clay
(a) a sort of split pattern (c) 70% sand and 30% clay
(b) Used when pattern cannot be drawn (d) 90% sand and 10% clay
from the mould 20. The purpose of gate
(c) Similar to core print (a) deliver molten metal into mould cavity
(d) Never used in foundry (b) acts as a reservoir for molten metal
11. The following pattern is used for very large (c) feed molten metal to compensate
castings shrinkage
(a) Solid pattern (b) Cope and Drag (d) deliver molten from pouring basin to
(c) Skeleton Pattern (d) Split Pattern gate
12. A bell cast by using 21. Cast Iron pipes are produced by
(a) Split pattern (a) Slash casting
(b) Segmental pattern
(b) Investment casting
(c) Skeleton Pattern
(c) True centrifugal casting
(d) Sweep Pattern
(d) Die casting
13. Tolerance produced by investment casting
22. In centrifugal casting method, impurities are
(a) + 0.05 mm (b) + 0.2 mm
(a) Forced outside the surface
(c) 0.5 mm (d) 1 mm
(b) Collected at the center of the casting
14. In die casting, machining allowance is
(c) Uniformly distributed
(a) Small (b) Large
(c) Very large (d) Not provided (d) None of the above
15. The surface to be machined are marked on 23. Core is used to
pattern by (a) Make desired recess in casting
(a) Red (b) Yellow (b) Strengthen moulding sand
(c) Black (d) Green (c) Support loose pieces
16. The surface to be unmachined is marked (d) To remove pattern easily
on pattern by 24. In a hot chamber die casting machine
(a) Red colour (b) Yellow colour (a) Melting pot is separate from the
(c) Black colour (d) Blue colour machine
17. The property of sand due to which it evolves (b) Melting pot is an integral part of
a great amount of steam and gases is called machine
(a) Collapsibility (b) Permeability (c) Melting pot may have any location
(c) Cohesiveness (d) Adhesiveness 25. In a centrifugal casting method
18. The property of sand due to which the sand (a) Core is made of sand
grains stick together is called (b) Core is made of ferrous metal
(a) Collapsibility (b) Permeability (c) Core is made of non-ferrous metal
(c) Cohesivenss (d) Adhesiveness
(d) No core is used
19. Green sand is a mixture of
26. Shift is a casting defect which
(a) 30% sand and 70% clay
 Appendix I: Objective Type Questions 169

(a) Results in a mis matching of top of (d) None of the above

bottom parts of mould 35. Maroon colour is generally painted on
(b) Resulting in enlargement of casting (a) Oxygen cylinder
(c) Occurs as sand patches on upper (b) Acetylene cylinder
surface of casting (c) Hydrogen cylinder
27. A casting defect which results in (d) None of the above
enlargement of casting is known as
36. If the weld is made from right to left, it is
(a) Shift (b) Sandwash
known as
(c) Swell (d) Scab
(a) Fore-hand welding
28. A casting defect which occur due to
(b) Back-hand welding
improper venting of sand is
(c) Vertical welding
(a) Cold shut (b) Blow holes
(d) None of the above
(c) Shift (d) Swell
37. For gas welding, the pressure desired by
29. Linseed oil is used in the core sand as
torch for oxygen is
(a) Catalyst (b) Pasting agent
(a) 7 to 130 kN/m2 (b) 70–280 kN/m2
(c) Flux (d) Binder
(c) 280–560 kN/m2 (d) 560–840 kN/m2
30. Fettling is an operation performed
38. For gas welding, the pressure desired by
(a) Before casting
torch for acetylene is
(b) During casting
(a) 7 to 130 kN/m2 (b) 70–280 kN/m2
(c) After casting
(c) 280–560 kN/m2 (d) 560–840 kN/m2
(d) After heat treatment
39. The maximum flame temperature occurs
31. In gas welding, flame temperature of
(a) at the outer cone
oxyacetylene gas is
(b) at the inner cone
(a) 1200°C (b) 1800°C
(c) between outer & inner cone
(c) 2400°C (d) 3200°C
(d) at the torch tip
32. Acetylene gas is stored in cylinder in
40. In the welding eyes need to be protected
(a) Solid form (b) Liquid form against
(c) Gaseous form (d) All the above (a) Intense glare
33. In gas welding, maximum thickness of (b) Sparks
material which can be welded with 30 mm (c) Infrared rays
diameter welding rod is (d) Infrared and ultra violet rays
(a) 3 mm (b) 6 mm 41. The main criterion for selection of electrode
(c) 15 mm (d) 300 mm diameter in arc welding
34. Black colour is generally painted on (a) Material to be welded
(a) Oxygen cylinder (b) Types of welding process
(b) Acetylene cylinder (c) Thickness of material
(c) Hydrogen cylinder (d) Voltage used
170 Manufacturing Science and Technology

42. Which of the following is preferred for 48. In resistance welding, voltage used for
welding non-ferrors metals by Arc Welding? heating is
(a) A.C. low frequency (a) 1 V (b) 10 V
(b) A.C. high frequency (c) 100 V (d) 500 V
(c) D.C. 49. In resistance welding
(d) All the above (a) Voltage is high and low current
43. In arc welding, arc is created between the (b) Voltage is low and high current
electrode and work by (c) Both voltage and current are high
(a) Flow of current (d) Both voltage and current are low
(b) Voltage 50. Grey cast iron is usually welded by
(c) Material characteristics (a) Gas welding
(d) Contact resistance (b) Resistance welding
44. A single V and single U butt welds are for (c) Arc welding
sheets of approximate thickness (d) TIG welding
(a) 1 to 5 mm 51. In resistance welding, two copper electrodes
(b) 5 to 15 mm used are cooled by
(c) 15 to 25 mm (a) Water
(d) More than 25 mm (b) Air
45. For welding plates of thickness less than 5 (c) Both (a) and (b)
mm beveling of its edges
(d) None of the above
(a) is done to single V or U-groove
52. The temperature of the inner core of neutral
(b) is done to double V or U-groove on one flame is order of
side
(a) 1,000°C (b) 2,000°C
(c) is done to a double V or U groove on
(c) 2,500°C (d) 3,500°C
both sides
(d) is not required 53. The most commonly used flame in gas
welding is
46. Open circuit voltage for arc welding is order
of (a) Neutral flame
(a) 10–40 volts (b) 40–95 volts (b) Oxidising flame
(c) 100–125 volts (d) 130–200 volts (c) Carbon flame
47. Welding process in which two pieces to be (d) None of the above
joined are overlapped and placed between 54. Spot welding, projection of seam welding
two electrodes is known as are classification of
(a) Percusion welding (a) Thermit welding
(b) Projection welding (b) Arc welding
(c) Spot welding (c) Electric Resistance welding
(d) Seam welding (d) Forge welding
 Appendix I: Objective Type Questions 171

55. Spot welding is used for welding plates 62. Which of the following welding process uses
having thickness non-consumable electrode?
(a) 0.25 mm to 1.25 mm (a) Laser welding
(b) 1.25 mm to 2.5 mm (b) TIG welding
(c) 3 mm (c) MIG welding
(d) 3 mm to 6 mm (d) Ion beam welding
56. In spot welding, the tip of electrode is of 63. Laser beam welding finds widest application
(a) Stainless steel (b) Aluminium in
(c) Copper (d) Brass (a) Heavy Industry
57. In spot welding electrode tip’s diameter (d) (b) Structural work
should be (c) Process Industry
(a) t (b) 1.5 t (d) Electronic Industry
64. Gases used in TIG welding are
(c) 3 t (d) 4.5 t
(a) Hydrogen and Oxygen
58. In which cutting process using high velocity
(b) CO2 and H2
jet of Ionised hot gas?
(c) Argon and Neon
(a) Oxy-acetylene cutting
(d) Argon and Helium
(b) Plasma arc cutting
65. The following welding process uses
(c) Metallic arc welding consumable electrode
(d) Oxy-arc cutting (a) MIG (b) TIG
59. Welding of steel structures on site of a (c) Thermite (d) Spot welding
building is done by 66. TIG welding is preferred for
(a) Spot welding (a) Mild steel (b) Aluminium
(b) Projection welding (c) Silver (d) All the above
(c) Arc welding 67. A collimated light beam is used for producing
(d) Seam Welding heat in
60. In arc welding, the temperature of heat of (a) TIG welding (b) MIG welding
arc is in the range (c) Laser welding (d) Plasma welding
(a) 1000°C to 2,000°C 68. Temperature of Plasma torch is order of
(b) 2000°C to 4,000°C (a) 1000°C (b) 5000°C
(c) 4000°C to 6,000°C (c) 10,000°C (d) 33,000°C
(d) 7000°C to 8,000°C 69. A soldering Iron bit is made of
61. Welding Process in which flux is used in (a) Brass (b) Tin
the form of granules is (c) Copper (d) Steel
70. Welding spatter is
(a) Gas welding
(a) Flux
(b) Submerged arc welding
(b) Electrode coating
(c) Arc welding
(c) Welding defect
(d) Thermite welding
(d) Welding test
172 Manufacturing Science and Technology

71. Distortion in welding occurs due to 80. Oxy-acetylene flame having more amount
(a) Use of excessive current of C2H2 is called
(b) Improper clamping (a) Oxidizing flame (b) Neutral flame
(c) Use of wrong electrode (c) Carburising flame (d) Red flame
(d) Oxidation of weld 81. Fuel gas used in gas welding is
72. The melting point of the filler metal in (a) N2 (b) C2H2
brazing should be (c) CO2 (d) H e
(a) 420°C (b) 600°C 82. Forge welding is an example of
(c) 800°C (d) 900°C (a) Arc welding
73. Straight polarity is better for (b) Solid state welding
(a) Thick materials (c) Resistance welding
(b) Thin materials (d) Seam welding
(c) Any material 83. Flux used in Brazing is
(d) None of the above (a) Aluminium (b) Borax
74. Reverse polarity is used for (c) Zinc chloride (d) Calcium carbide
(a) Thick materials 84. Flux used in soldering
(b) Thin materials (a) Borax (b) Sodium Silicate
(c) Any material (c) Calcium Carbide (d) Zinc Chloride
(d) None of the above 85. Soldering Iron bit is made of
75. Electrode used in TIG is (a) Brass (b) Copper
(a) C.I. (b) Tungsten (c) Tin (d) Steel
(c) Al (d) Cu 86. Ultrasonic welding is best suited for
76. In MIG welding, helium is used in order to (a) Non-ferrous metals
(a) Provide cooling effect (b) Brittle materials
(b) Acts as flux (c) Conductive materials
(c) Acts as shield medium (d) Metals
(d) Facilitate welding 87. In ultrasonic welding, the frequency range
77. Current range in SMAW is (a) 10–40 cps (b) 50–100 cps
(a) 10–500 Amps. (b) 10–50 Amps. (c) 4000–20000 cps (d) 200–500 cps
(c) 100–200 Amps. (d) 10–100 Amps. 88. Products made from plastic materials are
78. Which of the following is correct in SAW (a) Light weight
(a) Non-consumable electrode (b) Corrosive resistance
(b) No electrode (c) Excellent surface finish
(c) Consumable electrode (d) All of the above
(d) None of the above 89. The example of thermosetting material is
79. Oxy-acetylene flame having more amount (a) Cellphone
of O2 is called (b) Phenol formaldehyde
(a) Oxidizing flame (b) Neutral flame (c) Synthetic rubber
(c) Carburising flame (d) Red flame (d) Resin
 Appendix I: Objective Type Questions 173

90. Bottles and floatable objects of thermo 96. Forging of plain carbon steel is carried out
plastics are made by the process at
(a) Blow moulding (a) 750°C (b) 900°C
(b) Transfer moulding (c) 1110°C (d) 1300°C
(c) Extrusion 97. In forward extrusion, the ram and the metal
(d) Slush moulding moves in
91. Tooth paste tubes are manufactured by (a) Opposite direction
(a) Direct extrusion (b) Same direction
(b) Piercing (c) Circular
(c) Impact extrusion (d) None of the above
(d) Indirect extrusion 98. Which of the following material can not be
92. In which type of extrusion, the frictional forged?
force is high? (a) Wrought iron
(a) Direct extrusion (b) Mild steel
(b) Indirect extrusion (c) Cast iron
(c) Impact extrusion (d) High carbon steel
(d) Hydrostatic 99. Internal stress setup during forging can be
93. In Backward Extrusion removed by
(a) Metal flows in the direction of ram (a) Annealing (b) Normalizing
(b) Metal flows in opposite direction of ram (c) Tempering (d) Both (a) and (b)
(c) Metal flow in circular motion 100. What is the mechanical property of a
(d) None of the above material is desired so that it forged?
94. Upsetting is the process of (a) Ductility (b) Malleability
(a) Increasing the cross-section at the (c) Elasticity (d) Machinability
expense of length 101. In which metal forming process, the material
(b) Increasing the length at the expense of is shaped by intermitten blows?
cross-section
(a) Drawing process (b) Extrusion
(c) Some kind of welding
(c) Wire drawing (d) Forging process
(d) Some kind of bending
102. What is the advantage of forging?
95. Hot press forging
(a) Good surface finish
(a) causes a steadily applied pressure
instead of impact force (b) Low tooling cost
(b) is used to force the end of a heated (c) Improved physical properties
bar into a desired shape (d) Close tolerances
(c) is forging operation in which two halves 103. Drawing is the process of
of rotary die openly and closely while (a) Increase in length
impact the end of heated tube (b) Increase in cross section
(d) is a forging method for reducing the (c) Reduce in length
diameter of a bar and in the process
(d) Reduce in area
making it longer
174 Manufacturing Science and Technology

104. Extruded product takes the shape depending (a) Same

on (b) Larger
(a) Press capacity (c) Smaller
(b) Deforming force (d) Depend upon capacity
(c) Shape of the hole in die plate 112. Spinning operation is carried out on
(d) Depends on material (a) Hydraulic press
105. In hot working, the temperature of material (b) Mechanical press
used is (c) Lathe
(a) 200°C (d) Milling machine
(b) Above the melting point of material 113. Strech forming is
(c) Room temperature (a) In which the edges of sheet metal are
(d) Above the recrystallization temperature turned to provide stiffness
106. In cold working, the temperature of material (b) Producing contours in sheet metal
is permanently
(a) Below the recrystallization temperature (c) Employed to expand a tubular or
(b) Room temperature cylindrical part
(c) Below room temperature (d) None of these
(d) Above recrystallization temperature 114. Forces needed in cold working
107. Which rolling process gives better surface (a) Less
finish elongated grains? (b) More
(a) Hot rolling (b) Cold rolling (c) Equal
(c) Extrusion (d) Hot working (d) Sometimes more or less
108. Product made by rolling 115. Work hardening occurs in the following
(a) I-Section (b) Tubes forming process:
(c) Rollers (d) Metal rolls (a) Cold working (b) Hot working
109. Machinery used in production of channel, I (c) Extrusion (d) None of these
sections, angles etc. 116. The operation of cutting of a flat sheet to
(a) Continuous casting method the desired shape is called
(b) Rolling mills (a) Shearing (b) Piercing
(c) Forging Plant (c) Punching (d) Blanking
(d) Spinning machines 117. Notching is the operation of
110. In four high rolling mill, bigger rollers are (a) Cutting sheet metal in a straight line
called along the length
(a) Guide rolls (b) Backup rolls (b) Removal of metal to the desired shape
(c) Main rolls (d) Support rolls from the edge of plate
111. In four rolling mill, the diameter of backup (c) Cutting a sheet of metal through a part
rolls in comparison with the diameter of of length and bend the cut portion
working rolls is (d) Bending the sheet
 Appendix I: Objective Type Questions 175

118. Cutting a sheet of metal in a straight line 125. Blanking and piercing operations can be
along the length known as performed simultaneously in
(a) Plunging (b) Notching (a) Compound die (b) Simple die
(c) Slitting (d) Forming (c) Progressive die (d) Combination die
119. In sheet metal blanking, shear is provided 126. In progressive dies
on punch and die so that (a) Two or more cutting operations can be
(a) Press load is reduced performed simultaneously
(b) Good cut edge (b) Cutting and forming operations can be
(c) Working of sheet minimized combined and carried in simple
(d) None operation
120. The operation of bending a sheet metal along (c) Work-piece moves from one station to
curved axis is known as other with separate operations
(a) Plunging (b) Notching performed at each station
(c) Forming (d) Slitting (d) All of the above
121. The operation of producing cup shaped parts 127. The cutting force in punching and blanking
from sheet metal operations depends on
(a) Drawing (b) Coining (a) The modulus of elasticity
(c) Lancing (d) Squeezing (b) shear strength
122. The operation of straightening a curved (c) Bulk modulus
sheet metal is known as (d) Yield strength
(a) Drawing (b) Squeezing 128. Angular clearance provide on dies is of
(c) Lancing (d) Planishing order of
123. In compound die (a) 5 to 10°C (b) 3 to 5°C
(a) Only one operation is performed in (c) ½ to 2°C (d) 10 to 20°C
single stroke 129. In bending operation, the metal takes the
(b) Two or more operations are performed shape of
simultaneously in single stroke of ram (a) Die
(c) Two or more cutting operations are (b) Punch
performed at one station in every (c) Average of two
stroke of the ram (d) Could take any shape
(d) Both cutting and non-cutting operations 130. In Blanking operation, the clearance is
at one station in every stroke of ram provided on
124. Cutting and forming operations are (a) Die
performed in single operation in (b) Punch
(a) Simple die (c) Half on die and half on punch
(b) Combination die (d) Provided on any member
(c) Progressive die
(d) Compound die
176 Manufacturing Science and Technology

ANSWERS

1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (d)

9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (c)
17. (b) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (a) 21. (c) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (d) 26. (a) 27. (c) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (c) 31. (d) 32. (b)
33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (b) 36. (a) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (d)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (d) 44. (b) 45. (d) 46. (b) 47. (c) 48. (b)
49. (b) 50. (a) 51. (a) 52. (d) 53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (a) 56. (c)
57. (a) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (c) 61. (b) 62. (b) 63. (d) 64. (d)
65. (a) 66. (b) 67. (c) 68. (d) 69. (c) 70. (c) 71. (b) 72. (a)
73. (a) 74. (b) 75. (b) 76. (c) 77. (a) 78. (c) 79. (a) 80. (c)
81. (b) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (d) 85. (b) 86. (b) 87. (c) 88. (d)
89. (b) 90. (a) 91. (c) 92. (a) 93. (b) 94. (a) 95. (a) 96. (d)
97. (b) 98. (c) 99. (d) 100. (b) 101. (d) 102. (c) 103. (a) 104. (c)
105. (d) 106. (a) 107. (b) 108. (a) 109. (b) 110. (b) 111. (b) 112. (c)
113. (b) 114. (b) 115. (a) 116. (d) 117. (b) 118. (c) 119. (a) 120. (c)
121. (a) 122. (d) 123. (c) 124. (b) 125. (a) 126. (c) 127. (b) 128. (c)
129. (b) 130. (b)
 PART B
MACHINE TOOLS
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intentionally left
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 7
1 Fundamentals of
Metal Cutting

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Metal cutting is the process of producing required dimensional work-piece by removing the un-
wanted material in the form of chips.

7.2 CLASSIFICATION OF CUTTING TOOLS

Cutting tools are classified into two groups
1. Single point tools
2. Multi point tools
7.2.1 Single Point Tools (See Fig 7.1)
Single point tools have one cutting edge. These tools are classified under the following groups.
(a) According to the method of manufacturing tools
(i) Solid tool
(ii) Forged tool
(iii) Tipped type tool
(iv) Bit type tool
(b) According to the method of cutting edge (feed)
(i) Right hand tool
(ii) Left hand tool
(c) According to method of using the tool.
(a) (i) Solid tool: The cutting edge is formed by grinding the end of a piece of tool steel stock. (See
Fig. 7.1(a)) shows a solid tool.
180 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(ii) Forged tool (See Fig. 7.1(b)): Forged tools are manufactured from high carbon steel or
high speed steel. The required shape of the tool is made by forging before hardening and
grinding.

(a) Solid tool (b) Forged tool

(c) Tipped tool (Blazed tool) (d) Bit type tool

Fig. 7.1 Single Point Tools

(iii) Tipped type tool (See Fig. 7.1(c)): In tipped type tool, the cutting edge is in the form of
small tip made of high grade material which is blazed to a shank of low grade material.
(iv) Bit type tool (See Fig. 7.1.(d)): In bit type, a high grade material like carbide or ceramic of
a square or rectangular shape is held mechanically in a tool holder.
(b) (i) Right hand tool (See Fig. 7.2(a))

Fig. 7.2 Left and Right Cutting Tool

In a right cutting tool, the side of cutting edge is on the side of the right thumb when the right
hand is placed on the tool with the palms downwards and the fingers pointed towards the tool nose.
(b) (ii) Left hand tool (See Fig. 7.2(b)): A left cutting tool is one which has the side cutting edge
is on the thumb side when the left hand is applied.
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 181

(c) According to method of using tool

(i) Turning tool
(ii) Facing tool
(iii) Parting off tool
(iv) Thread cutting tool
(v) Forming tool
(vi) Boring tool.
7.2.2 Multi Point Cutting Tools
They have more than one effective cutting edge to remove the excess material from the work-
piece. Milling cutters, reamers, broaches and grinding wheels are multipoint tools. These tools may
have rotary travel, in case of drilling or milling operations or may have linear travel, in case of
Broaching operations.

7.3 ELEMENTS OF SINGLE POINT TOOL (See Fig. 7.3)

Shank

Face Base

Nose

End (auxiliary)
cutting edge
Side (Main)
cutting edge
End Flank
Side Flank

Fig. 7.3 Elements of Single Point Tool

Face: It is the surface over which the chips flow

Flank: It is the surface below the cutting edge
Nose:It is the junction of the side and end cutting edges
Side cutting edge: It does the main work in the cutting process. It is the intersection of the face
and side flank.
End or auxiliary cutting edge: It is the intersection of face and end flank.

7.4 GEOMETRY OF A SINGLE POINT TOOL (TOOL ANGLES) (See Fig. 7.4)
In a single point tool, these are various angles, each of them has a definite purpose.
182 Manufacturing Science and Technology

End cutting angle

Face
Nose Shank
Side cutting radius
angle
Back rake angle
Side back
angle

End relief angle

Side relief
angle

Fig. 7.4 Geometry of a Single Point Tool (Tool Angles)

Back rake angle (Top rake angle): It is also called as Top rake angle. It measures the
downward slope of the top surface of the tool from nose to the rear along the longitudinal axis. Its
purpose is to guide the direction of the chip flow. The size of the angle depends upon the material
to be machined. The softer material requires greater positive rake angle. Aluminium requires more
back rake angle than C.I. or steel. Back rake angle may be positive, neutral, negative rake angle.
Positive rake angle is used to cut low tensile strength and non-ferrous metals. Negative rake angle
is used for high tensile strength materials.
Side rake angle: It measures the slope of the top surface of the tool to the side in a direction
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. It also guides the direction of the chip away from the job.
The amount that a chip is bent depends upon this angle. (See Fig. 7.5)

Side rake
angle

Side relief angle

Fig. 7.5 Side Rake Angle of Side Relief Angle

Side relief angle: It is the angle, made by the flank of the tool and a plane perpendicular to
the base just under the side cutting edge. This angle permits the tool to be fed side-ways into the
job so that it can cut without rubbing.
End relief angle: It is the angle between a plane perpendicular to the base and the end flank.
This angle prevents the cutting tool from rubbing against the job.
End cutting edge angle: It is the angle between the face of the tool and a plane perpendicu-
lar to the side of the shank. It acts as a relief angle that allows only a small section of the end
cutting edge to contact the machined surface.
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 183

Side cutting edge angle: It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the longitudinal
axis of the tool. It avoids the formation of built up edges controls the direction of chip flow and
distributes the cutting force and heat produced over large cutting edge.
Nose Radius: It is provided to increase finish and strength of the cutting tip of the tool.

7.5 TOOL SIGNATURE

The tool angles have been standardized by American Standards Association (ASA). Seven impor-
tant elements comprise the signature of the cutting tool and stated in the following order.
Back rake angle, side Rake angle, end relief angle, side relief angle, end cutting edge angle,
side cutting edge angle and nose radius. It is usual to omit symbols for degrees, and mm, but
simply stating the numerical values of each element.
For example a tool signature as 10, 10, 6, 6, 8, 8, 2
Back rake angle = 10°
Side rake angle = 10°
End relief angle = 6°
Side relief angle = 6°
End cutting edge angle = 8°
Side cutting edge angle = 8°
Nose radius = 2 mm.

7.6 TOOL NOMENCLATURE SYSTEMS (Tool Angle Specification Systems)

The most important nomenclature systems are:
(a) British system (maximum normal rake system)
(b) American system (ASA system)
(c) German system (DIN system)
(d) Orthogonal rake system (ORS).
(a) British System (MRS) (See Fig. 7.6)
According to this system, the rake angle is specified as the steepest slope of the rake face. It
is equal to the angle between the rake face and the tool face measured in a plane perpendicular to
both the rake face and the tool base.
184 Manufacturing Science and Technology
m

Direction of
steepest slope Maximum
rake angle

Section at m - m
Fig. 7.6 British System of Tool Nomenclature

(b) American System (ASA System) (See Fig. 7.7)

rx
Section B-B

B
B

A ry

Section A-A
Fig. 7.7 American System of Tool Nomenclature (x-y-z planes)

r y = Top rake angle ; α y = End relief angle

rx = Side rake angle ; α x = Side relief angle
θ = Nose angle ; φ = Side cutting edge angle
φ1 = End cutting edge angle
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 185

In this system, the geometry of the rake face is expressed in terms of the side rake angle and
the back rake angle. The back rake angle is the angle between the rake face and the base of the
tool measured in a plane perpendicular to the base of the tool and parallel to the longitudinal axis of
the tool. The side rake angle is defined as the angle between the rake face and the tool base
measured in a plane normal to that in which the back rake angle is measured.
(c) German System (DIN System) (See Fig. 7.8)

rx

Section x-x

ry
Section y-y

Fig. 7.8 German System of Tool Nomenclature

r y= Back rake angle ; α y = End relief angle
rx = Side rake angle ; α x = Side relief angle
In DIN system, also, the rake face is specified by the side rake angle and the back rake angle.
However, the measurement of these two angles are different from American system.
In this system, the back rake angle is the angle between the rake face and the base plane
measured in a plane which is normal to the base plane but parallel to the trace of the end cutting
edge angle.
Likewise, the side rake angle is defined as the angle between the rake face and the base
plane measured in a plane normal to the trace of the side cutting edge in the base plane.
186 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(d) Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)(See Fig. 7.9 (a) and (b))

Section across NN1 r

r

Section across MM1

N1
M1

N
M

Fig. 7.9 (a) L-M-N-Planes (International System)

α = Side relief angle; β = Wedge angle; r = Side rake angle

α + β + r = 90° δ = Cutting angle = α + β
∴ δ + r = 90° ∴ δ = 90° − r
φ = Plan approach angle; φ1 = End cutting edge angle;
∂ = Nose angle; λ = Inclination angle;
α1 = End relief angle; r1= End rake angle;
β1 = End relief angle;

±
–

Fig. 7.9 (b) Angle of Inclination of the Side (Main) Cutting Edge

This is also known as International system (ISO). In this system, the side rake angle is defined
as the angle between the base plane and the rake face, measured in a plane normal to the side
cutting edge. The back rake angle is the angle between the base plane and the rake face mea-
sured in a plane normal to the end cutting edge.
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 187

7.7 TYPES OF METAL CUTTING PROCESS

In the metal cutting operation, the tool is forced into the work-piece to remove unwanted material
from the wor-kpiece. There are two methods of metal cutting, depending upon the movement of
the cutting edge with respect to the direction of relative work-tool motion. These are:
(a) Orthogonal cutting process—Two-dimensional cutting (Fig. 7.10 (a))

Tool

90°

Tool
Workpiece

(a) Orthogonal cutting

(b) Oblique cutting process—Three-dimensional cutting (Fig. 7.10 (b))

Chip

Tool

Cutting edge inclination Tool

(b) Oblique cutting

Fig. 7.10 Methods of Metal Cutting Processes

7.8 COMPARISON OF ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE

CUTTING PROCESSES

Orthogonal Cutting
(a) The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the direction of tool feed.
(b) The cutting edge clears the width of the work-piece on either sides
(c) The direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting edge of tool
188 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(d) Only two components of cutting forces act on the tool. These two components are perpen-
dicular to each other.
(e) Unsuitable for efficient chip removal
Oblique Cutting
(a) The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an acute angle to the direction of tool feed.
(b) The cutting edge may or may not clear the width of the work-piece.
(c) The direction of chip blow velocity is at an angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the
tool.
(d) Three mutually perpendicular components of cutting forces act at the cutting edge of the
tool.
(e) Suitable for efficient metal removal.

7.9 CHIP FORMATION

While machining, the metal in front of the tool rake face is compressed, first elastically and then
plastically, finally sheared from the parent metal and comes as in the form of chip. The type of
chip produced during metal cutting depends upon the machining conditions and material being cut.
The variables which influence the type of chip produced as follows.
(i) Properties of the material
(ii) Depth of cut
(iii) Feed rate
(iv) Effective rake angle of the tool
(v) Cutting speed
(vi) Type and quantity of cutting fluid.

7.10 TYPES OF CHIPS

Three basic types of chips formed are:
(a) Continuous chips
(b) Discontinuous chips
(c) Continuous chip with built up edge.
(a) Continuous Chips (Fig. 7.11)

Chip
Tool

Tool
Workpiece

(a) Shaping operation (b) Turning Operation

Fig. 7.11 Continuous Chips
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 189

These chips are in the form of long coils having same thickness throughout. The chips are produced
due to the plastic deformation of metal without rupture. Factors responsible for these chips are:
(i) Ductile material
(ii) High cutting speed
(iii) Large rake angle
(iv) Efficient cutting fluids
(v) Low friction between tool face and chips.
(b) Discontinuous Chips (Fig. 7.12)

Tool

Tool

(a) Shaping operation (b) Turning Operation

Fig. 7.12 Discontinuous Chips

The chips are small individual segments which may adhere loosely to each other. These segments
are formed due to rupture of the metal ahead of the tool.
Factors responsible for these chips are
(i) Low cutting speed
(ii) Brittle materials
(iii) Small rake angle.
(c) Continuous Chip with Built up Edge: (See Fig. 7.13)

Tool

Workpiece Tool
(a) Shaping operation (b) Turning Operation

Fig. 7.13 Continuous chip with built up edge

During machining, the temperature and pressure is very high and causes the chip material to
weld to the tool face near the nose. This is called build up edge. The accumulated built up of chip
material break away, part will adhere to the chip, part will adhere to the work-piece.
190 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Factors are:
(i) Ductile material
(ii) Small rake angle
(iii) Cause feed.

7.11 CHIP CONTROL

Continuous chips are produced while machining ductile materials. The disposal of such long ribbon
like chips has never been problem while machining with high speed steels (HSS). But introduction
of carbides and ceramics leads to increase in machining speeds and chip production is 3 to 5 times
to that of HSS tools. At such high speed of machining, the chips leave the cutting edge at a very
high velocity which are dangerous to the operator since the chips are hot and sharp. This leads to
the development of a device to break the chip. This is known as chip breaker. The chip breaker is
located near the cutting edge where it obstruct the flow of chip and makes them to curl immedi-
ately. The curled chips break either because of the tight curling or due to their hitting on the face
to the cutting tool.
(a) Reasons for using the Chip Breaker
(i) The chips are dangerous to the operator since they are hot and their edges are sharp.
(ii) Long chips are difficult to dispose and occupy more space.
(iii) Hot and sharp edged chips may damage the instruments and machine tool painting.
(iv) The curled chips small about the work-piece and machine.
(v) The chips interfere with the flow of content and thus the use of coolent becomes less
effective.
(vi) The emerging chips spoil the newly generated surface.
(b) Disadvantages
(i) It increases the cost of the cutting tool.
(ii) The cutting force increase and hence power consumption increases.
(c) Types of Chip Breakers
Various types of chip breakers are as follows:
Types of Chip Breakers

Ground in type
Clamp on type

Step type Groove Type

 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 191

Step type Chip Breaker (Fig. 7.14 (a)

(a) Step type chip breaker (a) Groove type breaker (a) Clamp type breaker

Fig. 7.14 Chip Breakers

In step type breaker, a step is ground on the face of the tool among the cutting edge. This step
deflects back the chip into the work-piece or the side of the tool where it breakes.
Groove type chip breakers (See Fig. 7.14 (b))
In this chip breaker, a small groove is cut behind the cutting edge. With the development of
inserted carbide tool, it is now possible to provide the groove on the carbide tip during manufactur-
ing itself.
Clamp type chip breaker (See Fig. 7.14 (c))
In clamp type chip breaker, a thin carbide-faced plate or clamp is brazed or screwed on the face
of the tool. In screw type, the provision for the adjustment of the plate can be effectively used
over a large cutting rangers and materials.

7.12 CHIP THICKNESS RATIO (See Fig. 7.15)

Chip
Chip t2

B
Tool
t1 D
c A
W/P

Fig. 7.15 Determination of Chip Thickness Ratio

Let t1 = thickness of the chip before cutting
t2 = chip thickness after cutting
chip thickness ratio r = t1/t2
when metal is cut, there is no change in volume of the metal cut
t1b1l1 = t2b2l2
where t1 = chip thickness before cutting;
b1 = width of cut
l1 = length of chip before cutting
t2 = chip thickness after cutting,
b2 = width of chip after cutting
192 Manufacturing Science and Technology

l2 = length of chip after cutting

when there is no side flow of metal, then b1 = b2
∴ t1l1 = t2l2
l2
t1/t2 = =r
l1
In case side flow is to be considered, the thickness ratio is to be multiplied by λ. Side flow
factor is to be obtained when the length ratio

λ = b1 b .
2
The chip thickness ratio can also be expressed in different way
From the right angle ∆ABC
BC
sin φ =
AB
BC t
∴ ΑΒ = = 1 ...(1)
sin φ sin φ
From right angle triangle ABD
BD
sin(90 − φ + α ) =
AB
t2 t2
AB = = ...(2)
sin(90 − (φ − α)) cos(φ − α)
From (1) and (2) equations
t1 t2
=
sin φ cos(φ − α )
t1 sin φ
=
t2 cos(φ − α )
sin φ
r=
cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α
r cos φ cos α + r sin φ sin α
=1
sin φ
cos α
r + r sin α = 1
tan φ
cos α
r = (1 − r sin α )
tan φ
r cos α
tan φ =
1 − r sin α
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 193

r cos α
tan φ =
1 − r sin α

7.13 FORCES ON THE CHIP (See Fig. 7.16)

F
F
1
Chip R
Fs
Tool

R1 Fs
R Fc N
R
Ft
FN N FN

Fig. 7.16 Force Components on the Chip

The relationships amongsts the various forces (Fig. 7.16) has been worked out by Merchant with
a number of assumptions.
(a) The tool is very sharp and there is no contact along the clearance face.
(b) The chip does not flow to either side (no side spread).
(c) A continuous chip without built up edge is produced.
(d) The cutting velocity remains constant.
(e) The chip behaves as a free body in stable equilibrium under the action of two equals, oppo-
site and almost collinear resultant forces.
Force Fs acts along the shear plane and is the resistance to shear of the metal informing the
chip. FN is the force normal to shear plane. This is backing up force on the chip provided by the
work-piece. R is the resultant of Fs∝Fn.
Force F is the frictional resistance of the tool acting downwards against the motion of the chip
as it moves along the tool face. The normal force N is normal to the tool face. The resultant of
these two forces is R1 and is the force exerted by the tool on the work-piece. The forces R1 and
R are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and collinear
JJG JG JJG
R1 = F+N
JJG JJJG JJG JJG
R = FS + Fn = FC = Ft
Merchant represented the various forces inside a circle. The diameter of the circle is equal to
R or R1 passing through the tool point (Fig. 7.17).
In this diagram, the horizontal component is the cutting force Fc and the vertical component is
the thrust force Ft. These two are measured by using a dynamometer t1, t2 and φ by calculation
therefore other components are expressed in terms of known parameters.
194 Manufacturing Science and Technology

As chip slides over the tool face under pressure, the kinematic co-efficient of friction ( µ ) may
be expressed as

R
Tool

Fs
FN
F
E A

B
P
Ft
F

D
N c

R
Fs Fc A
F
A E
F Fc

P
Ft
R F
Ft
FN

D D N C
(a) Part of Merchant's force diagram (b) Part of Merchant's force diagram

Fig. 7.17 Merchant Circle Diagram

F
µ= = tan β
N
Other force relationships:
1. F = Ft cos α + Fc sin α
N = Fc cos α − Ft sin α
as F = AB + BC = AB + DE
= FC sin α + Ft cos α
N = FB − FE
= FC cos α − Ft sin α
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 195

2. Fs = FC cos α − Ft sin φ
FN = Ft cos φ − Fc sin φ
as Fs = Aφ − φR = Aφ − FP
= Fc cos φ − Ft sin φ
FN = DR = DP + PR = DP + F φ
= Ft cos φ + Fc sin φ

3. Fc = AD cos(β − α )
= R cos(β − α )
Fs = R cos(φ + β − α )
Fc cos(β − α )
=
Fs cos(φ + β – α )
Fs cos(β – α )
Fc =
cos(φ + β – α )
4. F Fc sin α + Ft cos α
=
N Fc cos α − Ft sin α
Ft + Fc tan α
=
Fc − Ft tan α
F
also = tan β = µ
N
Ft
and = tan(β − α )
Fc

7.14 VELOCITY RATIO (See Fig. 7.18)

C
Tool
Vf
Vf Vs
Vs
Vc

B Vc A

Fig. 7.18 Velocity Relationship

As the tool advances, the metal gets cut and chip is formed. The chip slides over the rake surface
of the tool.
196 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Let Vc = Velocity of the tool relative to the work-piece.

It is called cutting velocity
V f = Velocity of the chip related to tool.
= It is called chip flow velocity.
V s = Velocity of displacement or formation of the newly cut chip elements relative to the
work-piece
It is called velocity of shear
Using trigonometric principles
Vc Vf Vs
= =
sin 90 − (φ − α ) sin φ sin(90 − α )

Vc Vf V
= = s
cos(φ − α ) sin φ cos φ
cos α
∴ Vs = Vc .
cos(φ − α )

Vc sin φ
Vf =
cos(φ – α )

7.15 MACHINABILITY OF METALS

The ease with which a given material may be worked with a cutting tool is Machinability.
7.15.1 Machinability Criteria Depends on many Factors such as
(i) Chemical composition of work-piece material
(ii) Structure of work-piece
(iii) Mechanical properties
(iv) Physical properties (tensile, ductility)
(v) Cutting conditions such as cutting speed, feed etc.
7.15.2 Evaluation of Machinability
(i) Tool life
(ii) Intensity of cutting force
(iii) Quality of surface finish
(iv) Form and size of chip
(v) Temperature of cutting.

7.16 TOOL LIFE

During machining, the cutting edge of the tool gradually wears out and it needs regrinding as the
wear increases, the tool looses its efficiency. So the “tool life” is defined as the time elapsed
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 197

between two- successive grinding of the tool. It is expressed in minutes.

The various ways of expressing tool life are given below:
(a) Time of actual operation
(b) Volume of metal removed
(c) Number of pieces machined
(d) Equivalent cutting speed.
7.16.1 Factor’s Affecting Tool Like
(a) Cutting speed
(b) Feed rate
(c) Depth of cut
(d) Hardness of work-piece
(e) Tool material
(f) Tool geometry
(g) Type of cutting fluid
(h) Rigidity of workpiece machine tool system
(i) Nature of cutting.
7.16.2 Tool Life Equation
F.W. Taylor developed the relationship between the tool life and cutting speed.
n
VT = C
where V = Cutting speed in meters/min
T = Tool life in minutes
n = Tool life index
= 0.1 to 0.15 for HSS tools
= 0.2 to 0.4 for tungsten carbide tools
= 0.4 to 0.6 for ceramic tools
C = Constant
These values When plotted on a log-log graph gives a straight line.

n = y/x
Cutting speed

c y

Tool life (Minutes)

Fig. 7.19 Tool Life Plot

198 Manufacturing Science and Technology

The tool life plot can be used for two things. Firstly, it can be used to determine the value of
Exponent (n) and Constant C.
It can be used to predict the values of tool life at other cutting speeds. The slop of the tool life
plot is the value of ‘n’ and the intercept of the y-axis, when the plot is extended backwards to
meet the y-axis is the value of C.
The effect of depth cut and feed can be included in the above formula as
VTn f n1 dn2 = C.

7.17 TOOL WEAR

The tool material on the rake face and the flank will gradually wear out and even fracture. Various
wear mechanisms are described below.
(a) Shearing at High Temperature (Plastic Shear)
(See Fig. 7.20)

Fig. 7.20 Wear by Plastic Shear

While machining, the tool material softens at high temperature. At the same time, the chip flowing
on the rack face gets work hardened so much to exert frictional stress sufficient to cause yielding
by shear of the hard tool material.
(b) Diffusion Wear (See Fig. 7.21)

Chip

Contact area where diffusion occurs

Fig. 7.21 Wear by Diffusion

While machining, the temperature at the interface is so high such that the atoms from hard metal
(tool) diffuse into soft material (chip) thereby increasing the latter’s hardness and abrasiveness.
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 199

On the contrary, atoms from the softer metal (chip) may also diffuse into hard material (tool)
weakening the surface layer of the latter to such an extent that the particles on it are dislodged
and torn out.
(c) Adhesive Wear (See Fig. 7.22)
On account of friction, high temperature and pressure, particles of the softer matieral (chip) ad-
here to a few high spots of the harder metal (tool). In due course more particles join up and built
up edge is formed. Sooner or later some of these fragments which may have grown up in micro-
scopic size are torn from the surface of the hard metal (tool). It appears as if the surface of hard
metal (tool) has been nibbled away and made uneven.

Fig. 7.22 Adhesive Wear

(d) Abrasive Wear (See Fig. 7.23)

Fig. 7.23 Abrasive Wear

The chip material sliding over the tool may contain appreciable concentration of hard particles.
These hard particles act as small cutting edges like those of a grinding wheel on the surface of the
tool which in due course, is wornout through abrasion. These particles dragged along or rolled over
the surface. While moving, the particles plough grooves into the surface of tool.
(e) Fatigue Wear
When two surfaces slide in contact with each other under pressure, asperities on one surface inter-
lock with those of other. Due to the frictional stress, compressive stress is produced on one side of
each interlocking asperity and tensile stress on other side. After a given time, a pair of asperities
200 Manufacturing Science and Technology

have moved over, the above stresses are relieved. New pair of asperities are, however soon formed
and the stress cycle is repeated. Thus, the material of the hard metal near the surface under goes
cyclic stresses. This phenomenon causes surface cracks.
(f) Electrochemical Effect
A thermo electric e.m.f. is setup in the closed circuit due to the formation of a hot junction at the
chip tool interface. This current may assist the wear process at the rack face. For example, by
aiding the diffusion of carbon ions from the carbide tool to the flowing chip.
(g) Oxidation Effect
Grooves or notches at the rack face and flank are due to reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere
to form abrasive oxides while machining.
(h) Chemical Decomposition
Localized chemical reaction may occur that weakens the tool material through formation of weak
compounds or dissolution of the bond between the binder and the hard constituents. For example, in
carbide tool, the weakened particles are easily torn away by the asperities of the mating surface.

7.18 KINDS OF TOOL DAMAGE (See Fig. 7.24)

Crater wear

Flank
wear

Fig. 7.24 Tool Damage

Generally, tool will fail on account of the following:

(a) Flank wear
(b) Crater wear
(c) Chipping.
(a) Flank Wear
This wear produces wear lands on the side and end flanks of the tool on account of the rubbing
action of the machined surface.
(b) Crater Wear
It occurs on the rake face of the tool in the form of pit called crater. The crater is formed at some
distance from the cutting edge. The cratering is a temperature dependent phenomenon caused by
diffusion, adhesion etc. The crater significantly reduce the strength of the tool and thereby lead to
its failure.
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 201

(c) Chipping
Chipping refers to the breaking away of small chips from the cutting edge. If a tool on account of
impact, excess of plastic deformation, thermal stresses etc.

7.19 CUTTING FLUIDS

With the development of newer tool material like tungsten, carbide, ceramics, and use of high
cutting speeds during machining, a large amount of heat is generated. The major part of heat is
taken away by the chip and the remaining is shared by the workpiece and tool. This heat reduces
the life of tool and influences the dimensional accuracy of the work-piece. The heat generated
during machining should be effectively removed using proper type of cutting fluid (coolant). The
use of cutting fluid improves tool life, surface finish and reduces the machining forces.
(a) Functions of Cutting Fluids (Coolants)
(i) It cools the cutting tool and work-piece. The heat produced is carried away by the coolant
by supplying adequate quantity of coolant.
(ii) It washes away the chips from cutting zone.
(iii) It lubricates the chip-tool interface. Thus reduces the kinetic coefficient of friction and
keeps down the cutting force.
(iv) They improve surface finish
(v) The use of coolant results in better surface finish
(vi) Use of coolant, reduces the thermal distortion of the work.
(b) Properties of Cutting Fluids
(i) They should have high heat absorption
(ii) They should possess good lubricating properties
(iii) They should not form easily
(iv) They should be odourless and transparent
(v) They should be stable in use and storage
(vi) They should be non-corrosive to work and machine
(vii) They should passess high flash point
(viii) They should be low viscosity
(ix) They should be low cost
(x) They should not be given the moving parts of the machine tool.

7.20 TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS

(a) Gaseous type
(b) Liquid type
(c) Oil based cutting fluids.
202 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(a) Gaseous Type

Air (compressed air), carbon dioxide, argon are some of the examples.
These are applied through a nozzle under pressure. Liquid CO2 possesses excellent property of
extracting the heat from a body due to sublimation of CO2. However, its use is very limited
because of higher cost.
(b) Liquid Type Cutting Fluids
These are two general types, water base and mineral oil base
(i) Water based cutting fluids: Early attempts to improve cooling and lubricating properties of
water included with the addition of soft soap but there are now oils where the desired effect
and form emulsion with water.
(ii) Mineral oil based cutting fluids: These oils are known as soluble oils. Soda solutions are
used on grinding operations as it has good flushing action and cooling effect.
(c) Oil Based Cutting Fluids
These are known as straight oils. These are classified into sub groups.
(i) Mineral oils
(ii) Fatty oils
(iii) Compound oils
(iv) Sulphurised oils
(v) Chlorinated oils.

7.21 METHODS OF APPLICATION OF CUTTING FLUIDS

The method of application of a cutting fluid is very important.
There are three methods commonly used.
(a) Flood application method
(b) Mist application method
(c) High jet method.
(a) Flood Application Method: In machine tools, the system consists of a pump mounted on
a tank containing the cutting fluid. The outlet of the pump is connected to a nozzle through
a flexible pipe. The nozzle can be adjusted to direct the stream of the fluid at the desired
point (cutting zone). This is most commonly used method for all machine tools.
(b) Mist Application Method: In this method, the fluid is passed through a specially de-
signed nozzle so that it forms very fine droplets of cutting fluid or produces a mist. This
mist is directed at the cutting zone at a high velocity. This method of application has an
advantage over flood method because during mist formation the temperature of fluids
falls due to expansion and so it can absorb more heat.
(c) High Jet Method: This is a recent method of applying cutting fluid. In this method, a
narrow jet at high velocity is directed at the flank surface of the cutting tool.
 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 203

7.22 SELECTION OF CUTTING FLUIDS

The selection of cutting fluid for a certain operation depends on a number of parameters.
(a) Work-piece material
(b) Machining operation
(c) Cutting tool material
(d) Cost of the cutting fluid.
Example 7.1: In orthogonal cutting, cutting force = 150 kgs : Feed force = 50 kgs, r = 0.44,
Rake angle 10°, cutting speed = 100 m/min : calculate (a) shear angle . (b) F, N, Fs, Ft and µ.
r cos α 0.44cos10° 0.4333
Solution: tan φ = = = = 0.4691
1 − r sin α 1 − 0.44sin10° 0.932359
= 25/3°
φ = 25°
F = Ft cos α + Fc sin α
= 50 cos 10° + 150 sin 10°
= 49.240 + 26.047
= 75.28 kgf
N = Fc cos α – Ft sin α
= 150 × 0.985 – 50 × 0.174
= 139.3 kgf
Fs = Fc cos φ – Ft sin φ
= 150 × 0.906 – 50 × 0.4225
= 114.9 kgf
Fn = Ft cos φ + Fc sin φ
= 50 × 0.906 + 150 × 0.4225
= 108.9 kgf
F 75.28
Coefficient of friction = µ = = = 0.54
N 139.3
Example 7.2: In turning operation, a tool life of 80 minutes is obtained at the cutting speed of
30m/min and 8 minutes at the speed of 60m/min determine.
(a) Tool life equation
(b) Cutting speed for 4 minutes tool life.
V1 = 30; T1 = 80;
V2 = 60; T2 =8
n
VT = C
V1T1n = V2T2n
204 Manufacturing Science and Technology
n n
30 × (80) = 60 × (8)
n
30  8 
= 
60  80 
n
1 =  1 
2  10 
n = 0.3
0.3
VT = c
0.3
V1T10.3 = V3T3
0.3
30 × (80)0.3 = V3 × (4)
30×800.3
V3 =
40.3
= 73.9 m/min.

QUESTIONS
1. Define various tool angles used in a single point cutting tool with neat sketch?
2. Describe the tool geometry as per ASA and ORS systems?
3. What are the various chips formed in metal cutting. Briefly describe conditions favourable for their
formation?
4. Distinguish between orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting?
5. What is tool signature?
6. What are the chip breakers? Sketch and Explain.
7. What are the assumptions made in Merchant circle? Draw the circle and show various cutting forces?
8. What are the essential properties of coolant?
9. Explain various methods of applying cutting fluids?
10. Explain Taylor’s tool life equation?
11. Describe various types of tool wear?
 8
1
Lathe

8.1 INTRODUCTION
The lathe is a machine tool which shapes a product by removing the extra material from it in the
form of chips by rotating the work against a single point tool. The work is clamped either in a
chuck or in between the centres. The most common type of surface produced is cylindrical

8.2 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF LATHE

The principal parts of a lathe are labelled and shown in Fig. 8.1. A brief description of these parts
are as follows:

Fig. 8.1 Parts of a Lathe

206 Manufacturing Science and Technology

8.2.1 Bed
The lathe bed forms the base of the machine. It is made of cast-iron or alloysteel. It consists of
flat or inverted V shaped inner and outer guideways to guide the carriage, headstock and tailstock.
The height of the lathe bed should be appropriate to enable the technician to do his job easily and
conformably. It is rigidly by ribs which is shown in Fig. 8.2. Many lathes are made with a gap in
the bed. This gap is used to swing extra large diameter pieces.
8.2.2 Headstock
The headstock is fixed at the left -hand side of the lathe bed on the inner guideways. It supports
the spindle. The spindle is driven through the gearbox which is housed within the headstock. The
function of gearbox is to provide a number of speeds to the spindle. The spindle is always hollow
to feed barstock through that hole for continuous production. The nose of the spindle is threaded to
mount the chuck or face plate.

Fig. 8.2 Lathe Bed

8.2.3 Tailstock
It is located on the inner guideways at the right-hand side of the operator. The main purpose of the
tailstock is to support the free end of the work piece when it is machined between centre. It is
also used to hold tools for operations such as drilling, reaming, tapping etc. To accommodate
different lengths of work, the body of the tailstock can be adjusted along the guideways by sliding
it to the required position and can be clamped by bolt and plate. The body is bored to act as barrel
which carries quill that moves in and out of the barrel. The movement of the quill is achieved by
means of a handwheel and a screw which are engaged with a nut fixed in the quill. The hole in the
open side of the quill is tapered to mount lathe centres or other tools like twist drills or boring bars.
The upper body of the tail-stock can be moved towards or away from the operator by means of
the adjustment screws to offset the tailstock for taper turning. A tailstock is illustrated in Fig. 8.3.
 Lathe 207

Quill lock lever

Hand wheel

Dead centre

Tailstock body

Tailstock
clamping bolt

Fig. 8.3 Tailstock

8.2.4 Carriage (Fig. 5.4)

The carriage of a lathe has several parts that support, move and control the cutting tool. It consists
of the following parts (a) saddle (b) cross slide (c) compound rest (d) tool post (e) apron.
(a) Saddle
The saddle is an H-shaped casting that fits over the bed and slides along the guideways. It carries
the cross lide and tool post.
(b) Cross Slide
The cross slide carries the compound rest and toolpost. It is used to give depth of cut.

Fig. 8.4 Lathe Carriage

208 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Compound Rest

It has a circular base with graduations and mounted on cross slide. It is used for turning short
tapers and angular cuts.
(d) Tool Post
This is located on the top of the compound rest to hold the tool and to enable it to be adjusted to a
convenient working position. The various types of tool posts used in a lathe are shown in Fig. 8.5.
Single Screw Tool Post: This consists of a round bar with a slotted hole in the centre for the
fixing the tool by means of a set screw. The tool post with concave ring and convex rocker slides
in aT-slot on the top of the compound rest. The height of the tool point can be adjusted by tilting
the rocker and clamping in position by means of set screw.
Four Way Tool Post: In this type of tool post four sides are open to accommodate four tools
at a time.

(a) Single Screw Tool Post (b) Four Way Tool Post

(c) Quick Change Tool Post

Fig. 8.5 Tool Posts Used in Turning

Quick Change Tool Post: Modern lathes are provided with this type of tool posts. Instead of
changing the tools, the tool holder is changed in which the tool is fixed. This is expensive and
 Lathe 209

requires a number of tool holders. But it has the advantage of ease setting of centre height and
rigidity of the tool.
8.2.5 Apron
The apron is fastened to the saddle and hangs over the front of the bed. It contains gears, clutches
for transmitting motion from feed rod to the carriage and also contains split nut which engages
with lead screw while thread cutting.

8.3 SPECIFICATIONS OF LATHE

A lathe can be completely specified by the following factors :
(i) Height of the centres.
(ii) The swing over bed: Largest diameter of work that will rotate without touching the bed. It
is generally twice of height of centres.
(iii) The length between centres: It is the greatest length of the work that can be held between
the headstock and tailstock centres.
(iv) Type of bed: It may be straight or gap bed
(v) Spindle speed range: Number of speeds
(vi) Width of bed
(vii) Metric thread pitches
(viii) Cross feed and longitudinal feeds
(ix) Cross slide travel
(x) Tailstock sleeve travel
(xi) Horsepower of the main motor and RPM.
(xii) Shipping Dimensions: Length* Height* Width* Weight.

8.4 TYPES OF LATHES

There are various types of lathes differ in size, design, purpose, method of drive etc. as follows:
(i) Speed lathe (iv) Tool room lathe
(ii) Engine lathe (v) Capstan and turret lathes
(iii) Bench lathe (vi) Special purpose lathes.
(i) Speed Lathe
It is the simplest of all lathes. It has only few parts like headstock, tailstock, and tool post mounted
on a light bed. It has no gear box, leadscrew and carriage. These lathes are used for wood turning,
metal spinning and polishing.
(ii) Engine Lathe
Derives its name from the early lathes that were driven by steam engines. It has compound rest,
carriage, leadscrew, feed rod, gear box, in addition to headstock, tail stock and bed. It may be belt
driven lathe, or motor driven lathe. The lead screw is used in cutting threads, whereas feed rod is
used in automatic feed of the carriage or the tool.
210 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(iii) Bench Lathe

This is a small lathe mounted on a bench. It performs all operations of an engine lathe. It is used
mainly for small precision works. Only difference is in size.
(iv) Tool Room Lathe
This is similar in appearance to centre lathe, put it is built more accurately and has a wide range of
speeds and is equipped with many extra accessories and attachments. It is mostly used for preci-
sion work on tools, jigs, dies etc.
(v) The Capstan and Turret Lathes
These are development of the engine lathe and are used for production work. The main features
of this type of lathe is that the tail stock of an engine lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret. A
number of identical parts can be produced in the minimum time.
(vi) Special Purpose Lathes
These are specially designed lathes used for carrying out various operations that can not be done
on ordinary lathes. The lathe which is especially desigend for turning crank shafts is known as a
crankshaft lathe. The lathe which is powerful, massive and capable of turning axles is known as
Axle Lathe or Wheel Lathe. Lathes which are used for duplicating profiles are known as duplicat-
ing lathes. The lathe in which various movements to the slides are given by electric motors which
are controlled by the codes punched on tape is known as Numerical Control Lathe. This NC
Lathe can do all operations which can be done on an ordinary lathe. The cutting tools are preset to
the positions specified by the NC programmer.

8.5 LATHE OPERATIONS

The operations that can be performed on a lathe are known as turning operations. These are
grouped into the following categories.
Operations performed in a lathe when holding the work-piece between centres (a) Plain turn-
ing (b) Taper turning (c) Threading (d) Grooving (e) Knurling.
Operations performed in a lathe when work-piece is held by chuck or face plate (a) Drilling
(b) Reaming (c) Borning.
Operations performed by using special attachments (a) Grinding (b) Milling.
Some of the typical operations that can be done in a lathe are illustrated in Fig. 8.6.
8.5.1 Turning
Figure 8.6 (a) and (b) shows the turning operation. It is also called simple or plain turning. In this
operation excess material is removed from the work piece to produce a cylindrical surface. It may
be rough turning or finish turning according to the depth of cut given.
8.5.2 Facing Operation
Figure 8.6 (c) shows the facing operation in which the work is rotated and the tool is fed in a
direction perpendicular to the axis of the work. This is used to cut the work to the required length
and to provide flat surface with the axis of the work.
 Lathe 211

Fig. 8.6 Lathe Operations

8.5.3 Parting Off

Figure 8.6 (d). It is also called cutting off operation. It is used for cutting away the required length
from the bar stock. The tool used in this operation is called parting off tool.
8.5.4 Taper Turning
In a lathe, taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from
a cylindrical work-piece. A taper may be turned by any one of the following methods:
(a) Swivelling the compound rest
(b) Tailstock set over method
(c) Using a taper turning attachment
(d) Using a form tool
(e) By combination of longitudinal and cross feed.
212 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(a) Taper Turning by Swivelling of Compound Rest (Fig. 8.7(a) and (b))

Flg. 8.7 Taper Turning by Swivelling Compound Rest

tan α/2 = (D – d)/2L

α/2 = Half of the taper angle
In this method, the work is held in the chuck or between centres. The compound rest carrying the
tool is swivelled to the desired angle (half of the taper angle) with respect to the work. The tool is
fed manually by rotating the handwheel of the compound rest.
Advantages
(i) Easy setting
(ii) Steep tapers can be produced
(iii) Internal and external tapers can be made
Disadvantages
(i) Only hand feed
(ii) Taper length is limited to the movement of the top slide.
Example 8.1: Determine the angle at which the compound rest will be swivelled to turn taper
on the given work-piece having the following dimensions (i) Large diameter 45 mm (ii) Small
diameter 30 mm (iii) Length of the work-piece 200 mm.
Solution:
tan α/2 = (D – d)/2L
= (45 –30)/2 × 200
= 0.03
α/2 = 2°9'
Hence, thc compound rest must be swivelled at 2° 9'.
(b) Tail Stockset over Method (Fig. 8.8)
In this method, the body of the tailstock is moved on its base towards or away from the operator by a
set over screw by the set over amount.
 Lathe 213

Fig. 8.8 Taper Turning by Tailstock Set over Method

φR = pφ sin α/2, where φ2 is set over

Set over = L sin α/2
For practical purpose sin α/2 = tan α/2
Set over = L tan α/2 = L * (D – d)/2I
= (D – d)/2 * (total length of the job)/
Taper length
If the taper is turned on entire length, then L = I
Set over (D – d)/2
Advantages
(i) Good surface finish can be obtained
(ii) Power feed can be used
Disadvantages
(i) Offset setting is difficult
(ii) Only external tapers can be produced
(c) Using a Taper Turning Attachment (Fig. 8.9)
Taper turning attachment is provided on a few modern lathes. The job is held between centres and
the tool moves at an angle. The movement of the tool is guided by the attachment.
Taper-turning attachment is attached to the rear side of the lathe by means of bracket. It
consists of swivel slide which can be adjusted to the required angle. A guide block sliding in this
swivel slide is connected to the rear end of cross slide. To turn a taper, the workpiece is held
between centres. The swivel slide is set at half the included angle (α/2). The cross slide fixing
screw is loosened. As the carriage travels in longitudinal direction, the tool on cross slide will
follow straight angular path set by guide block.
214 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 8.9 Taper Turning by Taper Turning Attachment

Advantages
(i) Good surface finish can be obtained.
(ii) Lengthy tapers can be produced.
(iii) The alignment of the lathe centres is not disturbed.
Disadvantages
Only limited taper angles (10°) can be turned.
(d) Taper Turning by Form Tool Method (Fig. 8.10)

Fig. 8.10 Taper Turning by Form Tool Method

A broad nose tool having straight cutting edge is set on to the work at half taper angel and fed
straight into the work to produce tapered surface. This method is limited to short tapers.
 Lathe 215

(e) Taper Turning by Combination Feeds (Fig. 8.11)

This is a special method of taper turning longitudinal and cross feeds are engaged simultaneously
causing the tool to follow diagonal path to produce taper only to the work-piece.

Fig. 8.11 Taper Turning by Combining Feeds

8.5.5 Thread Cutting on a Lathe (Fig. 8.12 (a) & (b))

Fig. 8.12(a) Gear Train for Thread Cutting

Thread cutting is the process of producing a helical grove on a cylindrical or conical surface. The
necessary condition for cutting screws is that in one revolution of the spindle (work), the tool
traverse a distance equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut. This is achieved by a gear train
between the lead-screw and the lathe spindle. The gear ratio for cutting screw threads may be
given as:
Gear Ratio = Driver/Driven
= T.P.I. of lead screw/T.P.I. to be cut on job
= Pitch of the job/pitch of lead screw
216 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 8.12(b) Gear Train for Thread Cutting

Example 8.2: Calculate suitable gear train for cutting 8TPI in a lathe with a lead screw
having 4TPI (Fig. 8.13).

Fig. 8.13 Gear Train

Solution:

Drive teeth T.P.I of head screw

Ratio = =
Driver teeth T.P.I. to be cut
4 4×5 20
= = =
8 8×5 40
 Lathe 217

Driver gear on spindle = 20 teeth

Driven gear of lead screw = 40 teeth
Example 8.3: Calculate gear train for 4 mm pitch on 11mm pitch of lead screw.
Solution:
Ratio = Driver teeth/Driven teeth
= Pitch or work / Pitch of lead screw
= 4/11 = 20/55
Driver gear on main spindle = 20 teeth
Driven gear on lead screw = 55 teeth
Gear train for cutting metric threads on a lathe with an English Lead Screw: In order to
produce Metric threads with English lead screw, an additional gear with 127 teeth is incorporated
in gear train and the formula for gear train is as follows:
Gear Ratio = Pitch to be cut/Pitch of lead screw
= Pc/PL×25.4 = Pc×5/PL×25.4×5 (1 inch = 25.4 mm)
= 5Pc/l27 PL
Example 8.4: Calculate gears to cut 6 mm pitch on a lathe having lead screw of 4 TPI (Fig.
8.14)

Fig. 8.14 Gear Train

Solution:
Pitch to be cut PC = 6 mm
Number of threads on lead screw = 4 TPI
218 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Therefore, Pitch = l/4 = 0.25"

Gear ratio = 5Pc/l27PL = 5×6/127×25
= 1×30/127×25
= 50×60/25×127 = al×bl/a2×b2
= Driving gears / Driven gears
8.5.6 Back Gear Mechanism of a Lathe
With direct speed, a three stepped pulley permits three speeds (N1, N2, N3)
When back gear mechanism is engaged, three speeds (N4, N5, N6) are obtained. The back
gear mechanism is shown in Fig. 8.15
Pinion is attached to the cone pulley which is mounted freely on lathe spindle and gear D is
keyed to the lathe spindle. Gears Band C are compound gears and are meshed with pinion A and
gear D respectively, when back gear is engaged. When the back gear is disengaged, gears B and
C are moved away and cone pulley is locked to gear D by means of lock pin. When higher speed
is required, belt is shifted to smaller step.
If slower spindle speeds are required, the back gear is engaged. It consists of disconnecting
the cone pulley from gear D by pulling out the lock pin and bring the back gear into position so that
the pinion a meshes with gear B and gear C with gear D. Thus the speed from cone pulley is
transmitted to spindle through gear train (A-B-C-D). Generally the back gear is engaged during
thread cutting.
8.5.7 Knurling (Fig. 8.6 (j))
Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond or straight shaped pattern on the job.
The knurling may be diamond knurling, straight knurling, cross knurling, concave knurling and
convex knurling. The purpose of knurling is to provide
(i) Good grip and make for positive handling.
(ii) Good appearance.
(iii) For raising the diameter to a small range for assembly to get a press fit. for example, the
winding knob of a wrist watch has knurl on it
8.5.8 Grooving
This is the process of reducing the diameter of a work-piece over a narrow surface. This is often
at the end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small margin.
8.5.9 Parting-off (Fig. 8.6 (d))
Parting-off or cutting-off is the operation of separating the finished work-piece from a bar stock.
8.5.10 Drilling (Fig. 8.6 (f))
Drilling is the process of making hole in a work-piece. Before drilling, the work should be faced
and centre drilled. The drill bit is held stationary in the tail stock. The drill is fed into the work
which revolving in a chuck.
 Lathe 219

Fig. 8.15 Back Gear Mechanism of a Lathe

8.5.11 Boring (Fig. 8.6 (h))

This is the operation of enlarging a drilled hole. Boring tool is held in the tail stock.
8.5.12 Milling
Milling is the operation of removing metal by feeding the work against the rotating milling cutter.
The milling cutter may be held by chuck or by the attachment mounted on carriage.
8.5.13 Grinding
Both internal and external surfaces of the work-piece may be ground by using grinding attachment
mounted on the cross slide.

8.6 LATHE ACCESSORIES

The devices used for holding and supporting the work and the tool on the lathe are called accesso-
ries. These include chucks, catch plates and carriers, collets, face plate centres, mandrels, jigs and
fixtures etc.
220 Manufacturing Science and Technology

8.6.1 Chucks
These are used for holding the work-piece on lathe during the operation. The commonly used
chucks are:
(a) Three-jaw universal chuck
(b) Four-jaw independent chuck
(c) Combination chuck
(d) Magnetic chuck
(e) Collet chuck
(f) Air or Hydaulic operated chuck
(g) Drill chuck
(a) Three jaw universal chuck

Fig. 8.16 Three Jaw Universal Chuck

In three jaw universal chuck or self centering chuck (Fig. 8.16) all three jaws move together in equal
amounts to clamp the work. Therefore the job is automatically centred. The movement is achieved
by rotating chuck key in any one of the three pinions which meshes with the teeth cut on the under
side of the scroll disc. The scroll disc having a spiral groove cut on the top face meshes with the
teeth of jaws. The chuck is used for holding cylindrical or hexagonal shaped work-pieces.
(b) Four jaw independent chuck

Fig. 8.17 Four Jaw Independent Chuck

 Lathe 221

In four jaw independent chuck (Fig. 8.17), each jaw is moved independently by rotating the screw
which meshes with the teeth cut on the underside of the jaw. These are used for holding square,
octagonal or large irregular components.
(c) Combination chuck
Combination chuck carries the combination of both the above principles. It is provided with four
jaws which can be operated either by the scroll disc or individually by separate screws.
(d) Magnetic chuck
These are used to hold the steel work pieces that are too thin to be held in ordinary chuck. The
face of the chuck is magnetized by permanent magnets contained within the chuck.
(e) Collet chuck
This provides a quick means of holding the bar stock. Draw in type collets are in common use.
Their front portion is splitted which provide a spring action and hence the grip.
(f) Air or hydraulic operated chuck
In these chucks air or hydraulic pressure is used to press the jaws against the job. The pressure is
provided by a cylinder and piston mechanism mounted at the back of head stock and controlled by
a valve by operator.
(g) Drill chuck
This is used for holding straight shank drill, reamer or tap for drilling, reaming or tapping opera-
tions. This may be held either in head stock or tail stock. This has self centering jaws and is
operated by key.
8.6.2 Face Plate
It is a large circular disc having a threaded hole at the centre so that it can be screwed to the
nose of the lathe spindle. It contains open slots or T-slots in its face. The work piece is mounted
on it with the help of bolts, T-nuts and other means of clamping. It is used for holding work
pieces that can not be conveniently held by chucks (See Fig. 8.18).

Face plate Counter mass

Work-piece

Angle plate

Fig. 8.18 Face Plate

222 Manufacturing Science and Technology

8.6.3 Angle Plate

It is used for holding work in conjunction with a face plate. When mounting of the work directly on
face plate is not possible, the angle plate is used (See Fig. 8.18).
8.6.4 Lathe Centres (Fig. 8.19)
Lathe centres are hardened steel devices used for holding and locating the work to be turned. The
centre that is fitted in the head stock spindle is called live centre. The centre that is used in tail
stock is called dead centre. The various forms of lathe centres are shown in Fig. 8.19.
(a) Ordinary Centre
This is used for most general works.
(b) Ball Centre (Fig. 8.19(b))
This has ball shape at the end to minimise the wear and strain. This is particularly suitable for
taper turning.
(c) Tipped Centre (Fig. 8.l9(c))
Hard alloy tip is brazed into steel shank. The hard tip is wear resistant.
(d) Half Centre (Fig. 8.19(d))
The half centre is similar to ordinary centre except that a little less than half of the centre has
been ground away. This feature facilitates facing of the bar ends without removal of the centre.

Fig. 8.19 Lathe Centres

(e) Revolving Centre (Fig. 8.19(e))

The ball and roller bearings are fitted into the housing to reduce friction and to take up end thrust.
This is used in tail stock for supporting heavy work revolving at a high speed.
(f ) Pipe Centre (Fig. 8.l9(f))
This is used for supporting pipes, shells and hollow end jobs.
 Lathe 223

8.7 DRIVE PLATES AND CARRIERS

These are used to drive a work piece when it is held between centres. Drive plate is screwed to
the nose of the headstock spindle. Carrier (dog) is attached to the end of the work piece by a set
screw Fig. 8.20 shows drive plates, carriers and their assembly.

Fig. 8.20 Drive Plates and Carriers

8.8 MANDRELS
Mandrels are used to hold and rotate hollow works between centres. It is made of high carbon
steel and slightly taper. The work is forced to fit on the mandrel. The mandrel is rotated by lathe
dog and catch plate and the work is driven by friction. The common types of mandrels are shown
in Fig. 8.21.
The plain mandrel body is slightly tapered in order to grip the work piece (See Fig 8.21(a)).
This type of mandrel is suitable for only size of bore. For different sizes, different mandrels are
used. The stepped mandrel (Fig. 8.21(b)) facilitates the use of the same for various jobs having
224 Manufacturing Science and Technology

different sizes of holes. Screwed mandrel (Fig. 8.21 (c)) is threaded at one end with collar. Work
pieces having internal threads are screwed to it against the collar for machining. Expansion mandrel
(Fig. 8.21(d)) consists of a tapered pin which driven into sleeve which is parallel outside and tapered
inside. The sleeve has three longitudinal slots. The sleeve is first placed in the work with the pin
removed. The tapered pin is then pressed from one end into the sleeve and the sleeve expands
gripping the work piece to be machined.

Fig. 8.21 Types of Mandrels

8.9 STEADY REST

The steady rest consists of a cast iron frame made of two parts hinged together on one side. The
upper part can be swung back for inserting or removing the job without disturbing the position of
the steady rest. It can be clamped at any desired position on lathe bed guideways.

8.10 FOLLOWER REST

The follower rest performs the same function as steady rest, but it is attached to the saddle and
moves along the tool. It prevents the job from spring away when cut is given.

8.11 LATHE ATTACHMENTS

There are a number of attachments used on a lathe to increase efficiency and production. The
commonly used attachments are:
(i) Stops
(ii) Grinding attachment
(iii) Milling attachment
(iv) Taper turning attachment
(v) Copying attachment
(vi) Relieving attachment
 Lathe 225

Fig. 8.22 Steady Rest

Fig. 8.23 Follower Rest

8.11.1 Stops
These are used on the carriage and the cross slide to position them accurately. These are used for
repeated works. These stops save set up time and gives more accurate works.
8.11.2 Grinding Attachment
It consists of a grinding wheel driven independently by a small motor which is mounted on the
cross slide. The job is held as usual in a chuck or between centres and the rotating grinding wheel
is fed against the job instead of the usual cutting tool.
8.11.3 Milling Attachment
Milling attachment is mounted on compound rest in the place of the tool post. It consists of a slide
swivel vise. The base of swivel vise is graduated in degrees and can be set at any required angle.
This attachment is used for face milling, keyway cutting, T-slot cutting etc.
226 Manufacturing Science and Technology

8.11.4 Taper Turning Attachment

This is used for producing tapers on cylinders. Similarly, various attachments like copying attach-
ment, relieving attachment, etc. can be used on a lathe.

8.12 LATHE TOOLS

Cutting tools used for machining are classified into two groups:
(a) Single point cutting tool
(b) Multi point cutting tool
Single point cutting have only one cutting edge, while multi point cutting tool will have several
cutting edges (drill, milling cutter). Single point cutting tools are used on lathes.
C1assification
Single point lathes tools are classified in many ways. Main classification is as follows:
(a) According to the direction of feed (Fig. 8.24)
These tools may be right hand and left hand tools. In right hand tool, the cutting edge is on the left
hand side of the operator. The right hand tool cuts from right to left i.e., tool is feed from tai stock
to head stock. In left hand tool, the cutting edge is on right side of the operator. The left hand tool
cuts from left to right.

Fig. 8.24 Right Hand and Left Hand Tools

(b) According to method of manufacturing the tool (Fig. 8.25)

These tools may be
(a) Solid tool (c) Inserted or bit tool.
(b) Brazed tool
Solid tool is made of either high speed steel or carbide bar and the cutting edge is formed by
grinding one end of the bar. In braze tool, carbide tip is brazed to a shank of low grade material. In
inserted bit tool, the carbide or ceramic bit of a square or rectangular shape is held mechanically in
a tool holder.
 Lathe 227

Fig. 8.25 Manufactured Tools

(c) According to the method of using the tool (Fig. 8.26)

Fig. 8.26 Method of Using Tool

Single point tools are classified as turning, facing, cutting off, boring, grooving etc.

8.13 TOOL NOMENCLATURE

Cutting tool nomenclature comprises the various parts of a tool and various tool angles. The
complete nomenclature of a single point cutting tool is shown in Fig. 8.27(a) and (b).
Face: It is the surface over which the chip flows.
Flank: It is the surface below the cutting edge.
Nose: The nose is the junction of the side and end cutting edge.
Side Cutting Edge: It is formed by the intersection of the flank and the side flank. It does the
main work in cutting.
228 Manufacturing Science and Technology

End or Auxiliary Cutting Edge: It is the intersection of face end flank. .

Tool Angles: In a single point tool, there are various angles, each of them has a definite
purpose.
Back Rake Angle: It measures the downward slope of the top surface of the tool from nose to
the rear along the longitudinal axis. Its purpose is to guide the direction of chip flow. The size of
the angle depends upon the material to be machined.

Fig. 8.27 Single Point Cutting Tool Nomenclature

Back rake angle may be positive, neutral or negative. The angle is positive if the face slopes
downwards from the tip towards the shank. It is used to cut low tensile strength and non-ferrous
materials. The angle is negative if the face slopes for high tensile strength materials, heavy feed
and interrupted cuts.
Side Rake Angle: It measures the slope of the top surface of the tool to the side in a direction
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. It also guides the direction of the chip away from the job.
Side Relief Angle: It is the angle made by the flank of the tool and a plane perpendicular to
the base just under the side cutting edge. This angle permits the tool to be fed side ways into the
job, so that it can cut without rubbing.
 Lathe 229

End Relief Angle: It is the secondary relief angle between a plane perpendicular to the base
and the end flank.
Side Cutting Edge Angle: It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the longitudinal
axis of the tool.
Nose Radius: It is the curve formed by joining the side cutting and end-cutting edges. The
angle so formed is called nose angle and the radius of the curve is called nose radius.

8.14 CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

The material used for tools must be harder than the metal to be cut and must possess wear
resistance, hot hardness, high thermal conductivity, low coefficient of friction, machinability. The
following tool materials are most commonly used for lathe tools.
1. High carbon steel 4. Cemented carbides
2. High speed steel 5. Ceramics
3. Stellite(Cast alloys) 6. Diamond
8.14.1 High Carbon Steel
This material was used for making tools upto 1870. The carbon content in this type of material is low
and varies from 0.8 to 1.5 per cent. The carbon steel tools are easy to manufacture and their cutting
edges can be sharpened easily. They lose their hardness rapidly at temperature greater than 200°C.
They are used for cutting softer material at low speed. They are particularly used in the manufacture
of hand tools like taps, files, hacksaw blades, wood working tools, knives etc.
8.14.2 High Speed Steel
High speed steel is a carbon steel to which alloy elements like tungsten, chromium, vanadium,
molybdenum and cobalt are added in order to increase its hot hardness and wear resistance.
These are basically two types of H.S.S, namely T(Tungsten) type in which tungsten is the major
alloying element(l2-18%) and M(Molybdenum) type having molybdenum as the chief alloying ele-
ment(8-12%). T-type HS was developed earlier. However, because of the relative scarcity of
tungsten, M-type was invented. It is cheaper and therefore more widely used. Drills, milling cut-
ters, gear hobs are made of high speed steels.
8.14.3 Stellite (Cast Alloys)
Stellite is the trade name of a non-ferrous cast alloy composed of cobalt, chromium and tungsten.
It consists of cobalt(40-55%), chromium (25-35%), tungsten (1.5-3%) and carbon(0-0.5%). Cobalt
acts as a solvent or matrix with chromium as the major alloying element. The material is made by
melting the elements together and then cast in moulds. Hence these are known as cast alloys. The
cast alloys retain their hardness upto 750°C. Because this tool material is castable, it is specially
used for making form tools.
8.14.4 Cemented Carbides
Cemented Carbides are made by powder metallurgy technique. These withstand temperature upto
1000°C. These are classified into two main types namely straight tungsten carbides and alloyed
230 Manufacturing Science and Technology

tungsten carbides. Straight tungsten carbides consists of tungsten carbide (85-95%) and cobalt (5-
15%). Alloyed tungsten carbides have additions of titanium and niobium etc. Cemented carbides
used in the form of small tips.
Coated Carbides: Coating of aluminium and zirconium oxides deposited on the tool surface at
high temperature retard the diffusion wear of the tool. Similarly crater wear can be reduced by
coating a thin layer of titanium carbide or hafnium nitride.
8.14.5 Ceramics
Ceramics are made by compacting aluminium oxide powder in a mould and sintered. The main
constituent is aluminium oxide upto 10% additions usually of oxides of magnesium, titanium and
chromium are often made to obtain superior properties. These withstand temperatures upto 1400°C.
The hardness of ceramics is greater than the cemented carbides, but it is more brittle. The ce-
ramic tips are supplied in ‘throw away’ form.
8.14.6 Diamond
The diamond tool is harder than any other material. It is also chemically inert. Diamond tool is
either a single crystal or polycrystalline. Single crystal diamond is used from machining non-fer-
rous metals like aluminium, brass, copper and bronze. It is also used for machining non-metallic
materials like plastic, epoxy resins, hard rubber and also precious metals like gold, silver and
platinum. Polycrystalline diamond is used for machining glass, reinforced plastics, eutectic and
hyper-eutectic alloys etc.

8.15 CUTTING PARAMETERS

8.15.1 Cutting Speed (V)

Surface speed at which the work piece passes the cutter. It is expressed in meters per minute (m/
min). In turning, cutting speed is given by the relation.
Cutting Speed V = πDN/1000
Where,
D = Diameter of job in mm
N = R.P.M. of the job
8.15.2 Feed
It refers to the amount of tool advancement per revolution of the job parallel to the surface of the
job to be machined. It is expressed in millimeters per revolution (mm/rev).
8.15.3 Depth of Cut
It refers to the advancement of the tool in the job in a direction perpendicular to the surface being
machined. It is expressed as follows:
 Lathe 231

Depth of cut = (d1– d2)/2

Where,
d 1 = Diameter of the uncut surface
d 2 = Diameter of the machined surface
8.15.4 Machining Time
Machining time on lathe depends upon the speed and feed and length of the job. Machining time is
given by equation:
T = L/fN
Where, T = Machining time (min)
f = feed – mm/rev)
N = R.P.M.
L = Length of the job to be turned (mm)
Example 8.5: Estimate the machining time to turn a MS bar of 40 mm diameter to 35 mm
diameter to a length of 300 mm in a single cut. Assume cutting speed 35m/min and feed 0.4 mm/rev.
Solution:
V = π DN/10000
N = 1000 * V/πD = 1000 × 35/π × 40
= 278.5RPM
Machining time T = L/fN = 300/0.4 × 278.5 = 2.69 min
Example 8.6: Estimate the machining time required to turn a stepped shaft from a shaft of 40
mm diameter (see Fig. 8.28). Neglect facing and setting times. The depth of cut should not exceed
2.5 mm. Assume the cutting speed is to be 20 m/min and feed to be 0.3 mm/rev for each cut.

Fig. 8.28 Step Turning

Solution:
Step I: Reduce 40 mm dia to 35 mm dia for a length of 90 mm
V = πDN/1000
N 1 = 20 × 1000/π × 40 = 159.55 RPM
T 1 = L/Fnl
= 90/0.3 × 159.55 = 1.885 min
232 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Step II: Reduce 35 mm dia to 30 mm dia to length of 50 mm

N 2 = 20 × 1000/π × 35= 181.89RPM
T 2 = 50/0.3 × 181.89 = 0.9163 min
Total machining time T = T1 + T2 = 1.885 + 0.9163 = 2.8 min.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain with the help of neat sketch the parts of a lathe.
2. How lathes are classified? Describe in brief the different types of lathes.
3. How do you specify a lathe?
4. What are the various methods of Taper turning in a lathe? Explain in detail any one of them.
5. With the help of neat sketch explain thread cutting on a lathe.
6. What are the various operations done on a lathe?
7. Explain the various types of mandrels used in a lathe.
8. Explain the use of the following in a lathe:
(a) Fa ce Plate (b) Steady Rest (c) Follower Rest.
9. What are the accessories used on a lathe?
 9
1
Capstan and Turret Lathes
Turret

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Centre lathe is a very versatile machine tool, but not suitable for the economic manufacturing of
identical parts. Hence capstan and turret lathes are developed to turn parts rapidly using pre-set
tooling. Once the tools are set, it is possible to operate the machines with semi-skilled operators.
These are developed from engine lathe.

9.2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CENTRE LATHE AND TURRET LATHE

Although the turret lathe is development of an engine lathe, there are certain differences in their
construction, operations and use. They are:
1. The headstock of a turret lathe is heavier than the headstock of engine lathe and is provided
with a wider range of speed. When an engine lathe requires a motor of 5hp, the turret lathe
will have a motor of 15hp for high rate of production.
2. In turret lathe the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by turret. The turret is a six-sided
block, each side carries one or more tools.
3. The tool post mounted on the cross slide of a turret lathe is a four-way tool post. In addition
to this, there is a rear tool post mounted on the carriage.
4. The feed movement of each tool of hexagonal turret may be regulated by stops or feed trips.
5. In turret lathes two or more cutting tools are used simultaneously whereas in engine lathe
only one tool is used at once.
6. A semi skilled operator can operate the turret lathe, once a skilled machinist sets it.
7. Turrret lathes are not usually fitted with lead screw and using die heads and taps normally
cuts the threads.
8. The time required to finish a component on a turret lathe is less than on an engine lathe.
9. The chucking and rechucking of jobs is time consuming in an engine lathe while in turret lathe,
works are clamped automatically.
234 Manufacturing Science and Technology

10. Turret lathes are suitable for mass production whereas engine lathes are not economical for
mass production of identical parts.

9.3 TYPES OF TURRET LATHES

Depending on the position of the turret lathes are classified into two types:
1. Horizontal turret lathe
2. Vertical turret lathe
9.3.1 The commonly used Horizontal Turret Lathes are further classified as
(a) The ram type (capstan) lathe
(b) The saddle type (turret) lathe
(a) The Capstan Lathe
The capstan lathe is a ram type turret lathe. It consists of hexagonal turret mounted on a ram
slide. The saddle, which supports the ram, is clamped to the bed at a desired position. This type of
machine is light in construction and suitble for machining bars of small diameter. The turret stroke
depends on the length of the ram. The principal parts of a capstan lathe are shown in Fig. 9.1.
1. Bed: The bed is a long casting provided with accurate guideways on which the headstock,
the carriage and turret saddles are mounted.
2. Headstock: The headstock is located at the left-hand end of the bed. All geared headstock
is most commonly used which provides a wide range of speeds.
3. Turret: It is hexagonal shaped tool holder mounted on the ram. The tools used in turret are
drills, reamers, boring bars and cutting tools. For each tools, there is a stop screw to control
the tool movement.
4. Turret Saddle: This supports the ram (auxiliary slide) on which hexagonal turret is mounted.
The saddle can be moved over the bed and clamped in any required position.
5. Cross Slide and Carriage: The cross-slide is mounted on the carriage. It is equipped with
four-way tools post at the front, one rear tool post at the back of the cross-slide.
Carriage moves parallel to the bed. For plane turning, the carriage is moved parallel to the bed.
Headstock Hexagonal turret
Cross slide Hand wheel for
ram movement
Ram
Handle for
saddle movement

Handle for
saddle movement

Fig. 9.1 Principal Parts of Capstan Lathe

 Capstan and Turret Lathes 235

(b) The Turret Lathe

Turret lathe is a saddle type lathe in which turret is mounted directly on the saddle. The saddle
moves entire length of the bed. It is heavy in construction and more rigid in design. Hence is used
for heavy works. The principal parts of a turret lathe are shown in Fig. 9.2.
Headstock Hexagonal
Cross slide
tool post turret

Turret
saddle

Feed rod
Carriage

Fig. 9.2 Principal Parts of Turret Lathe

9.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES

(See Fig. 9.3 (a) and (b))
1. In a capstan lathe the turret is mounted on a short slide (ram) which slides on the saddle,
whereas in turret lathe the turret is mounted on the saddle which directly slides on the bed
guide ways.
2. In a capstan lathe the movement of turret is very short, whereas turret of turret lathe can be
moved on the entire length of the bed.

Fig. 9.3(a) Capstan Lathe Slide Arrangement

236 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 9.3(b) Turret Lathe Slide Arrangement

3. In the case of capstan lathe, the ram is fed into the work. The overhanging of the ram from
saddle presents non-rigid construction, which is subjected to bending, deflection or
vibration. In a turret lathe, turret is mounted on the saddle. This type of construction pro-
vides utmost rigidity to the tool.
4. Turret lathe is widely used for chucking operations for forging and castings, whereas cap-
stan lathe is suitable for bar work.
5. Turret lathe is heavier than capstan lathe. Hence turret lathe is suitable for medium to heavy
work, whereas capstan lathe is suitable for small to medium work.
6. On a capstan lathe, less fatigue to the operator due to the lightness of the ram, whereas in
the case of turret lathe the hand feeding is a laborious process due to the movement of the
entire saddle.

9.5 TURRET INDEXING MECHANISM FOR CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHE

(See Fig. 9.4)
Figure 9.4 shows an inverted view of the turret assembly. The plunger locks the index plate by
spring pressure and prevents rotatory movement when turret is moving forward for doing the
operation. Indexing of turret is done during backward motion of turret. As the turret head moves
backward, the actuating cam lifts the plunger out of groove and unlocks the index plate. This is
due to riding of the pin on the bevel surface of the cam. When the turret head is still going back,
the spring-loaded pawl engages with the groove of the ratchet plate causes the ratchet to rotate
(index plate is rotated by one-sixth revolution). Now when the turret head is moving forward, the
plunger drops out of the cam and locks the index plate in the next groove. Now the next tool of the
turret head is ready for the operation.
As the turret rotates, the stop rod shaft holding six adjustable stop rods will rotate by engaging
bevel pinion with bevel gear attached to the turret. The setting of stop rods (longitudinal travel of
the tool) is done by unscrewing the lock nuts and rotating the stop rod on the plate against the
stop.
 Capstan and Turret Lathes 237

Fig. 9.4 Turret Indexing Mechanism

9.6 BAR FEEDING MECHANISM IN CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES

Various methods of bar feeding mechanisms are designed which push the bar forward after each
finished component is cut off. Fig. 9.5 shows a simple bar feed mechanism.

Fig. 9.5
In this one end of guide bar is fixed to the rear side of the headstock and a pedestal supports the
other. A rotating sleeve is mounted on the guide bar to carry the rear end of the barstock and the
other end of barstock is passed through the spindle to project outside the collet. One end of the rope
is connected to sleeve and other end passes over the pulley and carries weight (W). The weight
238 Manufacturing Science and Technology

constantly exerts end thrust on the bar chuck and forces the barstock through the spindle, to strike
against the bar stop, the moment the collet is opened.

9.7 WORK HOLDING EQUIPMENT

The work holding equipment used on capstan or turret lathes differs slightly from those used on a
central lathe.
The commonly used devices are:
1. Collets 2. Chucks 3. Fixtures
9.7.1 Collets
Collets are used to grip the bars passing through the headstock spindle. They are suitable for mass
production. Collet grips the work by the spring action of its split jaws (Fig. 9.6(a)). They may be
operated manually or by power. The collets are classified by the methods used to close the jaws
on the work.
(a) Draw Collet (b) Pushout Collet (c) Dead Length Collet
Spindle nose

Bar stock

(a) Collet

(b) Draw back collet

Thrust tube
Spindle nose

Bar stock

(c) Pushout collet

(d) Dead length collet

Fig. 9.6 Types of Collets

(a) Draw Collet (Fig. 9.6(b)): Collet is pulled by the thrust or collet tube to the left into the
taper bore of the spindle nose. This action puts pressure on the tapered section of the collet,
forcing them inward and tightly clamping the barstock.
(b) Pushout Collet (Fig. 9.6(c)): The thrust tube pushes the spring collet to the right into the
tapered seat in the spindle nose.
(c) Dead Length Collet (Fig. 9.6(d)): In this design, the spring collet has no axial movement
during the operation. This chuck is closed when the thrust tube pushes a sleeve with an internal
taper into the taper of the collet forcing it inward to clamp the work.
 Capstan and Turret Lathes 239

9.7.2 Chucks
Chucks are used for holding large-sized components, which can not be introduced through head-
stock. Both three-jaw and four-jaw chucks are used.
9.7.3 Fixtures
A fixture is specially design chuck for the purpose of holding, locating and machining a large
number of identical pieces which can not be held by conventional gripping devices.

9.8 TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

The wide variety of work performed in a capstan or turret lathes in mass production necessitated
designing of many different types of tool holders for holding tools for typical operations. The
following tool holders are widely used on capstan or turret lathes:
1. Straight cutter holder
2. Adjustable or plain angle cutter holder
3. Multiple cutter holder
4. Offset cutter holder
5. Slide tool holder
6. Knee tool holder
7. Knurling tool holder
9.8.1 Straight Cutter Holder (Fig. 9.7)

This is a simple tool holder in which the tool is held perpendicular to the holder shank axis by three
set screws. The shank can be mounted directly into the hole of the turret face.
9.8.2 Adjustable or Plain Angle Cutter Holder (Fig. 9.8)
The cutter has an inclined slot cut into the body into which the tool is fitted. This type of setting of
the tool permits the tool to maintain a clearance with the work.
9.8.3 Multiple Cutter Holder (Fig. 9.9)
It can accommodate double tools in the body. This features enables turning of two different diam-
eters simultaneously.
240 Manufacturing Science and Technology

9.8.4 Offset Cutter Holder (Fig. 9.10)

In this type of holder, the holder body is made offset with the shank axis. Larger diameter of work
may be turned or bored by this type of holder.
9.8.5 Slide Tool Holder (Fig. 9.11)

Fig. 9.11 Slide Tool Holder

This holder is very much useful for rough and finish boring, recessing, grooving etc. The slide may be
adjusted up or down by rotating hand wheel. Two holes are provided on the sliding unit for holding
tools.
 Capstan and Turret Lathes 241

9.8.6 Knee Tool Holder (Fig. 9.12)

The Knee tool holders are useful for simultaneous turning and boring and drilling operations. The
knee holder is bolted directly on the turret face.

Fig. 9.12 Knee Tool Holder

9.8.7 Knurling Tool Holder (Fig. 9.13)

Knurling tool holder is fitted to the turret face. The knurls can be adjusted to knurl on different
diameter work.

Fig. 9.13 Knurling Tool Holder

242 Manufacturing Science and Technology

9.9 TOOLING LAYOUT

In order to perform any work in a capstan and turret lathe, proper planning for systematic opera-
tions should be done in advance before setting the work on it.
Planning Procedure
1. The capacity chart of the machine should be examined.
2. For tooling layout, finished part drawing is required.
3. The proper tool section for different operations should be made.
4. Proper spindle speed, feeds and depth of cut should be calculated.
5. Finally the work and tools are set on the machine according to the above.
Example 1: Prepare a Tool layout for the production of hexagonal bolt.
Solution: The sequence of operations and tooling arrangements are given below. (See Fig.
9.14).

Fig. 9.14 Tooling Layout for Hexagonal Bolt

1. Feed the bar stock to bar stop (turret 1) to a distance of 80 mm. An extra distance 10mm
than the bolt length is allowed, 4 mm for the parting off and 6mm for clearance from the
collet face so that the tool will not interference with collet.
2. Turn 14mm diameter with the roller steady box turning tool for 60mm length by adjusting the
stop (turret 2).
3. Round the end with roller steady ending tool i.e. chamfering (turret 3).
4. Cut threads with die head for 30mm length by adjusting the stop (turret 4).
 Capstan and Turret Lathes 243

5. Chamfer the head with chamfer tool using front square tool post (tool 5).
6. Parting-off with parting tool in the rear tool post completes the machining of the component
(tool 6).
Process Sheet

Operation Description of Tool position Tools

No. operation
1. Feed bar to stop 1st turret position Bar stop
2. Turn 16 mm dia. 2nd turret position Box turning tool
3. Chamfer the end 3rd turret position Box ending tool
of the bolt
4. Thread cutting 4th turret position Die head
5. Head changer Front tool post Chamfering tool
6. Parting-off Rear tool post Parting-off tool

QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between engine lathe and turret lathes?
2. Differentiate between capstan and turret lathes?
3. Explain various tool holding devices.
4. Draw a tool layout for producing hexagonal botton capstan lathe.
 This page
intentionally left
blank
 10
1
Drilling Machines

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tool used in a workshop to produce holes in
solid objects. The process of making a hole is called drilling. In drilling operation, work is clamped
to the table and the rotating cutting tool, called drill is fed into it.

10.2 TYPES OF DRILLS

Drills are manufactured in a wide variety of types and sizes. The following types of drills are most
widely used.
1. Flat drill 4. Oil hole drill
2. Straight-Fluted drill 5. Centre drill
3. Twist drill
10.2.1 Flat Drill
Flat drill is shown in Fig. 10.1. It is a simple drill used to produce holes in
softer materials like wood and plastic. It is made of tool steel. It has two
cutting edges with cutting angles varies from 90° to 120° and relief angle
at the cutting edge is 3° to 8°. The disadvantages of this type of drill is
that its diameter is reduced as a result of sharpening the edges. The
chips will not come out of the hole automatically.
10.2.2 Straight-Fluted Drill
It is shown in Fig. 10.2. It has grooves or flutes running parallel to
the drill axis. Chips will come out from the hole automatically. It is
used for drilling brass and non-ferrous materials.
246 Manufacturing Science and Technology

10.2.3 Twist Drill

Twist drill is the most widely used tool in modern drilling practice. It consists of a cylindrical body
carrying spiral flutes cut on it that run length wise around the body of a drill. Twist drills are
usually made of high speed steel. The twist drill consists of two main parts shank and body. The
shank is the part held in drilling machine for driving (rotating) the drill. The body is the cutting unit
with flutes, cutting edges and drill point. The twist drill bits are classified into two types:
A. Parallel shank twist drill
B. Taper shank twist drill
A. Parallel Shank Twist Drill
Parallel shank drills are held in drill chuck. Depending upon the length of the drill
These are subdivided into three series:
1. Short series (jobber) twist drill
2. Stub series twist drill
3. Long series twist drill
In jobber drill, the diameter ranges from 0.2mm to 16mm. The long series with diameter ranging
from 1.5mm to 26mm and stub series diameter ranging from 0.5mm to 40mm are used for special
jobs (See Fig. 10.3).

B. Taper Shank Twist Drill

These drills fit into the internal taper of the drilling machine spindle. The shank for these drills
conform to Morse Tapers (See Fig. 10.4).
10.2.4 Oil Hole Drill
These are used for drilling deep holes. It has holes through the body of the drill from shank to the
point to carry oil directly to the cutting edges. Cutting fluids or compressed air is forced through
the holes to the cutting point of the drill to remove the chips, cool the cutting edge and lubricate the
machined surface (See Fig. 10.5).

Fig. 10.5 Oil Drill

10.2.5 Centre Drill

It is a two-fluted twist drill with straight shank. It is used to make the centre holes on the end of
the shaft (See Fig. 10.6).

Fig. 10.6 Centre Drill

 Drilling Machines 247

10.3 TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE

Drill nomenclature consists of various parts and geometric parameters. They are shown in Fig. 10.7.

Fig. 10.7 Twist Drill Nomenclature

Body: The fluted portion of a drill.

Shank: It is the part held in the holding device.
Flutets: The helical grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to provide cutting edges and
permit removal of chips and allow the cutting fluid to reach the cutting edges.
Dead Centre: The dead centre or chisel edge of the drill is the sharp edge at the extreme tip
end of the drill.
Helix Angle: The angle between the drill axis and the leading edge of the land.
Rake Angle: The angle between the face and line parallel to the drill axis and is equal to the
helix angle at the periphery.
Lip Relief Angle: Surface of the point that is relieved just back of the cutting edge.
Point Angle: The included angle of a cone formed by lips.
Recommended values of various angles of a drill are shown in Table 10.1
Table 10.1: Drill Angles

Material Point Angle Helix Angle Lip Relief Angle

Aluminium 90 –140 24 – 48 8 –12
Brass 111 0 – 27 8 – 15
Copper 100 – 118 28 – 40 8 – 15
Cast Iron 118 24 – 40 8 –12
Steel 125 – 135 24 – 32 10 – 12
248 Manufacturing Science and Technology

10.3.1 Drill Size

The size of a standard twist drill is specified by four ways.
(a) Fractional sizes (c) Letter sizes
(b) Number sizes (d) The Metric sizes
(a) Fractional Sizes: These are also called inch drills. Drill size ranges from 1/64" to 5"
diameter. Each successive drill is 1/64", longer up to 13/4", then the diameter of successive drill
gradually increases.
(b) Number Sizes: The drill sizes range from No.1 to No. 80. Number 80 is the smallest
having diameter equal to 0.0135 inch and the number 1 is the largest having diameter equal to
0.228 inch.
(c) Letter Sizes: This size of drills is designed by letters from A to Z. A represents the smallest
size and Z the largest.
(d) The Metric Sizes: The drills are available from 0.20 mm to 100 mm in steps of 0.02 mm
upto 1mm, 0.05 mm steps upto 3 mm and afterwards in gradually rising steps.

10.4 TYPES OF DRILLING MACHINES

Drilling machines are manufactured in types and sizes to suit the different type of work. The
different types of drilling machines are:
(a) Hand drill
(b) Portable drilling machine
(c) Sensitive drilling machine
(d) Pillar drilling machine
(e) Radial drilling machine
(f) Gang drilling machine
(g) Multi-spindle drilling machine
(h) Numerically controlled drilling machine
(a) Hand Drill (Fig. 10.8)
Hand drill is used for drilling small holes. The handle of the hand drill is held in the left hand while
the right hand turns the crank, which in turn causes the drill to rotate.
(b) Portable Drilling Machine (See Fig. 10.9)
This is small and compact. It is used for drilling holes in any position, which is not possible with
convertical drilling machines. These machines are used for drilling holes up to 18 mm diameter.
 Drilling Machines 249

Fig. 10.8 Hand Drill

Fig. 10.9 Portable Drilling Machine

250 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 10.10 Sensitive Drilling Machine

(c) Sensitive Drilling Machine (See Fig. 10.10)

It is a small drilling machine designed for drilling small holes. The base of the machine is mounted
on a bench. The drive mechanism of sensitive drilling machine consists of V-belt drive from motor
shaft to drill spindle. Three or four stepped cone pulley is provided to give a required speed range.
No gears are used in the drive. The handle through a rack and pinion arrangement gives vertical
movement to the spindle (see Fig. 10.11).

Fig. 10.11 Spindle Feed Arrangement

 Drilling Machines 251

(d) Pillar Drilling Machine (See Fig. 10.12)

This is also known as upright drilling machine. It is similar to sensitive drilling machine. But it is
larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine and is provided with power feed arrangement.
The vertical column of this machine can be round or box type.

Fig. 10.12 Pillar Drilling Machine

252 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(e) Radial Drilling Machine (See Fig. 10.13)

The radial drilling machine is used for drilling heavy work and specially for the jobs where high
degree of accuracy is required. The principal parts of the radial drilling machine are:
(i) Base (ii) Column (iii) Radial arm
(iv) Drill head (v) Spindle sped and feed mechanism
(i) Base: It is a large rectangular casting and is made rigid to support column and the table. T-slots
are provided for clamping the work piece directly so that it will serve the function of the table.
(ii) Column: It is a cylindrical casting mounted vertically to the base. It supports the radial arm
which can be raised or lowered vertically to accommodate work pieces of different heights.
A separate motor is used for raising and lowering the arm.
(iii) Radial Arm: The radial arm is mounted horizontally on the column. It may be swung around
to any position over the work table.
(iv) Drill Head: It is mounted on the radial arm. It can be slide along the arm to locate the
spindle with respect to the work.
(v) Spindle Speed and Feed Mechanism: A motor fitted directly over the drill head drives the
drill spindle. Through gear box, different spindle speeds and feeds can be obtained.

Fig. 10.13 Radial Drilling Machine

 Drilling Machines 253

(f) Gang Drilling Machine (Fig. 10.14)

When a member of single spindle drilling machine columns are placed side by side on a common
base and have a common worktable, the machine is known as gang drilling machine. The gang
drilling machine is compact and saves the transfer time of the work-piece from one table to other,
thus increases the production rate.

Fig. 10.14 Gang Drilling Machine

(g) Multi-spindle Drilling Machine (See Fig. 10.15)

As the name indicates, this machine has multispindle on a single head. It is a vertical type. The
function of a multispindle drilling machine is to drill a number of holes in a piece of a work
simultaneously and to reproduce the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces in a
mass production. The head assembly has the number of spindles driven from pinions surrounding a
central gear. Feed motion is obtained by rising the work table. But the feed motion can also be
obtained by lowering the drill head.
(h) Numerically Controlled Drilling Machine
This is the latest type of drilling machine. In this machine, the table is positioned with the help of
numerical controls so as to locate the work accurately under the drill. Programmed tape is used
which can be used repeatedly.

10.5 SPECIFICATION OF DRILLING MACHINES

The specification of a drilling machine depends on the type of machine. Small portable drilling
machine is specified by the maximum diameter of the drill that it can be hold, whereas the sensi-
tive and upright drilling machine are specified by largest diameter of work piece that can be
centered under spindle.
The length of the arm and diameter of the column specify the radial drilling machine.
254 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 10.15 Multi-spindle Drilling Machine

10.6 WORK HOLDING DEVICES

Components to be drilled should be secured firmly on the drilling machine table. The following
devices are used for holding the work:
(a) Drill vice (d) V-Block
(b) Parallel bars (e) Clamps and T-bolts
(c) Step block (f) Drill jig
(a) Drill vice: It is a work holding device in which the work is clamped between a fixed jaw
and a movable jaw. The vice is fastened to the table by means of T-bolts. (See Fig. 10.16).
(b) Parallel bars: Parallel bars are placed below the work so that the drilling is carried out
without damaging the vice.
(c) Step block: Step block is used along with clamps and bolts for holding the work directly on
 Drilling Machines 255

the table. It provides support for the other end of the clamp. The different steps of the step
block are used for holding work pieces of different heights. Fig. 10.17 illustrates the used of
step block.

Fig. 10.16 Drill Vice

Fig. 10.17 Use of Set Block, T-Bolt and Clamps

Fig. 10.18 Types of Clamps

256 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Hand knob

Swinging jig plate

Work-piece

Eye bolt

Fig. 10.19 Drill Jig

(d) V-block: The V-Block is used for holding round work-pieces.

(e) Clamps and T-bolts: Clamps and T-bolts are used for clamping the work. Various types of
clamps used are shown in Fig. 10.18.
(f) Drill Jig: A drill jig locates the work-piece in proper position and holds it. It also guides the
drill so that holes are drilled in the same exact location on all the parts (See Fig. 10.19).

10.7 TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

The following devices are used for holding the drills.
(a) Drill chuck
(b) Drilling machine spindle
(c) Sleeve
(d) Socket
(a) Drill chuck: It is designed to hold straight shank drills of different sizes. The jaws of the
chuck are tightened around the drill by means of chuck key (see Fig. 10.20).
(b) Drilling machine spindles: All general purpose drilling machines have the spindle bored to
a Morse standard taper which is approximately 1:20. The drill may be removed by driving
the drift as shown in Fig. 10.21.
(c) Sleeve: It is used to hold taper shank drills whose taper is less than hole of the spindle. The
outer taper of the sleeve matches with spindle hole taper (see Fig. 10.22).
(d) Socket: It is used for the drills whose taper is larger than sleeve. (See Fig. 10.23).
Drilling Machines 257
258 Manufacturing Science and Technology

10.8 DRILLING MACHINE OPERATIONS

A drilling machine is capable of performing various operations by using suitable tools. The follow-
ing operations are generally performed on a drilling machine (See Fig. 10.24).
1. Drilling 5. Counter sinking
2. Reaming 6. Spot facing
3. Boring 7. Tapping
4. Counter boring 8. Trepaning or Circle cutting

Fig. 10.24 Drilling Machine Operations

1. Drilling: Drilling is the process of making hole by rotating of cutting tool called drill.
(Fig. 10.24(a)). For accurate location of the hole before drilling, should be marked out and
centre punched. For mass production work a drill jig is used which eliminates the marking
operation.
2. Reaming (Fig. 10.24(b)): It is an accurate way of sizing and finishing a hole, which has been
already drilled. Material allowance left in the hole for hand reaming is usually 0.05 to 0.1mm
and for machine reaming, it ranges from 0.13 to 0.65mm.
3. Boring (Fig. 10.24(c)): It is generally adopted for producing non-standard holes for which
drills are not commercially available (enlarging a hole).
 Drilling Machines 259

4. Counter boring (Fig. 10.24(d)): It is the operation of enlarging the hole for part of its depth.
The enlarged hole forms a square shoulder with the original hole. This is necessary to
accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins.
5. Counter sinking (Fig. 10.24(e)): It is the operation of making a conical shaped enlargement
at the top of the hole. This is done to provide seat for a flat head of screw or counter sink
rivet fitted into the hole.
6. Spot facing (Fig. 10.24(f)): It is the operation of smoothing and squaring the surface around
a hole for the seat for a nut or the head of the screw.
7. Tapping (Fig. 10.24(g)): It is the operation of cutting internal threads by using the tool called
tap.
8. Trepaning or circle cutting (Fig. 10.24(h)): It is the process in which a large hole in a sheet
or plate is made with the panning tool. In this process a central hole is drilled. It receives the
pilot of the tool, thus prevents the lateral displacement of the tool. On rotation of the tool, a
circle is cut from the plate. The advantage of this process is that the central portion of the
plate is removed as a solid mass, whereas in drilling, the central portion is removed in the
form of chips.

10.9 SPEED, FEED AND MACHINE TIME

Speed: The cutting speed of a drill is defined as the peripheral speed of a drill surface, which is in
contact with the work. It is expressed in meters/ min. It depends on number of factors such as
work material, tool material, depth of hole use of coolant etc.
Cutting speed V = πDN/100 m/min
Where D = Work diameter in mm
N = Rotational speed of drill in RPM
The cutting speeds with high speed drills are shown in Table 10.2
Table 10.2: Cutting Speeds in Drilling
Material Speed Range
m/mm
Mild Steel 25 – 35
Steel 20 – 25
Soft Cast Iron 30 – 45
Medium Cast Iron 21 – 30
Aluminium and Alloys 60 – 90
Brass and Bronze 60 – 90
Copper 18 – 30

Feed: It is the distance the drill enters the work for each revolution of the drill spindle. It is
expressed in millimeters per revolution.
The Feed per min may be calculated as :
f M = fr × N
Where
f M = Feed per minute
260 Manufacturing Science and Technology

f r = Feed per revolution

N = RPM of the drill
Machining Time in Drilling
L
Time for drilling = f × N
r
Where N = rpm of drill
f = Feed per rev in mm
L =l+a
Where l = Thickness of work piece
a = Approach of drill = 0.3d
d = Diameter of drill
Example 10.1: Find the time required to drill 6 holes of 16 mm diameter each on a flange.
Assume flange thickness = 30 mm, cutting speed = 20 m/min, feed = 0.2 mm/rev.
Solution:
IIDN
V =
1000
1000 × 20
N = 3.14 ×16

= 398.08 rpm
L
Time for drilling one hole = f × N
r
L = 1 + a = 30 + 0.3 × 16
= 30 + 4.8 = 34.8
34.8
T = 0.2 × 398 = 0.437 min

Time for 6 holes = 6 × 0.437 min = 2.623 min.

Example 10.2: A drilling machine has to be designed for 6 speeds ranging from 34 rpm to
353 rpm:
(a) Draw the ray diagram and gear arrangement.
(b) Also deduce the standard series used. [GATE-problem]
 Drilling Machines 261

Solution:
(a) For Ray diagram see Fig. 10.25

Fig. 10.25 Six Speeds Drilling Machine

N max 5 353
(b) φ = Z – 1 =
N min 34
= 1.596 = 1.6
for φ = 1.6

speed are:
N1 = 34 rpm
N2 = N1φ = 34 × 1.6 = 54.4 rpm
N3 = N2φ = 87 rpm
N4 = 139 rpm
N5 = 222 rpm
262 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Standard φ = 1.58
Hence, N 1 = 34 rpm
N2 = N1φ = 54 rpm
N3 = N2φ = 85 rpm
N4 = 134 rpm
N5 = 212 rpm

QUESTIONS
1. Draw a neat sketch of twist drill and show various parts.
2. What are the various types of drilling machines? Explain their usage in the workshop.
3. Draw a neat sketch of Radial Drilling machine and label the parts.
4. How a drilling machine is specified?
5. Enumerate different operations that can be done on a drilling machine.
6. List various work holding and tool holding devices used in a drilling machine.
 11
1
Milling Machine

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Milling is the process of removing metal by feeding the work against a rotating multi-point cutter.
In milling operation the rate of metal removal is rapid as the cutter rotates at a high speed and has
many cutting edges.

11.2 TYPES OF MILLING MACHINES

There are many types of milling machines from simple hand milling machine to the complex tape-
controlled machines. Each has a particular field, in which it performs best. However, all these
machines can be classified into the following categories.
1. Column and knee types
(a) Plain milling machine (b) Vertical milling machine
(c) Universal milling machine (d) Ram-type milling machine
2. Bed type milling machine
(a) Simplex milling machine (b) Duplex milling machine
(c) Triplex milling machine
3. Plano type milling machine
4. Special purpose milling machine
(a) Rotary table milling machine (c) Profile milling machine
(b) Drum milling machine
11.2.1 Column and Knee Types
(a) Plain Milling Machine
It is also known as horizontal milling machine. Its principal parts are shown in Fig. 11.1.
264 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Base: It is the foundation of the machine. All other parts are mounted on it. It also serves as
reservoir for cutting fluids.

Fig. 11.1 (a) Horizontal Milling Machine

Fig. 11.1 (b) 3-D View of Horizontal Milling Machine

Column: It is the main support of the machine. The motor and other driving mechanisms are
housed in it. It supports and guides the kee in its vertical travel.
 Milling Machine 265

Knee: The knee projects from the column and slides up and down. It supports saddle and the
table. Elevating screw provides its vertical movement (up and down).
Saddle: The saddle supports and carries the table and provides traversed movement.
Table: The table rests on the ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally in a horizontal
plane. It supports the work-piece, fixtures etc.
Over arm: It is mounted on and guided by the top of the column. The over arm is used to hold
the outer end of the arbor to prevent it from bending.
Arbor : Arbor is an accurately machined shaft. Cutters are mounted on the arbor, which is
rigidly supported by the over arm, spindle and end braces. It is tapered at one end to fit the spindle
nose and has two slots to fit the nose keys for locating and driving it.
(b) Vertical Milling Machine
A vertical milling machine can be distinguished from a horizontal milling machine by the position of
its spindle which is vertical or perpendicular to the work table. The spindle head, which is clamped,
to the vertical column may be swivelled at an angle, permitting to work on angular surfaces. The
machine is used for machining grooves, slots and flat surfaces. Generally vertical milling machine
is used to perform end milling and face milling operations. The Fig. 11.2 illustrates the vertical
milling machine.
(c) Universal Milling Machine
It is the most versatile of all the milling machine. It is similar to plain milling machine and differs
only in respect of the table movement. The table can be swivelled about a vertical axis up to 45°.
The capacity of a universal milling machine is increased by the use of special attachments such as
dividing head, vertical milling attachment, rotary attachment, slotting attachment etc. The machine
can produce spur, spiral, bevel gears, reamers, milling cutters etc.

Fig. 11.2(a) Vertical Milling Machine

266 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 11.2(b) 3-D View of Vertical Milling Machine

Comparison between Plain and Universal milling machine:

1. In plain milling machine the table is provided with three movements: longitudinal, cross and
vertical. In universal milling machine in addition to these three movements, there is a fourth move-
ment to the table. The table can be swivelled horizontally and can be fed at angle to the milling
machine spindle.
2. The universal milling machine is provided with auxiliaries such as dividing head, vertical
milling attachment, rotary table etc. Hence it is possible to make spiral, bevel gears, twist drills,
reamers etc. on universal milling machine.
3. The plain milling machine is more rigid and heavier in construction than a universal milling
machine.
4. The plain milling machine is used for manufacturing operations, whereas universal milling
machine is used for tool room work and for special machining operations. Hence generally univer-
sal milling machine is used in tool room.
 Milling Machine 267

Fig. 11.3 Fixed Bed Type Milling Machine

11.2.2 Bed Type Milling Machines

These are comparatively large, heavy and rigid in construction. The vertical motion is imported to
the spindle head instead of the table. Depending upon the number of spindle, these are classified
as simplex and duplex machines.
268 Manufacturing Science and Technology

11.2.3 Plano Type Milling Machine (see Fig. 11.4)

It resembles a planer. The essential difference between a planer and plano-miller lies in the table
movement. In a planer, the table moves to give the cutting speed, but in a plano-miller, the table
movement gives the feed. Hence the table movement in plano-miller is much slower than that of a
planing machine.
11.2.4 Special Purpose Milling Machine
These machines are designed to perform a specific type of operation only.
(a) Rotary Table Milling Machine (see Fig. 11.5)
This is modification to a vertical milling machine. It consists of two vertical spindles mounted with
face milling cutters. A number of work pieces are clamped on a circular table which rotates about
a vertical axis. The cutters may be set at different heights relative from work so that when one of
the cutter is for roughing operation, the other is for finishing operation.

Fig. 11.4 Plano Type Milling Machine

(b) Drum Milling Machine (see Fig. 11.6)

These machines are used to face the two ends of a work piece simultaneously and in continuous
machining cycle. The work pieces are clamped on a central drum, which rotates on a horizontal
axis so that both end faces are machine simultaneously, first by roughing and then by finishing
cutters.
 Milling Machine 269

Fig.11.5 Rotary Table Milling Machine

Fig. 11.6 Drum Type Milling Machine

270 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Profile Milling Machine

It has the cutter guided by means of a guide pin which is held against and follows the outline or the
profile on a guide block (template). It is largely used for making sewing machine parts.

11.3 SIZE OF MILLING MACHINE

The size of the milling machine is denoted by the dimensions of the working surface of the table
and its maximum length of longitudinal, cross and vertical travel of the table.
Table length × Width = 1100 mm × 310 mm
Power traverse = Longitudinal × Cross × Vertical
= 650 mm × 230 mm × 400 mm
In addition to the above dimensions, number of spindle speeds, number of feeds, power available,
net weight and floor space required.

11.4 MILLING MACHINE ATTACHMENTS

The range of work that a milling machine can do is greatly increased by the use of attachments.
The following are the different attachment used on a milling machine.
(a) Vertical Milling Attachments (see Fig. 11.7)
With the use of this attachment, the horizontal and universal milling machines can be made to act
as vertical milling machine.

Fig. 11.7 Vertical Milling Attachment

(b) High Speed Milling Attachment

This attachment consists of gearing arrangement to increase the spindle speeds by four to six
times. This is for operating small diameter cutters efficiently and at the proper cutting speed.
 Milling Machine 271

(c) Slotting Attachment

This attachment converts the rotary motion of the spindle into reciprocating motion by means of an
eccentric or crank arrangement. This is used for key way cutting, grooving and internal gear
cutting.
(d) Dividing Head Attachment
This is a work holding device, which is mounted, on the machine table. It is used for dividing the
periphery of the work-piece into a required number of equal parts.

11.5 MILLING CUTTERS

The milling cutter is a multi-point revolving tool. The teeth of milling cutter may be parallel to the
axis of the rotation or at an angle known as helix angle. The helix angle may be right or left hand.
Further a milling cutter may be made of single piece (solid cutter) or having removable cutting
teeth inserted in a solid body (inserted teeth cutter). Following are the common type of these
cutters (see Fig. 11.8).
1. Plain milling cutter: These cutters have straight or helical teeth cut on the periphery of a
cylindrical surface in Fig. 11.8(a). These are used to machine flat surfaces. These are mounted on
horizontal milling machines.
2. Face milling cutters (Fig. 11.8(b)): A face-milling cutter is also used for machining flat
surfaces. It is mounted on a vertical-milling machine.
3. Plain slitting saw (Fig. 11.8(c)): It resembles a plain milling cutter or a side-milling cutter in
appearance, but it is of very small width. It is used for cutting-off and slotting operations and
somewhat similar to the circular saw blade.
4. Side milling cutter (Fig. 11.8(d)): The side milling cutter have teeth on its periphery and
also on one of its side. It may have plain, helical or staggered teeth. These cutters are used for
side milling and slot cutting.
5. Angle milling cutter (Fig. 11.8(e)): This cutter will have their cutting teeth at an angle to
the axis of rotation. Angular cutters are classified as single angular cutters or double angular
cutters. Single angular cutter is used in cutting dovetail grooves.
6. T-Slot cutter (Fig. 11.8(f)): The T -slot milling cutters are special forms of end mills for
producing T -slots.
7. End Mill Cutters (Fig. 11.8(g)): The end mills have cutting teeth on the end as well as on
the periphery of the cutter. The peripheral teeth may be straight or helical. These are used for light
milling operations like cutting slots, machining accurate holes and for profile milling operations.
8. Form milling cutters (Fig. 11.8(h)): These cutters are designed to cut definite shapes are
known as form milling cutters. These cutters can be classified according to their shape as convex
or concave cutters, gear cutters etc.
272 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 11.8 Types of Milling Cutters—(a) Plain milling cutter; (b) Face milling cutter with inserted teeth;
(c) Plain metal slitting saw; (d) Side milling cutter; (e) Angle milling cutter; (f) T-slot cutter;
(g) End mill cutter; (h) Form cutter

11.6 CUTTER MATERIALS

The milling cutter is made of (a) High speed steels (b) Non-ferrous cast alloys or cemented
carbide tips.
In normal work, high-speed steel cutters are more commonly used in production shops. Car-
bide tipped tools is used for mass production as they last long and yield high production. The tips of
carbide are brazed or insert into the high carbon steel body of the cutter. Tips made of ceramics
are also used in milling cutters.

11.7 ELEMENTS OF A PLAIN MILLING CUTTER

Fig. 11.9 shows the principal parts and angles of a plain milling cutter.
 Milling Machine 273

Fig. 11.9 Elements of Plain Milling Cutter

Body of cutter: The main frame of the cutter on which the teeth rest to form an integral at
part is known as body of the cutter.
Cutting edge: The edge formed by the intersection of the teeth and the circular land of the
surface left by the provision of primary clearance.
Face: The portion of the gash adjacent to the cutting edge on which the chip impinges as it is
cut from the work.
Fillet: The curved surface at the bottom of gash which joins the face of one teeth to the back
of the tooth immediately ahead.
Gash: The chip space between the back of one tooth and the face of the next tooth
Land: The part of the back of tooth adjacent to the cutting edge which is relieved to avoid
interference between the surface being machined and the cutter.
Outside diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the peripheral cutting edge.
Root diameter: The diameter of the circle passing through the bottom of the fillet.
Cutter angles: Like a single point cutting tool, the milling cutter is also provided with rake,
clearance and other angles to remove metal efficiently.
Relief angle: The angle between the land of a tooth and the tangent to the outside diameter at
the cutting edge.
Clearance angle: There are two types of clearance angels on a milling cutter–primary clear-
ance and secondary clearance angle.
Primary clearance angle: This is the angle between the surface of land and a tangent to the
periphery at the cutting edge.
274 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Secondary clearance angle: This is the angle formed by the secondary clearance surface of
the tooth and the tangent to the periphery at the cutting edge.
Lip angle: The included angle between the land and the face of the tooth.
Rake angle (radial): The angle measured in the diametrical plane between the face of the
tooth and a radial line passing through the cutting edge. It may be positive, negative or zero.

11.8 MLLLING METHODS

(a) Peripheral milling (c) End milling
(b) Face milling
(a) Peripheral milling: It is the operation performed by a milling cutter to produce a ma-
chined surface parallel to the axis of rotation of the cutter. The contact between the cutter and the
work surface is over the whole width of the cutter. The cutting force is large. According to the
relative movement between the tool and the work, the peripheral milling is classified under two
headings:
(i) Up milling: It is also called as conventional milling. In this method of milling the cutter
rotates in a direction opposite to that in which the work is fed as shown in the Fig. 11.10(a). In this
method of milling the thickness of the chip is minimum at the beginning of the cut and it reaches to
the maximum when the cut terminates. The cutting force in up milling increases from zero to the
maximum value per tooth movement of the cutter. The cutter force is directed upwards and this
tends to lift the work from the fixture. Pouring the coolant on the cutting edge is not possible. The
surface milled by up milling is not smooth.
(ii) Down milling: The down milling is also called as climb milling. In this method of milling
the cutter rotates in the same direction of travel of the work-piece as shown in Fig. 11.10(b). The
thickness of the chip is maximum when the tooth begins it’s cut and reduces to minimum when the
cut terminates. In down milling, the fixture design becomes easier as the direction of the cutting
force is such that it tends to seat the work firmly in the work holding devices. The chips are also
disposed off easily and do not interfere with the cutting. The coolant can be poured directly at the
cutting zone. This result in improved surface finish and diminishes the heat generated.
(b) Face milling: The face milling is the operation performed by a milling cutter to produce
flat-machined surfaces perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The peripheral cutting edges of the
cutter do the actual cutting, whereas the face cutting edges finish up the work surface by remov-
ing a very small amount of material.
(c) End milling: The end milling may be considered as the combination of peripheral and
face milling operation. The cutter has teeth both on the end face and on the periphery.
 Milling Machine 275

Work piece

Work piece

Fig. 11.10

11.9 MILLING OPERATIONS

1. Plain milling 6. Form milling
2. Face milling 7. Profile milling
3. Straddle milling 8. End milling
4. Angular milling 9. Helical milling
5. Gang milling 10. Gear cutting
1. Plain milling

Fig. 11.11 Plain Milling

276 Manufacturing Science and Technology

It is the operation of production of plain, horizontal surfaces parallel to the axis of rotation of a plain
milling cutter. The operation is also called slab milling. The plain milling operation is illustrated in
Fig. 11.11.
2. Face milling
It is the process of milling flat surfaces using a milling cutter such that the surface generated is at
right angle to the axis of the cutter as shown in Fig. 11.12.

Fig. 11.12 Face Milling

3. Straddle milling
It is a milling operation in which a pair of side milling cutters is used for machining for two parallel
vertical surfaces of a workpiece simultaneously as shown in Fig. 11.13.

Work piece

4. Angular milling
It is milling process, which is used for machining a flat surface at an angle, other than a right angle
to the axis of the revolving cutter. Fig. 11.14 shows forming a dovetail using angular cutter.
5. Gang milling
It is the operation of machining several surfaces of a work-piece simultaneously by feeding the
work table against a number of cutters having same or different diameters mounted on the arbor
of the machine. This method saves much of machining time. The operation is illustrated in Fig.
11.15.
6. Form milling
It is the operation of production of irregular contours by using form cutters. The irregular contour
may be convex, concave or any other shape. The form milling operation is illustrated in Fig. 11.16.
 Milling Machine 277

Fig. 11.15 Gang Milling

Fig. 11.16 Form Milling

7. Profile milling

Fig. 11.17 Profile Milling

The profile milling is the operation of reproduction of an outline of template or complex shape of master
die on a work-piece. Different cutters may be used for profile milling. An end mill is one of the most
widely used milling cutters in profile milling work as shown in Fig. 11.17.
8. End milling
It is the operation of production of a flat surface which may be vertical horizontal or at an angle in
reference to the table surface. The cutter used is an end mill. The end mill cutters are also used
for production of slots, grooves or keyways. The operation is shown in Fig. 11.18.
9. Helical milling
It is the operation of production of helical flutes or grooves around the periphery of a cylindrical or
conical work piece. The operation is performed by swivelling the table to the required helix angle
278 Manufacturing Science and Technology

and then by rotating and feeding the work against rotary cutting edges of a milling cutter. The
production of helical gears, cutting helical grooves or flutes on a drill shank or a reamer is the
examples of helical milling.

10. Gear cutting

The gear cutting operation is performed in a milling machine by using a form relieved cutter. The
cutter may be cylindrical type or end mill type. The cutter profile corresponds exactly with the
tooth space of the gear. Equally spaced gear teeth are cut in a gear blank by holding the work on a
universal-dividing head (UDH) and then index it. The gear cutting operation is shown in Fig. 11.19.

11.10 INDEXING AND DIVIDING HEAD

Indexing is the operation of dividing the periphery of work-piece into any number of equal parts. A
wide range of indexing operations are used in milling like producing hexagonal and square headed
bolts, cutting splines on the shaft, gear cutting. For doing this indexing, an attachment known as
dividing head is used with the milling machine. The dividing heads are of three types.
(a) Plain or simple dividing head (c) Optical dividing head
(b) Universal dividing head
(a) Plain or Simple Dividing Head (see Fig.11.20)

Fig. 11.20 Plain Indexing Head for Direct Indexing

The plain dividing head consists of a cylindrical spindle housed in a frame and a base bolted to the
machine table. The indexing crank is connected to the tail end of the spindle directly, and the crank
 Milling Machine 279

and spindle rotate as one unit. The index plate is mounted on the spindle and rotate with it. The
spindle can be rotated through the desired angle and then clamped by inserting the clamping lever
pin into anyone of the slots of the index plate. The job is held between two centers, one on the
dividing head spindle and the other on the tailstock as shown in Fig. 11.20. In this dividing head,
there is no worm and worm wheel.
(b) Universal Dividing Head

Fig. 11.21 Working Mechanism of a Universal Dividing Head

280 Manufacturing Science and Technology

This dividing head is very useful device for the purpose of indexing work. The working mechanism
of UDH is shown in Fig. 11.21. The spindle carrying the worm wheel meshes with the worm,
which carries a crank at its outer end. The worm wheel has 40 teeth and the worm is single
threaded. Thus 40 turns of crank will rotate the spindle for one complete revolution or one turn of
the crank will cause the spindle to be rotated by 1/40 of a revolution. In order to turn the crank a
fraction of a revolution, an index plate is used.
Index plate is a circular disc having a different member of equally spaced holes is arranged in
concentric circles. The index plate is screwed on a sleeve, which is loosely mounted on the worm
shaft. Normally the index plate remains stationary by a lock pin. The index pin works inside the
spring loaded plunger. This plunger can slide, radially along a desired hole circle on the index plate.
The dividing head spindle may be connected with the table feed screw through a train of gears
to impart a continuous rotary motion to the work piece for helical milling.
(c) Optical Dividing Head
The optical dividing heads are used for precise angular indexing during machining and for checking
the accuracy of various angular surfaces.

11.11 INDEXING METHODS

The common methods of indexing are:
(a) Direct or rapid indexing
(b) Plain or simple indexing
(c) Compound indexing
(d) Differential indexing
(e) Angular indexing
(a) Direct or Rapid Indexing
It is used when a large number of identical pieces are indexed by very small divisions. The
operation is performed on plain dividing head and universal dividing head. When using universal
dividing, the worm and worm wheel are first disengaged. Rapid index plate having 24 slots is fitted
to the frame. While indexing, the pin is taken out and then the spindle is rotated by hand and after
the required position is reached, it is again locked by pin. With a rapid index plate of 24 slots, it is
possible to divide the work into divisions of 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24.
The formula for indexing is as follows:
24
No. of slots to be moved =
N
Where N = Number of divisions required.
Example 11.1: Find index movement to mill hexagonal bolt by direct indexing. The plate has
24 slots.
24
Solution: No. of slots to be moved = =4
6
 Milling Machine 281

After machining one side of the bolt, index plate has to be moved by 4 slots for 5 times the finish
work.
(b) Plain or Simple Indexing
This method of indexing is used when the direct method of indexing cannot be employed for
obtaining the required number of divisions on the work. Universal dividing head is used for this
purpose. This method of indexing involves the use of crank, worm, worm wheel and index plate as
shown in Fig. 11.22. The worm wheel carries 40 teeth and the worm is single threaded. With this
arrangement 40 turns of the crank are required to rotate the spindle for one revolution i.e. one turn
of the crank will cause the worm wheel to make l/40th of revolution.

Fig. 11.22 Simple Indexing

To facilitate indexing to fractions of a turn, index plates of different circles are used to cover
practically all numbers.
Suppose the work is to be divided into a number of parts, the corresponding crank movement
will be as follows:
40
Indexing crank movement =
N
Where N = Number of divisions required
282 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Example 11.2: Mill 23 teeth on a spur wheel blank.

40 17
Solution: Index crank movement = =1
23 23
Thus for indexing, one complete revolution and 17 holes of 23 hole circle of the index plate will
have to be moved by the index crank.
(c) Compound Indexing
This method of indexing is used when the number of divisions required is outside the range of
simple indexing. It involves in two stages:
1. By turning the crank a definite amount in one direction in the same way as in simple
indexing.
2. By turning the index plate and the crank both in the same or reverse direction, thus adding
further movement to or subtracting from that obtained in the first stage.
40 n n
= 1 ± 2
N N1 N2
Where N =The number of divisions required
N 1 =The hole circle used by the crank pin
N 2 =The hole circle used by the lock pin
n 1 =Hole spaces moved by the crank pin in N1 hole circle
n 2 =Hole spaces moved by the plate and crank in N2 hole circle
Procedure for compound indexing is as follows:
1. Factorise the number of divisions required.
2. Factorise the standard No. 40.
3. Select for trial any two circles on the same plate and on same side. Factorise their differ-
ence.
4. Factorise the number of holes of one circle.
5. Factorise the number of holes of the other circle.
6. After obtaining these factors place them as follows:
Factors of divisions required × Factors of difference of hole circles
Factors of 40 × Factors of first Circle × Factors of 2nd Circle
Example 11.3: Compound index 69 divisions.
Solution:
1. 69 = 23 × 3
2. 40 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5
3. Select index circle 23 and 33
Difference = 33 – 23 = 10 = 5 × 2
 Milling Machine 283

4. 23 = 23 × 1
5. 33 = 3 × 11
23 × 3 × 5 × 2 1
=
2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 23 × 1 × 3 × 11 44
as we get one in numerator, the circles selected are correct.
44 44 44 21 11 21 11
= – =1 –1 = –
69 23 33 23 33 33 33
Thus for indexing 69 divisions, the index crank should be moved by 21 holes of 23 hole circle in
forward direction and then the plate and the crank together is moved by 11 holes 33 hole circle in
the backward direction.
Example 11.4: Compound indexing for 87 divisions.
Solution:
1. 87 = 29 × 3
2. 40 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5
3. Select indexing circle 29 and 33
Difference = 33 – 29 = 4 = 2 × 2
4. 29 = l × 29
5. 33 = 3 × 11
3× 29 × 2 × 2 1
=
2 × 2 × 2 × 5 ×1× 29 × 3×11 110
as numerator is one, selected circles are correct.
40 110 110 23 11
∴ = – =3 –3
87 29 33 29 33
11 23
or 3 –3
33 29
23 11 11 23
– or –
29 33 33 29
since we keep the forward motion of the crank as larger than the backward motion, we adopt
23 11 23 11
– or –
29 33 29 33
For indexing, the index crank should be moved by 23 holes of 29 circle forward direction and then
the plate and the crank together is moved by 11 hole 33 circle in backward direction.
284 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(d) Differential Indexing

Fig. 11.23 Differential Indexing

Figure 11.23 illustrates the mechanism of differential indexing. Differential indexing greatly re-
sembles compound indexing. This process is also carried out in two stages. In the first operation a
crank is moved in a certain direction. In the second phase movement is added or subtracted by
moving the plate by means of a gear train.
The rotation of index plate may take place in the same direction as the crank or opposite to it.
Rules for differential indexing.
(A – N ) × 40
1. Gear Ratio =
A
Where A = Selected number which can be indexed by plain indexing and the number is
approximately equal to N.
N = The required number of divisions to be indexed.
2. In the gear ratio, the numerator indicates driving gears on the index head spindle and the
denominator indicates the driven gears on the index plate.
40
3. Index crank movement =
A
 Milling Machine 285

The index crank has to be moved for N number of times for complete division of work. If
(A – N) is positive, the index plate must rotate in the same direction and if (A – N) is negative, the
index plate must rotate in a direction opposite to that of the crank.
To achieve this conditions, the following conditions are used:
(a) If the gear train is simple and (A – N) is positive, only one idle gear is used.
(b) If the gear train is compound and (A – N) is positive, no idle gear is used.
(c) If the gear train is simple and (A – N) is negative, two idle gear are used.
(d) If the gear train is compound and (A – N) is negative, only one idle gear is used.
Example 11.5: Make 83 divisions using differential indexing.
Solution: Assume A = 86
(A – N ) × 40 40 40 72 40
1. Gear Ratio = = (86– 83) × = 3× = ×
A 86 86 24 86
2. Drivers = 72, 40
Driven = 24, 86
40 20
3. Index crank movement = =
86 43
The index crank have to be moved by 20 holes of 43 hole circle for 83 times.
4. As (A – N) is positive, gear ratio compound, no idle gear is required.
Example 11.6: Make 139 divisions by differential indexing.
Solution: Assume A = 140
N = 139
40 140 – 139 40 2 2 × 3 2 × 3
1. Gear ratio= (A–N)× = × 40 = = = =
A 140 140 7 7 × 3 3× 7

32 24
= ×
48 56
2. ∵ Drivers = 32, 24
driven = 48, 56
40 40 2 6
3. Index crank movement = = = =
A 140 7 21
The index crank have to be moved by 6 holes of 21 hole circle for 139 times.
4. As (A – N) is positive, gear ratio compound, no idle gear is required.
(e) Angular Indexing
The angular indexing is used to rotate the job through certain angle, 40 turns of crank makes the
work rotate through one complete turn i.e., 40 turns of crank make the work rotate 360°.
286 Manufacturing Science and Technology

360
For each turn of the crank, the crank will rotate by = = 9°
40
Angular Displacement (θ)
∴ Crank movement = in degrees
140
Angular Displacement
= in minutes
240
Angular Displacement of work
= in seconds
32400
Example 11.7: Index angle 60°.
60 6 12
Solution: Crank movement = = 6 = 6
9 9 18
Crank movement = 6 full turns + 12 holes of 18 holes circle.
Example 11.8: Index angle 15°30'
Solution:
In degree In minutes
1
15
Crank movement = 2 15° × 60 = 900'
9

31
= 15°30' = 900 + 30 = 930
18
13 930
=1 Crank movement =
18 540
31 31
= =1
18 18
Crank movement Crank movement
1 Full turn + 13 holes of 1 Full turn + 13 holes of
18 holes circle 18 holes circle

11.12 MACHINING TIME CALCULATIONS

Length of cut
Time required/cut =
Feed / Min
Since milling cutter is a multipoint cutter, the feed will be as follows:
 Milling Machine 287

Feed per rev = Feed per tooth × Number of cutter teeth

Feed per min = (Table Feed) = Feed per rev × rpm of cutter
Length of cut = Length of the job + Added table travel
(a) Slab Milling or Slot Milling Operation

Fig. 11.24 Slab or slot Milling Operation

Fig. 11.24 shows how the cutter is adjusted to depth of cut ‘d’ of the job.

Added table travel = Dd – d 2

Where d = Depth of cut
D = Diameter of the cutter
(b) Face Milling Operation
Fig 11.25 shows face milling operation

Fig. 11.25 Face Milling Operation

1
Added travel = (D – D2 – W 2 )
2
Where D = Diameter of the cutter, W = Width of the work
if the cutter diameter is less than the width of the job
288 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Then
D
Added Travel =
2
Example 11.9: A slot of 25 mm depth is cut in a job 200 mm long with the help of cutter
having 150 mm diameter and has 10 teeth. The cutting speed is 50m/min, and feed 0.25 mm per
tooth. Determine (i) table feed in mm/min (ii) total travel of the cutter (iii) machining time for
machining the slot.
Solution:
1000 V 1000 × 50
N= = = 106.16 rmp
IID 3.14 ×150
(i) Table feed=0.25 × 10 × 106.16 = 265.4 mm/min
Added Travel = Dd – d 2
= 150 × 25 – 252
= 3750 – 625
= 3125
= 55.9
(ii) Total Travel = length of the job + added travel
= 200 + 55.9 = 255.9
Total travel 255.9
(iii) Machining Time = =
Feed / Min. 265.4
= 0.964 min.
Example 11.10: A 63.5 mm diameter milling cutter having 6 teeth is used to face mill a block
of 180 mm long and 30 mm wide. Speed is 1500 rpm and the feed is 0.125 mm per rev. find the
machining time.
1
Solution: Added Travel = (D – D2 – W 2 )
2
1
= (63.5 – 63.52 – 302 )
2
= 3.7665 = 3.77 mm
Total Table Travel = 180 + 3.77 = 183.77 mm
Feed/Min. (table feed) = 0.125 × 6 × 1500
= 1125 mm/min
183.77
Machining time = = 0.163 mm.
1125
 Milling Machine 289

Example 11.11: A slot is to be made on a milling machine with cutter revolving at 120 rpm.
Find the time required to prepare the slot in two cuts, if it uses 20 mm deep and 100 mm long with
a cutter diameter 80 mm. Assume the feed as 0.5 mm. sec. (GATE).
Added Travel = Dd – d 2 = 80 ×10 – 102 = 700
= 26.45 mm
Total Travel = 100 + 26.45 = 126.45 mm
Feed/min. (Table Travel) = 0.5 × 120 = 60 mm/min.
126.45
Time taken/cut = = 2.1min
60
Total time required per two cuts = 2 × 2.1 = 4.2 min.

QUESTIONS
1. How do you classify the milling machines?
2. Draw a neat sketch of horizontal milling machine and label the parts.
3. List the various types of milling cutters. Draw a neat sketch of milling cutter you are familiar with.
4. What are the main attachments used on milling machine?
5. Explain Up milling and Down milling with neat sketches.
6. Draw a neat sketch of a Universal dividing head and explain its working.
7. Explain different types of indexing methods with examples.
 This page
intentionally left
blank
 12
1
Shaper
Shaper,, Slotter and Planer

12.1 SHAPER MACHINE

12.1.1 Introduction of Shaper

The shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool used for producing flat surfaces, which may be
horizontal, vertical or inclined. Sometimes irregular or curved surfaces are also produced by shaper.
In shaping, tool is given a reciprocating motion. It is generally not used as a production machine.
But widely used in machine shop and tool rooms since it is very easy to setup and operate.
12.1.2 Working Principle

Fig. 12.1 Working Principle of Shaping Machine

292 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Figure 12.1 shows the basic principle involved in shaping. The job is held in a suitable device (vice)
clamped rigidly on the machine table. The cutting tool is held in the tool post mounted on the ram
of the shaper. The ram reciprocates to and fro and in doing so it cuts the material from the job in
cutting stroke. Generally, the cutting action takes place in the forward stroke, which is also known
as cutting stroke. No cutting of material takes place during the return stroke of the ram is called
idle stroke. At the end of one cycle, consisting of one to and fro motion of the cutting tool, the job
is given a feed motion perpendicular to the direction of tool movement. The depth of cut is given
by lowering the tool relative to the job.
12.1.3 Principle Parts of a Shaper (see Fig. 12.2)
Base: It consists of a heavy robust cast iron structure, which supports all the other parts of the
machine.

Fig. 12.2(a) Principle Parts of a Shaper

Column: It acts as housing for electrical circuits and operating mechanism of a shaper. It also
supports ram, tool head, cross-rail etc. It is a heavy cast iron body attached to the column of the
machine. It is used for two purposes — for elevating the table and for traverse of the table.
Table: It is a box type construction with T-slots cut on it to hold the vice and jobs. It slides
along the cross-rail to provide feed to the work.
Ram: It is the reciporcating part of the shaper, semi-circular in shape and carries the tool head
infront of it. It gets its drive from the quick return mechanism, which is inside the column.
Tool head: The tool head of a shaper is used for holding the tool rigidly. It also provides
vertical and angular feed movement of the tool and allow the tool to lift automatically to provide
relief during its idle of return stroke. The vertical feed to the tool is provided by rotating the down
feed screw handle.
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 293

Fig. 12.2(b) 3D View of a Shaper

12.1.4 Classification of Shapers

Shapers are classified in the following ways:
1. According to the length of stroke
(i) 30 cm shaper (iii) 60 cm shaper
(ii) 45 cm shaper
2. According to movement of ram
(i) Horizontal type (ii) Vertical type
3. According to the type of design of the table
(i) Standard shaper (ii) Universal shaper
4. According to the drive
(i) Mechanical shapers
(a) Crank type (b) Geared type
(ii) Hydraulic shaper
5. According to the type of cutting stroke
(i) Push type shaper (ii) Draw type shaper
294 Manufacturing Science and Technology

12.1.5 Types of Shapers

Standard Shaper: It consists of a plain table that may or may not have vertical support at its front.
Some machines have a provision for the table to swivel around a horizontal axis parallel to the ram.
The material is cut in the forward stroke of the tool and the return stroke is idle.
Horizontal Shaper: It is very popular type of shaper. In this shaper the ram holding the tool
head reciprocates in a horizontal axis. Horizontal shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.
Vertical Shaper: In a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis.
In some of the vertical machines provision is made to allow adjustment of the ram to an angle of
about 10 degrees from the vertical position. Vertical shapers may be crank driven, rack driven or
hydraulic power driven. The work table of a vertical shaper can be given cross, longitudinal and
rotary movement. Vertical shapers are used for machining keyways, slots or grooves.
Universal Shaper: This ia also a horizontal shaper, but its table can be swung about a hori-
zontal axis parallel to the ram ways. The top of this table can also be tilted about another horizon-
tal axis, which is normal to the former axis. It is called a universal shaper since the job can be
tilted in any direction through the required angle with the help of swivel vice.
Crank Shaper: This is the most common type of shaper in which crank and slotted link
mechanism is used to give reciprocating motion to the ram.
Geared Shaper: The reciprocating motion of the ram is given by means of a rack and pinion.
The rack teeth that are cut directly below the ram mesh with a spur gear.
Hydraulic Shaper: In this type of shaper, reciprocating movement of the ram is obtained by
hydraulic power. Oil under high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder fitted with a piston.
The end of the piston rod is connected to the ram. The high-pressure oil first acts on one side of
the piston and then on the other causing the piston to reciprocate and the motion is transmitted to
the ram.
Push Type Shaper: This is the most general type of shaper used in practice. The metal is
removed in the forward stroke of the ram.
Draw Type Shaper: In this type of shaper, the metal is removed in the backward stroke of the
ram. The tool is set in a reverse direction to that of a standard shaper. Vibrations in these machines
are eliminated.
12.1.6 Shaper Size and Specification
The maximum length of cut it can take gives the size of shaper. The usual size range from 175
mm to 900 mm. In addition to this, other details also required to specify a shaper. Specification of
a shaper as follows:
l. Length of stroke 610 mm
2. Maximum vertical travel of table 475 mm
3. Maximum horizontal travel of table 450 mm
4. Size of the side table 473 mm × 330 mm
5. Power of the motor 3 HP
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 295

6. Maximum vertical travel of tool slide 150 mm

7. Ram cycles per minute or strokes 15 to 90
per minute
8. Approximate net weight 1750 kg
9. Floor space required 1981mm × 1067 mm
12.1.7 Quick Return Mechanism
In a standard type shaper, metal is removed in the forward cutting stroke, while the return stroke
goes idle and no metal is removed during this period. To reduce the total machining time, it is
necessary to reduce the time taken by the return stroke. Thus the shaper mechanism should be so
designed that the ram should move slowly (slow speed) during forward stroke (cutting stroke) and
should move fast in the return stroke.
This mechanism is known as Quick return mechanism. For this purpose, two mechanisms are
commonly used:
(a) Crank and slotted link mechanism
(b) Hydraulic mechanism
(a) Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism (see Fig. 12.3)

Ram

Rocker arm

Bull gear slides

Bull gear sliding block

Sliding block of rocker arm

Crank pin

Bull gear
Driving pinion

Rocker arm pivot

Fig. 12.3 Crank and Slotted Link Mechanism

The drive from the motor is coupled to driving pinion, which is in mesh with the bull gear. Bull gear
slide is mounted at the center of the bull gear. There is a sliding block, of rocker arm and a crankpin
296 Manufacturing Science and Technology

which passes through the sliding block and is fixed on the bull gear sliding block. The slotted link,
which is also known as rocker arm, is pivoted at its bottom end to the frame. The upper end of the
rocker arm is forked and connected to the ram. As the bull gear rotates causing the crankpin to
rotate, the sliding block of rocker arm fastened to the crankpin will rotate on the crankpin circle, and
at the same time will move up and down the slot in the slotted link giving it a rocking movement
which is communicated to the ram. Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear is converted to recipro-
cating motion of the ram.
The principle of quick return motion is illustrated in Fig. 12.4. When the link is in the position
PQ the ram will be at the extreme backward position of its stroke and when it is at PR, the
extreme forward position of the ram will have been reached. PQ and PR are drawn tangent to the
crankpin circle. The forward cutting stroke thererfore, takes place when the crank rotates through
the angle SKT (α = 220°) and the return stroke takes place when the crank rotates through the
angle SLT (β = 140°).

Fig. 12.4 Principle of Quick Return

The ratio between the cutting time and return time may be determined by the formula:
Cutting time SKT α 220 22 1.6 3.2
= = = = = =
Return time SLT β 140 14 1 2
Cutting time to return time ratio usually varies between 2 : 1 and the practical limit is 3: 2
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 297

(b) Hydraulic Mechanism (see Fig. 12.5)

The machine consists of a constant discharge oil pump. a valve chamber, a cylinder, a piston. The
piston rod is connected to the ram body. The oil under high pressure is pumped from the reservoir
and made to pass through the valve chamber to the right side of the cylinder exerting pressure on
the piston. This causes the ram to perform forward stroke and at the same time oil present on the
left side of the cylinder is discharged to the reservoir through the throttle valve. At the end of
forward stroke, the shape dog hits the reversing lever causing the valves to alter their positions
within the valve chamber. Now the oil pumped to the left side of the piston causing the ram to
perform return stroke. Oil present on right side of the piston is discharged to the reservoir. At the
end of the return stroke, another dog hits the reversing lever altering the direction of the stroke of
the piston. Thus the cycle is repeated.

Fig. 12.5 Hydraulic Shaper

The quick return motions is effected due to the difference in the stroke volume of the cylinder
at both ends. The left hand end is smaller due to the presence of piston rod. As the pump is a
constant discharge one, the same amount of oil is pumped into smaller volume, the pressure is
rised automatically and increases the speed during return stroke.
12.1.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydraulic Drive
The advantages of a hydraulic drive can be enumerated as follows:
(a) Cutting speed is constant throughout most of the stroke.
(b) The reversal of the ram is quick without any shock as the oil on the other end of the cylinder
provides cushioning effect.
(c) An infinite number of cutting speeds are available and these speeds are easily controlled.
(d) When the cutting tool is overloaded, an overload relief valve may automatically opens, thus
prevents the damage of the machine.
298 Manufacturing Science and Technology

However, the disadvantages are:

(a) Initial cost of the hydraulic drive machine tool is high.
(b) Complicated in construction.
(c) Oil leakage.
12.1.9 Feed Mechanism of Shaper

Fig. 12.6 Feed Mechanism of a Shaper

Figure 12.6 shows the automatic cross feed mechanism of a shaper. The rotation of the bull gear
causes the driving disc to rotate in particular direction. The driving disc is T-slotted and position of
the crankpin attached to the connecting rod may be altered, to give different throw of accentricity.
The other end of the connecting rod is attached to the rocking arm by a pin. The rocking arm is
fulcrumed at the centre of the ratchet wheel, which is keyed to the cross feed screw. The rocking
arm houses a spring loaded pawl, which is straight on one side and bevel on the other side. As the
driving disc rotates, the connecting rod starts reciprocating and the rocking arm rocks on the
fulcrum. When the driving disc rotates through half of the revolution in the clockwise direction top
part of the rocking arm moves in the clockwise direction and the pawl being slant on one side slips
over the teeth of the ratchet wheel, imparting no movement. As the driving disc rotates through
the other half, the top of the rocking arm now moves in the anticlockwise direction and the straight
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 299

side of the pawl engages with the teeth of the ratchet wheel causing the wheel to move in
anticlockwise direction only. As the driving wheel is connected to the bull gear, the table feed
movement is effected, when the bull gear or the driving disc rotates through half of the revolution.
To reverse the direction of rotation of the ratchet wheel and consequently the feed, a knob on the
top of the pawl after removing the pin is rotated through 180°.
12.1.10 Machining Time Calculations

Length of stroke
Cutting speed =
Time required for cutting stroke

Length of stroke
Return speed = Time required for return stroke

Fig. 12.7 Operations of Shaper

L
The time required for the forward stroke =
1000 V
As the forward and return speeds are different,
L L
Time per cycle = +
1000 V1 1000 V2
300 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Width of work
The machining time = × Time per cycle
Feed /stroke

W L(V1 + V2 )
= f × 1000 V .V
1 2

Width of the job

Total number of double strokes necessary =
Feed
Total time required to complete the cut = time for double stroke × No.
of double strokes.
Example 12.1: Find the time required for taking a complete cut on a plate 250 mm × 500 mm
if the cutting speed is 10 m/min, the ratio of return time to cutting time is 2 : 3 and feed is 2mm.
The clearance at each end is 50 mm.
Solution: Length of stroke = approach + length of job + clearance
= 50 + 500 + 50 = 600 mm
600 × 60
Cutting time = = 3.6sec
1000 × 10
Return time 2
=
Cutting time 3
2
Return time = 3.6 × = 2.4 sec
3
Total time for one complete double stroke = 3.6 + 2.4 = 6 sec
Width of the job
Total number of double strokes necessary =
Feed
250
= = 125
2
Total time required to complete = Time for one double stroke
× the cut no. of double strokes
= 6 × 124 = 750 sec = 12.5 min Ans.

12.2 SLOTTING MACHINE (SLOTTER)

12.2.1 Introduction
A slotting machine or slotter may be considered as a vertical shaper. The slotter has the vertical
ram and a hand or a power operated rotary table. On some machines, the ram may be inclined at
10° to either side of the vertical position when cutting inclined surfaces. A slotter can perform a
variety of operations, such as the finishing of the external and internal plain surfaces in addition to
slotting.
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 301

12.2.2 Principle Parts of a Slotter (Fig. 12.8 (a) and (b))

Fig. 9.8(a) Slotting Machine

Base: The base is rigidly built and is cast integral with column. The top of the bed and the
front face of the vertical column are accurately machined to provide guideways for the saddle and
ram respectively .
Saddle: The saddle is mounted upon the guideways and may be moved towards or away from
the column. The top phase of the saddle is accurately finished to provide guideways for cross-
slide. These guideways are perpendicular to the guideways on the base.
Cross-Slide: The cross-slide is mounted on the guideways of the saddle and may be moved
parallel to the phase of the column.
Rotary Table: The rotary table is a circular table mounted on the top of the cross-slide. This
table can be rotated by hand or by automatic device. The angular graduation on the table facili-
tates work to be machined at angles. The table is also provided with an index plate to one on the
dividing head of the milling machine. The use of index plate ensures accurate division on parts.
302 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fie. 12.8(b): 3D View of Slotting Machine

Ram: Ram reciprocates vertically up and down. At its bottoms it carries the cutting tool. A slot
is cut on the body of the ram for changing the position of the stroke. In some machines special
types of tool holders are provided to relieve the tool during its return stroke.
12.2.3 Types of Slotting Machines
Slotting machines are mainly of the following three types:
(a) Puncher slotter (b) Production slotter
(c) Tool room slotter
(a) Puncher Slotter: The puncher slotter is the heavy duty machine and equipped with power-
ful motor. It is designed to remove large amount of metal from large castings or forgings.
The length of the stroke is also large.
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 303

(b) Production Slotter: This is common type of slotter used for general production work. The
drive of the ram is by means of slotted disc and connecting rod. The fly wheel is fitted to
prevent shock at the end of the stroke.
(c) Tool Room Slotter: This slotting machine is of precision type and is used for very accurate
machining. It is lighter machine and is operated at high speeds. Using special jigs, the ma-
chine can handle a number of identical works on a production basis.
12.2.4 Specifications of a Slotter
Slotter is generally specified in terms of the maximum length of the stroke.
1. Maximum stroke 457 mm
2. Diameter of rotary table 915 mm
3. Longitudinal movement 762 mm
4. Cross movement 559 mm
5. H.P. required 7.5 HP
12.2.5 Drive Mechanisms of a Slotter
There are four types of driving mechanisms used in slotter for driving the ram.
(a) Slotted disc mechanism
(b) Slotted link mechanism
(c) Vertical speed reversible motor driving mechanism
(d) Hydraulic drive mechanism
(a) Slotted Disc Mechanism (Fig. 12.9)

Fig. 12.9 Slotted Disc Mechanism

304 Manufacturing Science and Technology

This is the simplest of all the methods used to drive the ram of a slotter. This mechanism consists
of a pinion, a gear, a crank, a slotted disc and crank as shown in Fig. 12.9. Drive comes from the
motor to the pinion by V-belt. Then pinion to the drive gear, which is further, connected to the disc.
One end of the connecting rod is attached to the disc by means of pin while the other end is to the
reciprocating ram. Here the crank and the connecting rod mechanism convert the circular motion
of the disc into reciprocation motion of the ram. The stroke can be adjusted by positioning the
stroke-adjusting lever in the desired position.
12.2.6 Operation Performed on a Slotter
The operations performed on a slotter are:
(a) Machining flat surfaces
(b) Machining cylindrical surfaces
(c) Machining irregular surfaces
(d) Machining slots, keyways and grooves.
(a) Machining Flat Surfaces: The external and internal flat surfaces can be machined on a
work piece in a slotting machine. The work to be machined is supported be parallels so that
the tool will have clearance from the table when it is at the extreme downward position of
the stroke. The cross feed is given at the beginning of each cutting stroke. The machining
on the work-piece is completed by using a roughing and a finishing tool.
(b) Machining (Cylindrical Surfaces): The external and internal surfaces of a cylinder can
also be machined in a slotting machine. The work is clamped on the rotary table. The tool is
set radially on the work-piece. While machining, the feeding is done by rotary table-screw,
which rotates the table through a small arc at the beginning of each cutting stroke.
(c) Machining Irregular Surfaces: The work-piece is set on the table. Then by combing cross,
longitudinal and rotary feed movements of the table any contoured surfaces can be ma-
chined on work pieces.
(d) Machining Slots, Keyways and Grooves: Internal and external grooves are cut very con-
veniently on a slotting machine is designed for cutting internal grooves which are to difficult
to produce in other machines.

12.3 PLANER

12.3.1 Introduction
Planer is used to produce plane and flat surfaces on work-piece that are too large to be accommo-
dated on a shaper.
12.3.2 Principle Parts of a Planer (see Fig. 12.10 (a) and (b))
Bed: The bed of a planer is a large rigid box-like casting made of cast iron. It supports the column
and all the moving parts of a planer. As the table has to make complete stroke on the bed surface,
the length of the bed is usually twice the length of the table. V-guide ways should be properly be
lubricated.
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 305

Table: The table of a planer is a large rectangular thick cast plate and moves over the bed.
The upper surface of the table has T-slots to facilitate the clamping of the work-pieces, special
fixtures and others with T-belts. Accurate hole drilled on the top surface of the planer table at
regular intervals and supporting the poppets and stop pins. At each end of the table a holo space
left which acts as a troughs for collecting chips. A groove is cut on the side of the table for fixing
dogs and positioning the length of the travel of the table.

Fig. 12.10(a) Principle Parts of a Planer

Columns: These are rigid box-like vertical structures placed on each side of the bed and are
fastened to the sides of the bed. The front space of each column is accurately machined to
provide the base on which the cross rail may be made to slide up and down to accommodate
different heights of the work-pieces. The cross rail elevating screw, vertical and cross feed screws
for tool heads are accommodated within the body of the uprights (columns).
Cross rail: The cross rail is a rigid box like casting connecting the two columns. The cross rail
can be moved up and down by means of feed screws. Usually two toolheads are mounted upon
the cross rail. The cross rail has screws for vertical and cross feed of the tool heads and a screw
for elevating the rail.
Tool head: The tool head of a planer is similar in design and operation to the tool head of a
shapper. A planer may be fitted two or more tool heads to perform more than one operation.
306 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 12.10(b) 3D View of a Planer

12.3.3 Classification of Planing Machines

Planer can be classified in a number of ways
1. According to the drive
(a) Gear drive (c) Belt drive
(b) Hydraulic drive (d) Variable speed motor drive
2. According to general motor construction
(a) Double housing planer (c) Pit type planer
(b) Open-side planer (d) Edge of plate planer
(a) Double Housing Planer (see Fig. 12.11)
This is the most widely used planer in the workshops. It consists of a heavy base on which a tablet
reciprocate on accurate guide ways and two columns. The columns support the cross rail. The
cross rail carries one or two vertical tool heads. Fig. 12.11 shows a double housing planer.
(b) Open-Side Planer (see Fig. 12.12)
An open side planer has a column on one side only, which permits the machining of wide and large
jobs. The cross rail is suspended from the column as a cantilever. As the single column has to take
up the entire load, it is made extra massive to resist the forces.
(c) Pit Type Planer
This is a massive planer capable of a holding very big work-pieces. It differs from ordinary
planers the bed is stationery and the tools is move over the job.
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 307

Fig. 12.11 Double Housing Planer

(d) Edge or Plate Planer

This is a specially designed planer used for the edges of having heavy steel plates, pressure
vessels and ship building works. The job to be machined is mounted rigidly on the bed and the
carries supporting the tool is moved back and forth along the edge.

Fig. 12.12 Open-Side Planer

308 Manufacturing Science and Technology

12.3.4 Planer Size and Specifications

Planers are made different sizes and they are specified by the following:
1. Length of bed 2910 mm
2. Width of bed 550 mm
3. Table size (working surface) 1830 × 686 mm
4. Height under cross rail 914 mm
(vertical traverse)
5. Table surface speed
(a) Forward stroke 9.5 metres per minute
(b) Return stroke 14 metres per minute
6. Main drive
(a) Main drive motor (kW) 2.2 kW
(b) Cross rail elevating motor 0.7 kW
7. Overall dimensions
(a) Length 2190 mm
(b) Width 2134 mm
(c) Height 2362 mm
(d) Weight approximately 4200 kg
12.3.5 Difference between Shaper and Planer

S.No. Shaper Planer

1. It is a comparatively light It is a heavy-duty machine.
machine.
2. It requires lesser floor space It requires more floor area.
area.
3. Cutting takes place by moving Cutting takes place by moving
the cutting tool over the job. the work under the tool.
4. Shaper is used for small sized Planer is used for large sized
and light work pieces. and heavy work-pieces.
5. Shaper tools are normally Planer tools are quite massive
simple. and can sustain large cutting
forces.
6. Generally a single tool is used. More than one tool can be used
simultaneously.
7. Setting of the work requires Setting of the work requires
less time and skill. more time and skill.
8. In shaper due to over hanging The tool is rigidly supported
of the ram during the cutting and hence obtained maximum
stroke the accuracy can’t be accuracy on the machined
expected up the mark. surface.

contd...
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 309

9. Rate of production is less. Rate of production is more as

number of Jobs can be fixed
on the table and machined
simultaneously.
10. A shaper consumes 15-20 HP. A planer consumes 120 HP.
11. Cost of the shaping machine Cost of the planing machine
is less. is more.
12. Stroke length is small. Stroke length is substantially
greater than that of a shaper.

12.3.6 Table Drive Mechanism

Different methods are used for driving the table of planer. They’re as follows:
(a) Open and cross belt drive (fast and loose pulleys drive)
(b) Reversible motor drive
(c) Hydraulic drive
(a) Open and Cross Belt Drive (see Fig. 12.13)

Fig. 12.13 Open and Cross Belt Drive

310 Manufacturing Science and Technology

In small planers, the open and cross belt drive is used for the quick return of the table. Fig. 12.13
shows the mechanism. The motor drives the counter shaft, which carries two driving pulleys: one
for open belt and other for cross belt.
The main driving shaft is provided below the bed. One end of it passed through the housing
and carries a pinion, which meshes with the rake provided under the table of the machine. The
other end of this shaft carries two pairs of pulleys–each pair consists of fast pulley and loose
pulley. One of these pairs is connected to one of the drive pulleys by means of an open belt and
the other to the second driving pulleys by means of a cross-belt.
In the given diagram the crossed-belt will be used for forward stroke and open belt for return
stroke. The driving pulleys on the counter shaft for the crossed belt is smaller than the pair of fast
and loose pulleys for the same. The driving pulleys on the counter shaft for open belt is bigger than
the pair of fast and loose pulleys for the same. Consequently for the same speed of counter shaft
the main driving shaft will run faster when connected by open belt than when the cross-belt is
used. It is obvious, that the return stroke is faster than the return stroke.
The pulleys are so arranged that when the cross-belt is on the fast pulley i.e. in forward
stroke, the open belt will be on loose pulley and it’s reverse will take place during the return
stroke. The shifting of the belt may take place automatically at the end of each stroke, without
stopping the machine, with belt shifter and it’s operating lever. Trip dogs are mounted, one each at
both the ends on the table. At the end of the stroke these dogs strike against the operating lever
alternatively and the belt shifted accordingly. Thus the table movement reversed automatically.
(b) Reversible Motor Drive
Number of modern planers used this system. In this a DC reversible motor is directly coupled to
the driving shaft. The direction of rotation of this motor can be instantaneously changed by revers-
ing the polarity. This is done by operating two different switches which are actuated by means of
trip dogs provided at each end of the table. Also the speed of this motor can be controlled by
varying the supply of the electric current in the field.
(c) Hydraulic Drive
These are becoming increasingly popular these days. They provide uniform speed throughout the
cutting stroke. The oil is pumped into the piston by variable delivery electric pump. The speed of
the piston is controlled by regulating the delivery of the oil into the piston with adjusting valves.
12.3.7 Work Holding Methods and Devices (see Fig. 12.14 (a) and (b))
Planing is high power cutting operation during which the work-piece is subjected to extremely high
cutting force. Hence a number of clamps, stops and other anchoring devices are used to prevent the
work-piece to move. Thin flat work pieces are often held by magnetic chuck. An end stop is used to
prevent the longitudinal movement of the plate. Fig. 12.14(a) illustrates another method of holding the
plate by means of chisel points, T-slot stop block, stop-pin and guide stops for initial adjustments.
 Shaper, Slotter and Planer 311

Fig. 12.14(a) A Common Method for Securing a Long Flat Plate to Planer Table

Heavy, irregular work-pieces require additional care in setting up. First it should be ascer-
tained that the work-pieces rest securely on the table. If there is any wobble, shim jacking must be
used. A typical illustration of securing a large irregular casting to a planer table is shown in
Fig. 12.14(b).
312 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Work-piece

Fig. 12.14(b) Typical arrangement of securing and supporting devices for mounting a large irregular work-
piece on a planer table

QUESTIONS
1. Sketch and explain the working principle of a shaper.
2. How shapers are classified?
3. Explain Quick-return mechanism used in a shaper with neat sketch.
4. Draw a linen diagram of a slotter and indicate its main parts.
5. Draw a neat sketch of planer and explain the parts.
6. How planers are classified?
7. Describe with the help of a neat sketch how the quick return motion on a planer is obtained with open
and cross belt drive.
8. State the main differences between shaper and planer.
 13
1 Grinding and Grinding
Machines

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Grinding is a process of removing material in the form of small chips by the abrasive action of
revolving wheel on the surface of a work piece. The wheel used for performing the grinding
operation is called grinding wheel. It is basically a finishing process used for producing close
dimensional and smooth surface finish.

13.2 GRINDING WHEELS

The grinding wheel is composed of two main elements:
(a) Abrasives, (b) Bonding agents.
The abrasives are intended for actual cutting action and hence they are hard substances. The
bonding agent holds the abrasives during operation and hence they should have good binding
properties.
(a) Abrasives: An abrasive is a hard material used for making the grinding wheels. Abrasives
are small particles bonded together in different shapes.
Types of abrasives: The abrasives are of two types:
(i) Natural,
(ii) Artificial or manufactured.
(i) Natural Abrasives: These are produced by uncontrolled forces of nature. These are ob-
tained from mines. The following are the natural abrasives:
(a) Sand abrasives, (b) Emery,
(c) Corundum, (d) Diamond.
(ii) Artificial Abrasives: These are manufactured under controlled conditions in closed elec-
tric furnace in order to avoid the introduction of impurities and to achieve necessary temperature
314 Manufacturing Science and Technology

for the chemical reaction to take place. These possesses better cutting properties and higher
efficiency than natural abrasives. Most commonly used manufactured abrasives are (1) Silicon
carbide (2) Aluminium oxide.

13.3 MANUFACTURING OF ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES

1. Silicon Carbide (SIC): It is available in variety of colours. Bluish-green is very suitable for
grinding tipped tools.
Ingredients:
1. Silicon sand = 50 parts
2. Petrolium coke = 34 parts
3. Common salts = 4 parts
4. Saw dust = 12 parts
The ingredients are thoroughly mixed and heated in an electric furnace at about 2000°C for 34
hours. The whole solid mass is crushed, washed and treated with alkalis. It is again washed and
finally ground into small particles. These are sieved in different number of sieves. For grinding,
particles of 180-200 mesh numbers are taken. The green grit and black grit abrasives are used.
2. Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3 ): It looks like brilliant white crystal. It is manufactured by fusing
mineral Bauxite mixed with coke and iron scrap. This is fused in an electric furnace. After fusing, it
is crushed, washed, treated with alkalis. Again washed and finally ground. It is used for grinding
materials of high-speed steels, wrought iron etc.

13.4 BONDS AND BONDING PROCESSES

A bond is a material that holds the abrasive grains together in the form of wheel. The most
commonly used bonds for manufacturing of grinding wheels are :
(i) Vitrified bond (denoted by V)
(ii) Silicate bond (denoted by S)
(iii) Shellac bond (denoted by E)
(iv) Rubber bond (denoted by R)
(v) Resinoid bond (denoted by B)
(vi) Oxychloride bond (denoted by O)
(i) Vitrified Bonding Process
In this process, the abrasive grains are mixed with clay together with sufficient water to make the
mixture uniform. The fluid mixture is then poured into the moulds and allowed to dry. After it is cut
and trimmed to perfect size and shape, it is then heated or burned in a kiln at 715°C for 12 to 14
days. When the burning proceeds, the clay vitrifies i.e., it fuses and connects the abrasive grains.
About 75% of all wheels are made by vitrified process.
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 315

Advantages
1. The grinding wheels are porous. Due to the porosity, the metal removal rate is high.
2. These wheels are not affected by water, oil and acids.
3. The bond itself is very hard and acts as an abrasive.
Disadvantages
1. The process is very slow.
2. Cracks may develop in the large wheels during fusion.
3. Proper control during fusion becomes difficult.
4. High temperature in the kiln tends to make the abrasive grains week.
(ii) Silicate Bonding Process
Grinding wheels are produced by this process by mixing abrasive grains with sodium silicate. The
mixture is moulded in the moulds and allowed to dry for several hours. Finally, baking is carried out
at a temperature of 260°C to 280°C for 25 to 80 hours.
Advantage
1. It is more rapid process than vitrified bond.
2. Large wheels, up to 1500 mm diameter can easily be produced.
3. Since it is processed at low temperature, there is no tendency to weaken the grains.
Disadvantage
1. Wear of the wheel is high.
2. Extra hard wheels can not be produced with this bond.
(iii) Shellac Bonding Process
Abrasive grain particle and shellac are mixed thoroughly to give a uniform mixture. The mixture is
then rolled and pressed to desired shapes. Since this mixture is very sticky, it can not be moulded.
Finally, the wheels are baked a few hours at a temperature around 150°C. This bond is adopted to
thin wheels, as it is very strong and has some elasticity. Shellac bond wheels are used for grinding
cam shafts, bearing rollers etc.
Advantages
1. Because of high elasticity, these wheels are used for grinding under severe working condi-
tions.
Disadvantages
1. Wheels of bigger diameters can not be produced.
(iv) Rubber Bonding Process
Rubber bonded wheels are manufactured by mixing abrasive grains with pure rubber with some
amount of sulphur which acts as vulcanizing agent. The abrasive grains are spread and finally
vulcanized. By vulcanization, the whole thing becomes joined and acts as a solid wheel while
rubber acting as the bond.
316 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Advantages
1. The wheels are very hard and tough.
2. Wheels as thick as 0.125 mm can be made.
(v) Resinoid Bonding Process
In this process, the abrasive grains are mixed with powdered synthetic resin and a liquid solvent
which dissolves resin. The mixture is rolled or pressed to the desired shape and baked in an
electric oven for a few hours at a temperature of 205°C to 260°C. These are used for general-
purpose grinding and widely used in foundries.
Advantage
1. This bond is very hard and strong.
(vi) Oxychloride Bonding Process
This process using abrasive grains with magnesium oxide and magnesium chloride produces abra-
sive wheels. The process of mixing is similar to that for vitrified bonding. These wheels are used
for disc grinding.

13.5 GRIT, GRADE AND STRUCTURE OF GRINDING WHEELS

(a) Grit: Grit number indicates the size of the abrasive grains used in making a wheel. The
following Table 13.1 shows the grain sizes ranging from coarse to very fine which are used in the
manufacture of grinding wheels.
In general, coarse wheels are used for fast removal of material. Fine grained wheels are used
where finish is an important consideration. Coarse wheels are used for soft, ductile material, but
generally a fine grain should be used to grind hard and brittle material.
Table 13.1

Type of Grit Grain Size of Grit Number

Coarse 8 10 12 16 20 24
Medium 30 36 46 54 60
Fine 80 100 120 150 180
Very Fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600

(b) Grade: The grade indicates the strength of the bond in the wheel.
Table 13.2 shows the various grades.
Table 13.2

Soft A, B, C D, E, F, G, H
Medium I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P
Hard Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 317

(c) Structure: This term denotes the spacing between the abrasive grains, or in other words the
density words the density of the wheel. The structure commonly used is denoted by numbers as
given in table 13.3.
Table 13.3

Dense 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Open 9, 10,11,12,13,14,15 or Higher

The structure of grinding wheel depends on the hardness of the material being cut. Soft, ductile
materials and heavy cuts require an open structure, whereas brittle materials and finishing cuts
require a dense structure.

13.6 TYPES OF WHEELS

Grinding wheels are available in a large number of shapes. The various shapes of grinding wheels
are shown in Fig. 13.1.
The straight wheels shown at (a), (b) and (c) are used for cylindrical, internal and surface
grinding operations. The recesses are provided to accommodate the mounting flanges.
The tapered wheel, shown as (d) is used for grinding thread, gear teeth etc. straight cup wheel
(e) is mainly used for surface grinding on both the horizontal and vertical spindle grinders.

Fig. 13.1 Types of Grinding Wheels

Cylindrical wheel (f) has the same application as straight cup wheel.
Dish wheel (g) finds application on tool and cutter grinder, for grinding teeth of various cutting
tools like milling cutters etc.
Flaring cup wheel (h) is also mainly used on tool and cutter grinders.
318 Manufacturing Science and Technology

13.7 METHOD OF SPECIFYING A GRINDING WHEEL

The Indian standard marking system for ginding wheels (IS 551-1954) has been designed to desig-
nate various characteristics in a systematic manner. The standard marking system is shown in Fig.
13.2.

13.8 SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS

The proper selection of a grinding wheel is very important for getting best results in the grinding
work. The Indian Standard (IS 1249-1958) gives recommendations for the selection of the grinding
wheels for various applications. In selecting the grinding wheels, there are four constant factors
and four variable factors as described below:
Constant Factors
(i) Physical properties of material to be ground: Materials of high tensile strength such as steel,
tough varieties of bronze and other materials which are hard yet tough and strong are best ground
with aluminium oxide wheel. Materials of low tensile strength which are penetrated easily such as
soft bronze, case and chilled iron and aluminium are ground with silicon carbide wheels. Hard wheel
is used for soft materials and soft wheel for hard materials. Close spacing is required for hard and
brittle materials and wide for soft and ductile materials.
Sequence Prefix Abrasive Grain Size Grade Structure Bond Suffix
W A 36 K 5 R 17
Manufacturer's Manufacturer's
Abrasive Symbol Type Symbol
(use Optional) (use Optional)
Dense Open
1 9
Aluminium Oxide A 2 10 V—Vitrified
Silicon Carbide C 3 11 B—Resinoid
4 12 R—Rubber
Coarse Medium 5 13 E—Shellac
10 30 6 14 S—Silicate
12 36 7 15 O—Oxychloride
16 46 8
20 60
24

Grade Scale { A B CSoft Medium Hard

DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ

Flg. 13.2 Indian Standard Marking System

(ii) Amount of stock to be removed: This involves accuracy and finish coarse grain is used
for fast cutting and fine grain for fine finish.
(iii) Area of contact: The area between the wheel and the work effects the pressure over the
number of cutting points and therefore influence the selection of the wheel. Small area of contact
calls for a wheel of fine grain, closed spaced structure so that the pressure is distributed over a
number of cutting points. The grade should be therefore be medium hard. Cylindrical grinding
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 319

work is an example of the small area of contact. Surface grinding with the rim of a cup shaped
wheel is an example of larger contact area. Thus the wheel used in this case will be coarse grain,
with widely spaced structure and soft grade.
(iv) Type of Grinding Machine: Type of grinding machine determines the grade of the wheel.
Heavy rigidly constructed machines take softer wheels than the lighter and more flexible types.
The combination of feeds and speeds on precision machines may affect the grade of the wheel
desirable for best results. Surface grinding machines using cup wheels requires soft wheels of
more open structure than similar machines using a straight wheel.
Variable Factors
(i) Wheel Speed: The speed of grinding wheel is influenced by the grade and bond. The
higher the speed of a grinding wheel the softer it is. Vitrified bond is specified for speeds up to
2000 m/min. Rubber, shellac or resinoid bonds over 2000 m/min. surface speed.
(ii) Work Speed: The speed at which the work piece traverse across the wheel face is known
as the work speed, the greater is the wear and tear of the wheel. If the work speed is low, the
wheel wear is also low. However, low speed results in local overheating, produces deformation
and lowers the hardness of work pieces. Most grinding machines are provided with variable speed
mechanisms. As the diameter of the wheel decreases, the work speed needs to be increased
accordingly to provide optimum working conditions.
(iii) Machine Condition: In the selection of grinding wheel, due consideration should be given
to the condition of the machine. The grinding wheel cannot work properly if the machine is in poor
condition or improperly set.
(iv) Personal Factor: The skill of workman is another variable factor which should be consid-
ered in selecting the wheel. An unskilled worker cannot handle soft wheels and he is likely to
break the wheel. Thus unskilled worker should be allowed to work on hard wheels.

13.9 DRESSING AND TRUING OF GRINDING WHEELS

Grinding wheel slowly wears out during use and in addition it loses its efficiency due to loading and
glazing. During the operation, the chips formed get entrapped in the inner granular space of abra-
sive particles. This is called loading of the wheel and it results in inefficient cutting operation.
When the band of the abrasive wheel is very hard, it doesn’t dislodge an abrasive particle
which has become blunt. This results in this process get a shining appearance. This is known as
glazing of the wheel. The ineffectiveness in the cutting action of grinding wheel by loading and
glazing is removed and dressing and truing of the wheel expose the new sharp edges.
Dressing: The process of the loading and breaking away the glazed surface so that new sharp
abrasive particles are again present to work for efficient cutting is called dressing. This is done
with various types of dressing tools namely:
(a) Star dressing tool (c) Diamond dressing tool
(b) Round abrasive stick
320 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(a) Star dressing tool: A common type of star-dresser is illustrated in the Fig. 13.3.

Fig. 13.3 Dressing a Grinding Wheel

It consists of a number of hardened steel wheel with points on their periphery. The dresser is
held against the face of the revolving wheel and moved across the face to dress the surface.
(b) Round abrasive stick (Fig. 13.3(b)): This type of dressing tool consists of a steel filled
with a bonded abrasive. The end of the tube is held against the wheel and moves across the face.
(c) Diamond dressing tool: For precision and high finish grinding, small industrial diamonds
are used.
Truing : Truing is the process of changing the shape of the grinding wheel as it becomes
worm from the original shape, due to the breaking away of the abrasive and bond. This is done to
make the wheel true and concentric with the bore or to change the contour for form grinding.
Truing and dressing are done with the same tool.

13.10 BALANCING OF GRINDING WHEEL

If the centre of gravity of a grinding wheel and its axis of rotation coincide, the grinding wheel is
said to be balanced. Since the grinding wheel speeds are high, straight out of balance condition
may give use to large forces. This may results in execssive vibrations poor surface finish, and
faster wheel breakdown and may even dangerous to the operator. Therefore, particular attention
should be given to the balancing of the wheel.
The commonly used procedure for the balancing of grinding wheels is to use a balancing
bench. The following steps are involved in this process.
(a) Thoroughly clean and inspect the wheel for cracks.
(b) Place the balancing stand on the flat surface and align it horizontally with an accurate level.
(c) Place the grinding wheel on the balancing stand (Fig. 13.4)
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 321

Fig. 13.4 Revolving Wheel Balancing Stand

(d) Set the wheel in any arbitrary position. Balanced wheel set in any position. If the wheel is
not properly balanced, the heavier part will move downwards.
(e) Now bring the wheel to static position by moving the balance weights.

13.11 TYPES OF GRINDING MACHINES

Metal working machines in which the cutting of metal is by abrasive action is known as grinding
machines.
Grinding machines can be divided into three groups:
1. Rough grinders 3. Special purpose grinding machines.
2. Precision grinders
13.11.1 Rough Grinders
These include floor stand grinder, bench grinder, portable and flexible shaft grinder, abrasive bell
grinders. Rough grinding is preferred when large amount of stock is to be removed and accuracy
is of secondary consideration.
(a) Floor Stand Grinder: It is mounted on a base and consists of a horizontal spindle with
grinding wheels mounted at each end of the motor shaft extensions. The work is held by the
operator in hand and pressed against the wheel to remove the material.
(b) Bench Grinder: It is similar to a floor grinder except for the size. It is fitted on the bench.
These machines are used for grinding of tools and miscellaneous parts.
(c) Portable and Flexible Grinder: The portable grinders resembles a portable electric drill.
These are used for finishing castings, welded joints in a structural work etc.
(d) Swing Frame Grinder: It is used to remove material from the objects which are heavy and
inconvenient to handle. It has a horizontal frame 2 to 4 meters long, suspended at the centre of
gravity and having a grinding wheel on one end. The operator guides the frame and applies the
wheel to the job. This is used for snagging castings which are too heavy and large.
(e) Abrasive Belt Grinder: These machines are designed to use an endless abrasive belt for
grinding instead of a regular type of grinding wheel. The belt runs round the pulley or rollers
and work is fed against the revolving abrasive bell.
322 Manufacturing Science and Technology

13.11.2 Precision Grinding Machines

These machines are used to manufacture parts of accurate dimensions and good surface finish.
The cylindrical grinding machines, surface grinding machines and internal grinding machines comes
under this category.
13.11.2.1 Cylindrical Grinder
The principal of cylindrical grinder is illustrated in the Fig. 13.5. In this work piece is held between
the dead centres and rotated by a dog and driver on the face plate. There are four movements in a
cylindrical centre type grinding.
(i) The work must revolve, (iii) The work must pass the wheel,
(ii) The wheel must revolve, (iv) The wheel must pass the work.

Fig. 13.5 Cylindrical Grinder

These grinding machines are used for grinding plain cylindrical parts, although they can also be
used for grinding contoured cylinders, tapers, shoulders etc.
In cylindrical grinding, two types of grinding operations are done:
(i) Traverse grinding, (ii) Plunge grinding.
Traverse Grinding (see Fig. 13.6)

Fig. 13.6 Traverse Grinding Operation

In this work is reciprocated as the wheel feeds to produce cylinders longer than the width of the
wheel.
Plunge Grinding (see Fig. 13.7)
In plunge grinding, the work rotates in fixed position as the wheel feeds to produce cylinders of a
length equal to or shorter than the width of the wheel.
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 323

Fig. 13.7 Plunge Grinding Operation

(a) Plain centre type cylindrical grinding machine

A plain centre type grinding machine and cylindrical grinding machine are shown in Fig. 13.8(a)
and (b). It consists of the various parts.

Fig. 13.8(a) Plane Centre Type Grinder

Base: The base is the main casting that rests on the floor and supports the parts mounted on it.
On the top of the base horizontal ways are set on which the table slides to give traverse motion to
the work piece. The table drive mechanism is incorporated in the base itself.
Tables: There are two tables — Lower table and Upper table. The lower table slides on the
ways of the bed and provides traverse of the work past the grinding wheel. It can be moved by
hand or power within the limits. Headstock and tailstock are mounted on the upper table. The
upper table can be swivelled up to 10° relative to the main table traverse.
Headstock: The headstock supports the work-piece by means of a dead centre and drives it
by means of a dog or it may hold and drive the work piece in a chuck. The work piece is rotated
by separate motor housed in the headstock.
324 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Tailstock: The tailstock can be adjusted and clampled to accommodate different lengths of
work pieces.
Wheel Head: The wheel head carries a grinding wheel and rotated by a motor housed in the
headstock. The wheel head can be moved perpendicular to the table ways by hand or power to
feed the wheel to the work.

Fig. 13.8(b) Cylindrical Grinder

(b) Universal centre type grinders

Universal grinders are widely used in tool room for grinding tools etc. The features of this machine
are similar to those of plain grinders, but in addition it is provided with a swivelling headstock and
swivelling wheel head.
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 325

(c) Centreless grinders

Centreless grinding is a method of grinding exterior cylindrical, tapered, and formed surfaces on
work pieces that are not held and rotated on centres.

Fig. 13.9 External Centreless Grinding

The principle elements of an external centreless grinder are shown in Fig. 13.9. The grinder has
two wheels, a larger grinding wheel revolving at a high speed and a small regulating or controlling
wheel revolving at a slow speed. Work rest is located between the wheels. The work is placed on
the work rest. The regulating wheel is fed forward forcing the work against the grinding wheel.
The axial movement of the work past the grinding wheel is obtained by tilting the regulating
wheel at a slight angle from the horizontal.
Methods of Centreless Grinding: Basically there are three different methods by which
centreless grinding can be done on different following types of jobs.
(1) Through feed, (2) Infeed, (3) End feed.
These are illustrated in Fig. 13.10.

Fig. 13.10 Methods of Centreless Grinding

Through Feed Grinding (Fig. 13.10 (a)): Through feed grinding is used for straight cylindri-
cal work like long shafts or bars. In this method, the work enters from one side of the machine
and comes out from the other side with guides at the both ends.
Infeed Grinding (Fig. 13.10(b)): It is similar to plunge or form grinding. The regulating wheel
is drawn back so that the work-pieces may be placed on the work rest table. Then it is moved into
feed the work against the grinding wheel. This method is useful to grind shoulders, and formed
surfaces.
326 Manufacturing Science and Technology

End Feed Grinding (Fig. 13.10(c)): It is used to produce taper, either the grinding wheel or
regulating wheel or both are formed to a taper. The work is fed lengthwise between wheels and is
ground as it advances until it reaches the end stop.
Advantages
1. The work is supported throughout its entire length, so there is no chatter or deflection.
2. No centre holes, no chucking or other holding devices are required.
3. As a true floating condition exists during the grinding process, less metal needs to be re-
moved.
4. The process is continuous, so it is used for production work.
5. The size of the work is easily controlled.
Disadvantages
1. Work having multiple diameters is not easily handled.
2. In hollow work, there is no certainly that the outside diameter will be concentric with the
inside diameter.
13.11.2.2 Internal Grinder
Internal grinders are used to finish straight, tapered or formed holes to the correct size, shape and
finish. According to the construction features, there are three types of internal grinders:
(a) Chucking (b) Planetary (c) Centreless
(a) Chucking grinders
In this, the work piece is chucked and rotated about its axis to bring the surface to be ground in
contact with the grinding wheel. The grinding wheel is rotated and at the same time reciprocated
back and forth through the length of the hole as shown in Fig. 13.11.

Fig. 13.11 Chucking Grinder

(b) Planetary type internal grinders

The work remains stationary and the rotated wheel spindle is given an eccentric motion, according
to the diameter of the hole to be ground. Such type of operation is used where the work is difficult
to be rotated. Since in this operation, the motion of the grinding wheel is in the form of planet and
hence it is called planetary grinding.
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 327

Fig. 13.12 Planetary Internal Grinder

(c) Centreless grinding

The external centreless grinding principle is also applied to internal grinding. In internal centreless
grinding, the work is supported by three rolls. One is the regulating wheel, second one is a support-
ing roll and other is pressure roll to hold the work-piece against the support and regulating rolls.
The process is illustrated in Fig. 13.13.

Fig. 13.13 Internal Centreless Grinding

The grinding wheel contact the inside diameter of the work-piece directly opposite the regulating
roll, thus assuring a part of absolutely uniform wall thickness and concentricity. The pressure roll is
mounted to swing aside to permit loading and unloading.
13.11.2.3 Surface Grinding Machines (see Fig. 13.14)
Surface grinding machines are used to produce and finish flat surfaces. With special fixtures and
form dressing devices, angular and formed surfaces can also be ground. The surface grinders are
classified depending on the construction, design and other features as follows:
1. According to the table movement they are classified as
(a) Reciprocating table type, (b) Rotary table type.
2. According to the position of wheel spindle, they are classified as
(a) Vertical spindle type, (b) Horizontal spindle type.
328 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Four different types of surface grinders:

(a) Horizontal spindle reciprocating table, (b) Horizontal spindle rotary table,
(c) Vertical spindle reciprocation table, (d) Vertical spindle rotary table.

Fig. 13.14 Surface Grinding Machine

 Grinding and Grinding Machines 329

(a) Horizontal spindle reciprocating table (see Fig. 13.15)

It consists of a horizontal spindle carrying the grinding wheel and rectangular work table. The
table is provided with a longitudinal feed movement. The table top has T-slots for mounting the
magnetic chuck, vices, fixtures etc. These are used where smooth finish and close tolerances are
required.

Fig. 13.15 Horizontal Spindle, Reciprocating Table

(b) Horizontal spindle rotary table (see Fig. 13.16)

These surface grinders are generally used for precision grinding. The grinding wheel spindle is
carried on a wheel slide and can be traversed across the work which is mounted on a revolving
horizontal axis table.

Fig. 13.16 Horizontal Spindle, RotaryTable

(c) Vertical spindle reciprocation table (see Fig. 13.17)

These machines use cup, cylinder wheels for faster stock removal and where accuracy’s are not
stringent. These type of machines are usually if higher capacity and are used as production ma-
chines.
330 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Fig. 13.17 Vertical Spindle, Reciprocating Table

(d) Vertical spindle rotary table (see Fig. 13.18)

The grinding spindle is mounted vertically on the face of a column and rotates in fixed position,
feeding only along its axis. The rotary table travels beneath the wheel as it rotates.

Fig. 13.18 Vertical Spindle, RotaryTable

13.11.2.4 Special Purpose Grinding Machines

Some grinders are designed for highly specialized work:
(a) Tool and cutter grinder
Tool and cutter grinders are used to sharpen and recondition multiple tooth cutters like reamers,
milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs and other type of tools used in the shop. With various attachments
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 331

they can also do surface grinding, cylindrical and internal grinding operations. They are classified
according to the purpose of grinding into two groups:
(i) Universal tool and cutter grinders,
(ii) Single purpose tool and cutter grinders.
Universal tool and cutter grinders are particularly intended for sharpening of miscellaneous
cutters.
Single purpose grinders are used for grinding toos such as drills, tool bits etc.
(i) Universal tool and cutter grinders
The Fig. 13.19(a) shows the principle parts of an universal tool and cutter grinder. The parts and
their function are described below.

Fig. 13.19 (a) Universal Tool and Cutter Grinder

Base: The base gives rigidity and stability to the machine. It is heavy and box type.
Saddle: The saddle is mounted on the top of the base. It moves on anti-friction bearings on
hardened ways. The column supporting the wheel head is mounted on the saddle and it can be
moved up or down and swivelled to either side.
Table: The table rests and moves on the top base which is mounted over the saddle.
Headstock and Tailstock: The headstock and tailstock are mounted on either side of the table
similar to those on a cylindrical grinder.
Wheel Head: The wheel head is mounted on a column on the back of the machine. It can be
swivelled and positioned on the base for various setups.
332 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Grinding Wheels: Three different types of grinding wheels are used. (1) The straight or disc
shaped wheel, (2) The cup type, (3) The dish type.

Fig. 13.19(b) Block Diagram of Universal Tool and Cutter Grinder

(b) Crankshaft grinders

A crankshaft grinder is basically a cylindrical grinder using the principle of plunge grinding. In
plunge grinding, the work rotates in a fixed position and the wheel is fed to produce cylinders.
These grinders are used for grinding crankshafts of automobile engines, aircraft engines, diesel
engines, compressors etc.
(c) Cam grinders
These machines are basically cylindrical grinding machines with additional feeding and withdrawal
mechanisms for the work-piece. It consists of a separate base that carries the headstock and
 Grinding and Grinding Machines 333

tailstock. The complete unit can oscillate about a centre below the work-piece. Before carrying
out the operation a small template is mounted on the headstock. A hardened steel roller in conjunc-
tion with a template actuates the movement of the whole unit to produce the desired shape.
Modern cam shaft grinders are provided with automatic feed mechanisms for rapid production.
(d) NC grinding machines
Numerical control has been applied to various types of grinding machines—surface grinder, rotary
as well as reciprocating table type, cylindrical grinders, centreless grinders and tool and cutter
grinders.
Digital readouts, solid state programmable controllers, numerical controls, computer numerical
controls and adaptive controls have been applied to grinding machines to achieve different degrees
of automation. Microprocessor based controls are finding many applications in grinding not only
for accurate positioning of slides during metal removal but also vital auxiliary functions such as
wheel dressing, wheel compensation and in-process gauging.
Size control is provided by automatic in-process gauging systems interfaced with the controls
or by dressing the wheel with reference to a fixed datum position before every grinding cycle.
Electrical or Electro-hydraulic stepper motors or dc servo drives actuates the slides through ball
screws and nuts. Servo drivers are now becoming increasingly popular.

QUESTIONS
1. What are Natural and Artificial abrasives?
2. What are the different types of bonds in the manufacturing of grinding wheels?
3. Explain the factors to be kept in mind in selecting a grinding wheel.
4. Explain dressing and truing of a grinding wheel.
5. Describe the centreless grinding process. What are the various feeding methods used in centreless
grinding?
6. Sketch and explain plain type cylindrical grinder.
7. Sketch and explain tool and cutter grinder.
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 14
1
Jigs and Fixtures

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Over the centuries, man has been finding easier and better ways to produce goods and services to
satisfy the customer needs and wants. Now fully automatic machines make it possible to remove
much of the burden of the manual work from the operator.
When the articles are to be produced in large quantities with a high degree of accuracy and
interchangeability at a competitive cost, some specially designed tooling is required. These are
consists of special tools, Jigs and Fixtures etc. The Jigs and Fixtures are the most economical
means to produce repetition type of works.

14.2 USES OF JIGS AND FIXTURES (ADVANTAGES)

1. It eliminates the marking, measuring and other setting methods before machining.
2. It increases the machining accuracy because the workpiece is automatically located and the
tool is guided without making any manual adjustment.
3. It enables production of identical parts.
4. It increases the production capacity by enabling a number of workpieces to be machined in the
single set up and in some cases a number of tools may be made to operate simultaneously.
5. Handling time is greatly reduced due to quick setting and locating the work.
6. It enables semi skilled operator to perform operations. This saves the labour cost.
7. It reduces the expenditure on the quality control of the finished products.
8. It reduces the overall cost of machining.
(a) Jig
It may be defined as a device which holds and locates a workpiece and guides and control one or
more cutting tools. In construction, a Jig comprises of a plate, a structure or box made of metal or
336 Manufacturing Science and Technology

non metallic and then guiding the tool in correct position on the work with reference to the produc-
tion drawing.
(b) Fixture
It may be defined as a device which holds and locate the workpiece during machining or inspec-
tion. In construction, it comprises of designed workholding devices which are clamped on the
machine table.

14.3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A FIXTURE AND JIG

Fixture
1. A fixture holds and positions the work, but does not guide the tool.
2. A fixture is bolted to the machine table.
3. The fixtures are heavier in the construction.
4. Fixtures are used for milling, grinding, shaping and welding operations.
Jig
1. Jig holds, locates and as well as guide the tool.
2. Usually Jig is not fixed to machine Table.
3. Jigs are made lighter for quicker handling.
4. Jigs are used for drilling, reaming and boring operations.

14.4 PRINCIPLES OF JIGS AND FIXTURES DESIGN

Jigs and Fixtures have the following components.
1. Location
(a) Ensure that the workpiece is given the desired constraint.
(b) The locators must be positioned in such a way that swarf will not cause misalignment.
(c) Make the location points adjustable if a rough casting or forging is being machined.
(d) Make all location points visible to the operator from his working position.
2. Clamping
(a) The clamps should be positioned to give best resistance to the cutting force.
(b) Position the clamps so that they should not cause deformation of workpiece.
(c) If possible, make clamps integral with the fixture body.
(d) Make all clamping and location motions easy and natural to perform.
3. Clearance
(a) Allow enough clearance to allow for variation of workpiece size.
(b) Allow ample clearance for the operator’s hands.
(c) Ensure that there is ample swarf clearance.
 Jigs and Fixtures 337

4. Stability and Rigidity

(a) Provide four feet so that uneven seating will be avoided.
(b) Make the equipment as rigid as is necessary for the operation.
(c) Provide means of positioning and bolting the equipment to the machine table or spindle if
required.
5. Handling
(a) Make the equipment as light as possible and easy to handle.
(b) Ensure that no sharp corners are present.
(c) Provide lifting points if it is heavy.
6. General
(a) Keep the design simple in order to minimize the cost.
(b) Utilize standard parts as much as possible.

14.5 TYPES OF JIGS AND FIXTURES

(a) Jigs and Fixtures used with Machine tools, Drilling fixtures, Milling fixtures, Broaching fix-
tures etc.
(b) Devices for locating and clamping the process tools: Arbors, Holders etc.
(c) Assembly fixtures
(d) Inspection fixtures y'

(e) Special Jigs and Fixtures.

Z'

14.6 PRINCIPLES OF LOCATION X'

Assume a workpiece in a space as shown in Fig. 14.1.

Consider the possible movements of the free body shown
with respect to the three mutually perpendicular axes x-x, X
y-y, z-z.
It can z

1. Move along x-x y

2. Move along y-y Three freedoms of TRANSLATION Fig. 14.1 Six Degrees of Freedom
3. Move along z-z
4. Rotate about x-x
5. Rotate about y-y Three freedoms of ROTATION
6. Rotate about z-z
In order to locate the block correctly within a Jig, all these six movements must be restrained
by arranging suitable locating points and then clamping the block in position.
338 Manufacturing Science and Technology

14.7 SIX POINT LOCATION OF A RECTANGULAR BLOCK (See Fig. 14.2)

The bottom of the block is supported by three points, the rear face of the block bears against two
points, the side of the block rests against a single point. The downward movement along y-y axis is
restrained by three supporting points (1, 2, 3). The movements along z-z axis and x-x axis are
restrained by the double points (4, 5) and the single point (6) respectively. The rotary movements
of the block about x-x, y-y and z-z axis are also restrained. This method is called 3-2-1 location or
six point location.

y1

4 5
3 6
x1 1 2
1
z

5 6
4
Top view

3 2 4
4 5
1 z 6
x

int
po
w
t vie 3 1
y Fron Front view Side view

Fig. 14.2 Six Point Location of a Rectangular Block

The reasons for placing 3 points in the first plane are: If a body rests on two points only, it can
lean over to one side. It is also not advisable to use more than three fixed points in the first plane,
as any extra point of support become redundant. This is clear from the fact that three legged chair
can be easily placed on any type of floor, whereas all the legs of a four legged chair will contact
the floor only if the floor is absolutely plane. The three points of support in the first plane should be
so selected that the weight of the workpiece is evenly distributed on them and the center of
gravity of the work-piece is positioned properly with respect to them.
In the second plane, if only one point is provided, it would be possible to swivel the work about
this point.
In the third plane, there is only one direction of the movement and therefore one point is
sufficient there.

14.8 LOCATING DEVICES

The locating devices locate the workpiece inside a Jig or Fixtures. The type of locating system to
be used depends on the operation to be performed on the workpiece. Various types are:
(a) Flat Locator (b) Cylindrical Locator
 Jigs and Fixtures 339

(c) Conical locator (d) V-locator

(e) Drill bush locator
(a) Flat Locator
This type of locators are used for locating flat machined faces of the component. Pins are used
for location from rough surfaces and they support the work-pieces exactly beneath the clamps.
These may be fixed pin and adjustable pin.
(b) Cylindrical Locator
These are employed for locating components having drilled holes. The cylindrical locator is fitted
on the Jig body is inserted in the drill hole of the component to locate it in position.
(c) Conical Locator
This is used for locating workpieces having different drilled holes. The conical locator is superior
to pin locator due to its capacity to accommodation a slight variation in the hole diameter of the
workpiece.
(d) V-Locator
It is used to locate workpieces having circular or semicircular profiles.
(e) Drill Bush Locator
It is used for locating cylindrical workpieces. The bush has conical opening for locating purpose. It
also serves the purpose of guiding the tool.

14.9 TYPES OF CLAMPING DEVICES

The clamping devices should full fil the following points
(i) The clamp devices must hold the workpiece rigidly against the cutting forces
(ii) The time required to loosen and tighten the clamp on the workpiece should be minimum.
(iii) While clamping, the clamp should not damage the surface of workpiece.
(iv) The movement of the screw, lever or cam of the clamping device whether it is rotary or
reciprocating type should be strictly limited to make the device quick acting.
Some of the clamping devices are shown in Fig. 14.3.

Fig. 14.3 (a) Clamp with Adjustable Heal Pin

340 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Cam

To clamp

Fig. 14. 3 (b) Latch-Type Clamp Fig. 14. 3 (c) Cam Operated Clamp

Fig. 14.3 (d) C-Clamp (Swing Washer) Fig. 14.3 (e) C-Clamp (C-Washer)

14.10 JIG BUSHES

Drill bushes are generally used only with Jigs. These are used to locate and guide cutting tools such
as drills, reamers, boring bars etc. Made of M.S. but are case hardened to minimize wear due to use.
Classified as follows:
(i) Fixed Bushes: (a) Plain type, (b) Headed type
(ii) Liner Bushes: (a) Plain type, (b) Head or Flange type
(iii) Renewable Bushes (iv) Slip Bushes
(v) Screw or Clamp Bushes (vi) Special Bushes
 Jigs and Fixtures 341

14.10.1 Fixed Bushes (see Fig. 14.4)

These are pressed into the Jig plate. The cost of plain type bush is Low. There is possibility of the
plain bush to come out through Jig plate either by pressure of the drill itself or because of blows from
the drilling machine spindle. Therefore the headed bushes are commonly used.
Press fit bushes are also used as liners for renewable and slip bushes.

Plain type Headed type

Fig. 14.4 Fixed Bushes

14.10.2 Liner Bushes (see Fig. 14.5)

These act as a hardened guide for both slip and renewal type
bushes and sometimes used as guide to tools. In this way, the
Jig plate of soft metal could be used. Liners has to be replaced
and not the whole of the Jig plate.
Linear
14.10.3 Renewable Bushes (see Fig. 14.6) bush

These are special type of fixed bushes. When they require to

be replaced due to wear, a retaining screw is removed and worn
out bush is taken out.
Fig. 14.5 Liner Bush

Fig. 14.6 Renewable Bush

14.10.4 Slip Bushes (see Fig. 14.7)

When a hole is to be drilled in stages, the best practice is to use slip bushes rather than using
separate Jig for each operation. Retaining screw is used to prevent rotation and uplift when the
tool is withdrawn from the hole.
342 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Cut out for loading & unloading

Ship
bush

Linear

Fig. 14.7 Slip Bush

14.10.5 Screw or Clamp Bushes (see Fig. 14.8)

For location

For holding

Fig. 14.8 Screw Bush

In this type, threaded portion is used for holding purposes and the plain portion of the bush is used
for location.
14.10.6 Special Bushes (see Fig. 14.9)

Fig. 14.9 Special Bush

When two holes are close together heads and walls of the two standard bushes would interfere
with each other. A special bush with two holes are designed to meet the conditions.
 Jigs and Fixtures 343

14.11 JIGS AND FIXTURES

Jigs and fixtures used depend on the type of work to be machined. These are so many types of
drill Jigs in use. However type of Jigs which have become common to most industries are:
(a) Template Jig (b) Plate Jig
(c) Channel Jig (d) Leaf Jig
(e) Pot Jig
(a) Template Jig (see Fig. 14.10)

Template

Workpiece

Fig. 14.10 Template Jig

Template Jig is very simple type. A plate having holes at desired position serves as a template
which is fixed on to the workpiece to be drilled.
(b) Plate Jig (see Fig. 14.11)

Fig. 14.11 Plate Jig

Plate Jig is the improvement of the template Jig by incorporating drill bushes on the template.
(c) Channel Jig (see Fig. 14.12)

W/P

Fig. 14.12 Channel Jig

344 Manufacturing Science and Technology

It is a simple type of Jig having channel like cross-section. The component is fitted within the
channel and is located by rotating knurling knob. The tool is guided through the drill bushes.
(d) Leaf Jig (see Fig. 14.13)

B(clamp screw) Leaf clamping

screw

Workpiece
Fig. 14.13 Leaf Jig

Leaf Jig is shown in above figure. The leaf or plate may be swung open or closed on the work for
loading and unloading purpose. Workpiece is clamped by screw.
(e) Pot Jig (see Fig. 14.14)

Work-piece Swing washer

Drill
plate
Pin (To position dril platesl
w.r.t swarf clearance
Swarf clearance
groove
Post (to locate
drillplate)

Location bush

Work-piece

Fig. 14.14 Pot Jig

 Jigs and Fixtures 345

14.12 MILLING FIXTURES

A milling fixtures holds the part in correct position relative to the milling cutter as the table movement
carries the part through the cutters.
Design Principles of Milling Fixture
(i) The fixture should be designed so as to permit rapid loading and unloading the work.
(ii) It should have sufficient chip clearance.
(iii) The fixture should be as strong and rigid as possible.
(iv) The design of fixture should be as simple as possible.

14.13 MILLING METHODS

(a) Straddle Milling (b) Gand Milling
(c) String or Line Milling (d) Pendulum Milling
(e) Profile Milling

14.14 ELEMENTS OF A MILLING FIXTURE

(a) Base: The base of a fixture is about 20 to 25 mm thick and is rigid enough not to deflect
upwards during upcut milling. Base is provided with lugs on each side for fixing the base to
machine table.
(b) Tenon Strip: The position of the base on the table is accurately located by means of tenon
strips. The tenons are identical in width with the slot in the machine table and are fixed
below the base. The length of a tenon strip is twice the width and made of steel.
(c) Setting Block: Milling fixtures are provided with a setting block so that a feeler gauge may
be used for setting the fixture relative to the cutter. The setting block is fixed to the base of
fixture by means of screw and dowels.
(d) The bolts: The fixture is bolted to the machine table with tee bolts suitable for the slots
provided in the machine.
(e) Clamping Devices: Clamping devices are used to clamp workpiece on the fixture.

14.15 TYPES OF MILLING FIXTURES

1. Special Vice Jaw Fixtures
2. String Milling Fixtures
3. Gang Milling Fixtures
4. Continuous Milling Fixtures
5. Index Milling Fixtures
6. Air Operated or Pneumatic Milling Fixtures
7. Duplex Milling Fixtures
8. Some Other Special Milling Fixtures for Various Jobs.
346 Manufacturing Science and Technology

In the above Milling Fixtures, some will be explained below. Special Vice Jaw Fixtures: (See
Fig. 14.15).

Fixed jaw Moving jaw

Machine vice

Special extension jaws

Movable jaw

Special jaws

Work piece

Movable
jaw

Fixed jaw
 Jigs and Fixtures 347

Vice jaws shaped to accommodate work-piece

Section x-x

X X

Fig. 14.15 Special Vice Jaw Fixtures

A commonly used work holding device for milling machine is Machine Vice. Provision is made for
attaching special Jaw inserts to the fixed and movable vice Jaws. Expenditure on special milling
fixtures can often avoided by carefully adopting special vice Jaws.

Work-pieces

Mill slot

Sliding Vee Locations

Work-piece
.....
...
.........

.....
....
.
........

Fig. 14.16 String Milling Fixture

When a number of components are held in a line, the fixture is called a string or line milling fixture.
348 Manufacturing Science and Technology

14.16 PNEUMATIC MILLING FIXTURE (See Fig. 14.17)

Cutter

Air inlet for blowing out spindles

Air Inlet

Fig. 14.17 Pneumatic Milling Fixture

This fixture is designed for a slot milling operation on a small cylindrical part. Six workpieces
are located by spring loaded plungers. These plungers are operated by a separate air cylinder.
When the operating lever is actuated all sin plungers are driven by air to hold work-pieces. After
milling operation is over, the pressure is released and the plungers return to their initial position by
spring pressure. Now air is admitted under the workpiece to eject them.

14.17 GRINDING FIXTURES

Surface Grinding Fixtures (see Fig. 14.18)
Rectangular plates can be ground under magnetic clamping alone, and no other fixtures are neces-
sary. However for light works (cylinder parts) having less resisting area tend to tilt and fly off
from the magnetic table due to high speed of grinding wheel and high feeds used in grinders.
Hence it is necessary to provide additional support by nesting the workpiece (Fig. 14.18). This can
be done by placing solid plates around the workpiece.
 Jigs and Fixtures 349

Work-piece

Nest plate
Work-piece
height

Nest plate
height
Fig. 14.18 Single Piece Nesting on Surface Grinder

In mass production, the capacity of machines should be utilized to the maximum possible extent.
Consequently maximum possible area of magnetic table should be utilized to grind as many
workpieces as possible in a single batch.
For round spacers, workpieces are arranged in rows with common supporting nest plates around.
The thickness of the nest plate should be lesser than the finish height of the workpieces to prevent
obstruction of the grinding wheel. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 14.19.

Nest plates

Fig. 14.19 Round Spacers Nesting on Surface Grinder

For odd-shaped workpieces with little variation in size an epoxy resin nest can be used. The
nest prevents tilting and sliding of workpieces during grinding operation. The arrangement can be
seen in Fig. 14.20.
350 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Work-piece

Epoxy Resin Nest

Magnetic
Table

Fig. 14.20 Epoxy Resin Nest for Odd Shaped Parts on Surface Grinder

14.18 TURNING FIXTURES

Holding the workpieces for the lathe operations is successfully achieved with the help of numer-
ous types of equipment available such as chucks, mandrels and collets. However, there are com-
ponents which can not effectively hold in the above work holding devices or equipment. Such
components require the design of turning fixture which can be mounted on face plates with the
help of dowels and screws.
The following points require while designing turning fixture.
(a) Grip the rotating workpieces securely to the fixture to with- stand torsional forces.
(b) The fixture should be rigid and over hang should be minimum possible.
(c) Locate the workpiece on critical surfaces from which all major dimensions are taken.
(d) Provide adequate support for frail sections.
(e) Fixtures should be accurately balanced to avoid vibrations at high spindle speeds.
(f) Fixture should be free from projections which are liable to injure operator.
Turning Fixture
The base plate is used to locate and clamp turning fixture. Turning fixtures are provided with
clamping studs which are inserted in the clamping holes in base plate and secured by hexagonal
nuts. Fixing of the turning fixture with base plate is shown in the Figure 14.21.
 Jigs and Fixtures 351

(a) Components to be machined on lathe

Location
spigot

Back plate

Hex Nut

(b) Location of clamping of turning fixture

352 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Component

(c) Front view of the fixture

Fig. 14.21 Turning Fixture

QUESTIONS
1. Differentiate between a Jig and Fixture.
2. Explain the principle of 3-2-1 location.
3. List the kind of Locators commonly used and explain each with the help of a sketch.
4. With the help of sketches explain various clamping devices in use.
5. Describe different types of Drill Jig Bushes and their applications.
6. What are the various types of Milling fixtures? Sketch and explain any one.
7. Sketch string milling fixture to make a slot on the top of cylindrical workpiece.
8. Explain grinding fixture on surface grinding machine.
9. Explain points of consideration while designing a turning fixture.
10. Sketch of explain different types of Jaws used on a Lathe.
 15
1
Br oaching
Broaching

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Broaching is a machining operation in which a tool having a series of cutting teeth, called broach is
either pulled or pushed by the broaching machine past the surface of a workpiece. In doing so,
each tooth of the tool takes a small cut. Most of the cutting is done by the first and intermediate
teeth, where as the last few teeth finish the surface to the required size.

15.2 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A BROACH (See Fig. 15.1)

Rear pilot Follow rest

Pull end

Roughing Semi Finishing

Front pilot teeth finishing teeth
teeth

Shank length Cutting teeth

Overall length

Fig. 15.1 Principal Parts of a Broach

Pull End: This is used to permit engagement of broach with the broaching machine.
Front Pilot: This centres the broach in the hole before the teeth being cut.
Rough and Semi Finishing Teeth: They remove the most of the stock in the hole.
354 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Finishing Teeth: They used for sizing the hole.

Rear Pilot and Follow Rest: They support the broach after the last tooth leaves the hole.

15.3 BROACH CLASSIFICATION

(a) Method of operation
(i) Internal pull type (ii) Internal push type
(iii) Surface type
(b) Method of Construction
(i) Solid type (ii) Built up type
(c) Character of Operation
(i) Hole (ii) Spline
(iii) Serration (iv) Spiral
(v) Surface (vi) Keyway
Besides the above classification, there may be broaches of special applications.

15.4 GEOMETRY OF THE BROACH TEETH (See Fig. 15.2)

L

S S
z
2 3
1

P
α

Fig. 15.2 Geometry of the Broach Teeth

P = Pitch
Sz = Feed for tooth-difference between two successive teeth
Tooth: Tooth 1 and 2 are cutting teeth
Tooth 3 is a sizing teeth

Relief angle (Back-off angle θ )

The back off or relief angle is measured in the direction of cutting motion.
It is independent of work material, but ensure good condition of cutting by reducing friction
between the tooth flank and machined surface. The relief angle is provided based on the operation.
Relief angle— For roughing operation, it is 3° to 4°.
For semifinishing operation, it is 2° to 3°
For sizing or finishing operation , it is –1° to 2°
 Broaching 355

Finishing teeth are provided with a narrow wear land (f ) 0.05 to 0.2 mm.
The back off angle of internal broaches are made as small as possible from the point of view
of the strength of the section.

Rake angle (α )
Rake angle (α) depend on the type of operation and the work material.

15.5 CONSIDERATIONS IN BROACH DESIGN

While designing a broach, considerations should be given to the type of operation, quality of
manufacture, feed per tooth, depending upon material, force and power consumption, velocity of
approach and tool geometry.
In addition geometry of the workpiece, type of broach, depth to tooth, strength, pitch and
length of broach should also be given due considerations.
In practice, design of broach is much more complicated than the design of any other multipoint
tool.
The Pull End: It is used to fix the broach to the broaching machine at the machine puller
head. The diameter of the pull end is to be 0.5 to 1 mm less than the diameter of the hole to be
broached.
The Front Pilot: It guides the broach at the beginning of the cut. The length of the front pilot
is made equal to the length of the hole to be broached. Its diameter is made equal to the minimum
diameter of the hole in the work-piece before broaching.
Rear Pilot: The purpose of the rear pilot is to guide the broach and maintain proper alignment
as it passes out of the workpiece after cutting. Further it prevents any damage of the broach teeth
and the finished teeth. The diameter of the rear pilot is made equal to the minimum permissible
diameter of the machined hole. The length of the rear pilot should be 0.5 to 0.7 L (Where L is
length of hole to be broached). But it should not be less than 20 mm.
Broaching Allowance: It is defined as the total thickness of the material to be removed by
broaching is the stock left for machining.
Under normal circumstances, the broaching allowance left on the workpiece to be broached is
A = 0.005D + 0.2 L
where, D = Diameter of the hole, mm
L = Length of the hole to be broached
In designing a broach, the cut per tooth or thickness of the undeformed chip is to be assigned
for successive teeth to fix the incremental rise in the diameter of the broach in the cutting teeth
range.
The thickness of the undeformed chip (a) is the cut per tooth depends upon factors like the
material being machined, the type of broach, rigidity of machine, tool life and cutting force on the
broach.
356 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Table 15.1: Cut per tooth in broaching, mm

Type of Broach
Material
Round Spline Keyway/Surface

Steel 0.02–0.05 0.04–0.08 0.03–0.20

CI 0.03–0.08 0.04–0.10 0.06–0.15

Brass 0.05–0.10 0.05–0.12 0.06–0.20

Aluminium 0.02–0.05 0.02–0.10 0.05–0.20

Table 15.2: Broadh hook or rake angle

Work Material Rake angle. deg.

Roughing teeth Finishing teeth

Steel 10–18 5

Cast Iron 10 5

Aluminium, Copper 20 20

Brass, Bronze 5 –10

Number of teeth: The total number of teeth (Roughing and finishing) is found from the
formula

A
Z= + (2 or 3)
2a
where, A= Broaching allowance to be removed by teeth
a = cut per teeth or thickness of the undeformed chip
Pitch of tooth (P): Pitch P is given by
P = 1.25 to 1.5 L — For plain Broaches
= 1.45 to 1.9 L — For progressive cutting broaches
where L = Length of the job to be machined.
Height of the tooth (h) Fig. 15.3
The height ‘h’ of the tooth is given by
h = 1.13 KaL
K = Factor depending upon type of broach
= 3 to 5 for Surface Broaches
 Broaching 357

= 6 to 10 for Internal Broaches

a = Difference in height between two successive
cutting teeth and depends on work material
= 0.02 to 0.12 mm
r = (0.2 to 0.3) P

Fig. 15.3 Height of Tooth

The other consideration is that the pitch should be such that it is possible to provide sufficient gullet
space for chips. The chips do not fill the entire gullet space.

15.6 CUTTING SPEED AND POWER REQUIREMENTS

The cutting speed in broaching in the speed of the broach movement
CK m
V=
T x Sy min
where C is coefficient characterizing the process conditions
T = Broach life in minutes
S = Cut per tooth in mm
K = Coefficient depending upon broach material
For Broaching Round holes in steel
C = 12, T = 100 minutes; x = 0.62, y = 0.62
K = 1 to 1.45 in accordance with broach material
Generally, the value of cutting speed in Broaching Ranges 1-18 m/min.

The power required for Broaching is given by

F2 V
P= Kilowatts
60 × 120

The machining time Tv = hLA

1000
358 Manufacturing Science and Technology

where, h = Machining allowance on each side in mm

L = Length of broached surface in mm
A = Ratio of return stroke to working stroke speed.

15.7 BROACH TOOL MATERIALS

High speed steel is the most commonly used material for making broaches. H.S.S. broaches
produce a good surface finish. These are used for broaching Mild Steel and Cast Iron compo-
nents. Inserted tooth carbide broaches are used for broaching Cast Iron in the automotive industry.
Carbide tools produce good surface finish and are capable of working at thrice the speed of high
speed steels.

15.8 BROACHING MACHINES

These broaching machines consists of a work holding fixture, a broach, a drive mechanism and a
suitable supporting frame. These machines are usually pull or push, broach through or past the
workpiece. Most broaching machines are hydraulically operated to secure a smooth uniform ac-
tions.
Generally broaching machines are classified as
(a) Horizontal broaching machines
(b) Vertical broaching machines
(c) Continuous broaching machines
(i) Rotary type
(ii) Chain type
(a) Horizontal Broaching Machines (See Fig. 15.4)
Pulling head

Broach
Work fixture

Fig. 15.4 Horizontal Broaching Machine

All horizontal machines are of the pull type. These machines are shown in Fig. 15.4. These may
be used either internal or external broaching. These are mostly used for internal work. These
machines are used for broaching key ways, splines, slots etc. These machines occupy more floor
space. Available with the capacities upto 100 tonnes and stroke upto 9 mm.
 Broaching 359

(b) Vertical Broaching Machines (see Fig. 15.5)

Broach teeth

Column

Clamp

Work piece

Fixture

Fig. 15.5 Vertical Broaching Machine

In vertical machines, the travel of the broach is vertical. These machines can be further classified
as vertical pull down machines, vertical pull up machines and vertical surface broaching machine.
(c) Continuous Broaching Machines

(i) Rotary Type Continuous Broaching Machine (see Fig. 15.6)

In these machines, the work-pieces are loaded on a series of work holding fixtures which are
mounted on rotary table. These machines are used only for surface broaching of small parts.

Broach holder

Work-piece

Rotary table

Fig. 15.6 Rotary Type Continuous Broaching Machine

360 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(ii) Chain Type Continuous Broaching Machine (See Fig. 15.7)

Broach

Endless chain

Fig. 15.7 Chain Type Continuous Broaching Machine

These machines have continuous chain travelling in a horizontal position over sprockets. Fix-
tures for holding the workpieces are mounted on the chain itself at intervals.

15.9 APPLICATIONS OF BROACHING

Broaching is used for small lot jobs as well as mass production. The main application of broaching
process lies in machining irregular shaped holes of considerable length. Keyways, straight and
spiral splined holes, square, hexagonal and other odd shaps are produced by broaching.

15.10 ADVANTAGES OF BROACHING

(a) Rate of production is very high.
(b) As each tooth of the broach takes a small cut only once in one operation, the broach has a
longer life.
(c) The broaching performs both roughing and finishing operation.
(d) Highly skilled operators are not required.
(e) The process can be used for either internal or external surface finishing.

15.11 LIMITATIONS OF BROACHING

(a) A broach is a costly tool.
(b) A surface having obstruction in the way of broach travel cannot be machined.
(c) Large amount of metal cannot be removed.
(d) Parts to be broached must be capable of being rigidly supported and must be able to with-
stand the forces, during cutting operation.

QUESTIONS
1. Sketch and explain principal parts of a Broach.
2. Describe the various broaching machines used in industry.
3. Explain clearly the advantages and limitations of Broaching.
 16
1
Super Finishing Pr ocesses
Processes

16.1 INTRODUCTION
If a better finish is desired, for looks, for accuracy or for any other reasons, one of the microfinishes
that include lapping, honing, polishing, buffing may be employed.

16.2 LAPPING
It is an abrading process employed for improving the surface finish by reducing roughness, wavi-
ness and other irregularities on the surface. Very thin layer of metal (0.005 to 0.01 mm) are
removed in lapping.

16.3 ABRASIVES AND LAP MATERIALS

Abrasive powders such as emery, corundum, Iron oxide, Chromium oxide etc. mixed with oil or
special pastes with some carrier are used in lapping. Aluminium oxide is preferred for lapping soft
ferrous and non-ferrous materials. Silicon and natural corundum are used for hardened steel parts.
Most lapping is done by means of lapping shoes or quills, called ‘laps’ that are rubbed against
the work. The face of a lap charged with abrasive particles. Charging a lap means embedded the
abrasive particles into its surface.
Laps are made of soft Cast Iron, Brass, Copper, Lead or soft material. Cast Iron is the best
lap material.

16.4 LAPPING METHODS AND MACHINES

Lapping is done in the following two ways:
1. By hand — Called Hand Lapping
2. By machine — Called Machine Lapping
362 Manufacturing Science and Technology

16.4.1 Hand Lapping

Lapping is done by hand held tools for both flat work and external cylindrical work.
(a) Flat work hand lapping
(b) External cylindrical hand lapping (Ring lapping)
(a) Flat Work Hand Lapping (see Fig. 16.1)

Lap

Fig. 16.1 Hand Lapping Method

In hand lapping, either the lap or the work-piece is held by hand and the motion of the other,
enables the rubbing of the two surfaces in contact. This method is widely used in lapping dies and
moulds for casting and limit gauges etc.
(b) External Cylindrical Hand Lapping (Ring Lapping) (see Fig. 16.2)

Slit Workpiece
Adjusting
screw

Lap

Fig. 16.2 Adjustable Ring Lap

Ring lapping is done for finishing external cylindrical surfaces. These laps are made of cast Iron.
The ring lap has slots through. Screws are provided for precise adjustment. The size of the ring lap
should be slightly shorter than the work. The ring lap reciprocates over the work-piece surface. The
abrasive and vehicle are fed through the slot.
16.4.2 Machine Lapping
This is performed for obtaining highly finished surface on races of ball and roller bearings, crank
shafts, various automobile parts like spray nozzle, injector pump parts etc. Many different types of
machines are used.
 Super Finishing Processes 363

(a) Vertical spindle lapping machine

(b) Abrasive belt lapping machine
(c) Centreless lapping machine
(d) Spherical lapping machine.
(a)Vertical Spindle Lapping Machine (See Fig. 16.3)

Lower to feed down

upper lap

Workholder

Upper lap

Lower lap

work-piece
Lower lap

Fig. 16.3 Vertical Spindle Lapping Machine

The vertical spindle lapping machine laps flat or round surfaces between two opposed laps on
vertical spindles. The upper lap is free to float and rest upon the work which rides upon the face
of the lower lap. Pressure is applied by gravity. The work is held loosely in a work guide or holder.
(b) Abrasive Belt Lapping Machine
In this machine a continuous moving belt with an abrasive is used for lapping. These are employed
for lapping crank shaft and pints etc.
364 Manufacturing Science and Technology

(c) Centreless Lapping Machine (see Fig. 16.4)

This machine is similar to centreless grinding machine except that extra-long grinding wheel and
regulating wheels are used to allow the work-piece to remain in abrading contact for a longer
time.
The spindles of lapping wheel and regulating wheel are swivelled in the vertical plane and are not
parallel. Due to this work-piece comes in contact with the wheel. This machine is used to lap
piston pins, shafts and bearing races.
Lapping Regulating wheel
wheel

Work-piece

Work rest

Fig. 16.4 Centreless Lapping Machine

(d) Spherical Lapping Machine (see Fig. 16.5)

Fig. 16.5 Spherical Lapping

 Super Finishing Processes 365

Spherical surfaces are lapped on a machine similar to drill press. A cast Iron Lap is used
which is counterpart of the work surface to be lapped. A crank is held in the spindle and crankpin
is provided with a ball that enters freely into a blind hole in the back of the lap. The work-piece
axis is aligned with spindle axis and the spindle is then rotated which gyrates the lap.

16.5 HONING
It is also an abrading process used for finishing previously machined surfaces. It is mostly used for
finishing internal cylindrical surfaces such as drilled or bored holes. The tool used called a “hone”.
Honing removes maximum stock out of all surface finishing operations (0.1mm to 0.75 mm).

16.6 MATERIAL OF HONING STONES

Honing stones are made from common abrasive and bonding materials often impregnated with
sulphur, resin or wax to improve cutting action and for long tool life. The various abrasives used to
make honing stones are silicon carbide, aluminium oxide, diamond or cubic nitride. Silicon carbide
is used for honing cast iron and non ferrous materials, whereas aluminium oxide is used to hone
steel parts. Diamond is also used as an abrasive to hone parts of ceramics or hard carbides. The
abrasive grain size ranges from 80 to 600 grit. Mostly honing is done on internal cylindrical sur-
faces such as automobile cylinder walls.

16.7 HONING PROCESS

The honing tool works more or less in the same way as an expanding reamer.
It is a ‘wet’ process and it is necessary to use coolant in ample quantity during the operation.

16.8 FIXTURE FOR HONING TOOLS

The honing stones may be loosely held in holders cemented into metal shells which are clamped
into the holders, or cemented directly on holders. Some stones are spaced at regular intervals
around the holder, while others are interlocked so as to present continuous surface to bore.
The stones may be expanded against the bore by
(a) Mechanical type
(b) Hydraulic type
(a) Method of Applying Pressure in Mechanical Type
(i) Caged spring: Spring is compressed as the tool enters the bore. Pressure of compressed
spring pushes the connecting rod and expands the tool through a cone (see Fig. 16.6).
(ii) The movement of the cone is controlled by threads that move the cone rod in relation to
drive shaft.
(b) Hydraulic Type
In this, sizing arrangements are provided which contact the hone when the correct size has been
reached.
366 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Hole wall

Work

Abrasive
sticks

C of work

Fig. 16.6 Honing Tool

16.9 HONING MACHINES

Honing is done in the following ways
(a) Manual Honing
(b) Machine Honing
(a) Manual Honing
When honing is done manually the tool is rotated and the work-piece is passed back and forth over
the tool. For precision honing, the tool is given a slow reciprocating motion as it rotates.
(b) Machine Honing
Honing is done on general purpose machine tools. These machines are classified as
(i) Horizontal Honing Machines
(ii) Vertical Honing Machines
(b)(i) Horizontal Honing Machines
In some machines, the work is held in horizontal position and rotated about its own axis. The honing tool
is rotated and reciprocates. Horizontal honing machines are used for honing long gun barrels and large
bores.
(b)(ii) Vertical Honing Machines (see Fig. 16.7)
A general arrangement of a vertical honing machine is shown in Fig. 16.7. The honing tool will
follow the axis of the hole of the work-piece, therefore the honing tool or fixture must be free to
float. This is done by using universal joint as shown in figure. Due to this, the honing tool becomes
selfcentering and it is not necessary to line up the hole and hone axes precisely. These machines
are best suited for shorter jobs. Vertical machines are designed for work up to 500 mm diameter.
In appearance, these machines resemble the drilling machine.
 Super Finishing Processes 367

Work piece

Honing
sticks

Fig. 16.7 Vertical Honing Machine

16.10 ADVANTAGES OF HONING PROCESS

(a) This process produces highly accurate holes.
(b) Many holes can be honed simultaneously on multiple spindle machines.
(c) Hole of any dimension can be honed.

16.11 DISADVANTAGES OF HONING PROCESS

(a) It is not possible to improve lack of straightness in holes.
(b) It is difficult to machine tough non-ferrous metals.

16.12 POLISHING
Polishing is an intermediate abrading operation which follows grinding and precedes buffing. In
polishing operation, the smoothness on a surface is produced by cutting action of abrasive particles
adhering to the surface of resilient wheel. In polishing deep scratches, nicks, discoloration and
other surface imperfections occurring due to grinding are removed.
The polishing processes uses abrasive grains which are firmly attached to flexible belt or
flexible wheel. Coated abrasive belts become production, cutting tool for polishing of metals. The
polishing wheels are generally made of canvas, felt of leather.
The abrasive used for polishing are aluminium oxide or silicon carbide. Aluminium oxide is
used for most carbon steel, alloy steel, high speed steel and non-ferrous metals. Silicon carbide is
recommended for finishing low tensile strength materials such as brass, copper, cast iron and
368 Manufacturing Science and Technology

aluminium. Natural abrasives like emery and corundum are sometimes used in specialised opera-
tions for getting the finest quality finishes. The bonding agent used on polishing wheel is either hot
glue or cold silicate based cement.

16.13 BUFFING
It is the smoothing and brightening process of a surface by the rubbing action of fine abrasive in a
lubricating binder applied intermittently to a moving wheel of wood, cotton, fabric, felt or a cloth or
a felt belt. Buffing wheels are made more or less firm by the amount of stiching used to fasten the
layers of the cloth together.
Buffing can be divided into two operations—cutting down and coloring. Cutting down is done
to refine a surface by removing scratch lines from polishing, die marks or other imperfections.
Coloring refines the cut down surface and produces a high finish or luster.
16.13.1 Selection of Buffing Wheels
Wheels are selected by considering the following:
(a) Select the wheel to give correct surface metre pre minute when operated.
(b) Select the wheel of largest practical diameter.
(c) Select wheel face slightly wider than the work.
(d) Select hardness of wheel and wheel material based on the work to be buffed.
16.13.2 Method of Buffing
Buffing can be done manually or automatically. The manual buffing machine uses a double ended
shaft having wheels on both ends. If buffing is done manually, it becomes expensive due to the
labour cost. In the automatic machine, conveyors and workholders are incorporated. Buffing wheel
speeds are 30 to 40 m/s.
16.13.3 Applications
Buffing process produce mirror-like finish. Objects used in automobiles, motor-cycles, boats, bi-
cycles, and household utensils and appliances.

16.14 SUPER FINISHING (See Fig. 16.8)

Reciprocation
Holder Pressure on work

. ......
... .. . Stone
. . . ...
. . . . . . . .. . .. .. . . ..
. . . .. ... .
. .
Work

Fig. 16.8 Super-Finishing

 Super Finishing Processes 369

Super finishing is a microfinishing process that produces a controlled surface condition on parts
which is not obtainable by any other method. It consists in scrubbing a stoned against a surface to
produce a fine quality of metal finish. Super finish is mainly used for removing chattering marks,
feed spirals and other imperfections left by grinding.
The method is performed by rapidly reciprocating a fine grit stone with a soft bond and
pressing it against a revolving cylindrical workpiece.
16.14.1 Applications
Bearing surfaces, automotive cylinders, piston, clutch plates, guide pins, computer memory drums,
brake drums etc.
(a) Equalising lapping
When work and lap mutually improve their shape and surface, for example : When gears are run
together with some abrasive, or tapered valves are seated in seats.
(b) Form Lapping
Shape of lap is imparted to work.
(c) Advantages of lapping
(i) Increase the work life.
(ii) Provides superfine surface finish.
(iii) Provides liquid and gas tight seals without using gaskets.
(iv) Removes errors in gears, thereby reduces noise and wear.

QUESTIONS
1. Briefly explain the process of lapping.
2. What are the abrasives used for lapping operation?
3. What is having and explain various machines used?
4. What are the advantages and limitations of honing?
5. Write short notes on:
(a) Lapping (b) Honing
(c) Polishing (d) Buffing
(e) Super finishing operation.
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 Super Finishing Processes 371

Appendix II

Objective Type Questions

Type

1. In orthogonal cutting of metals 5. The factors responsible for the production

(a) The cutting edge of the tool is perpen- of continuous chip with BUE
dicular to the direction of tool travel (a) Low cutting speed and large rake angle
(b) The cutting edge is inclined to the (b) Low cutting speed and small rake angle
workpiece (c) High cutting speed and large rake angle
(c) The cutting edge is wider (d) None of the above
(d) All of the above 6. Discontinuous chips are produced while
2. In oblique cutting, of metals machining–
(a) The cutting edge of the tool is perpen- (a) Brittle material (b) Ductile material
dicular to the direction of tool (c) Hand material (d) Soft material
(b) Parallel to the direction of tool travel 7. Continuous chips are produced while ma-
(c) Inclined at an angle chining speed is–
(d) Perpendicular to the workpiece (a) High (b) Low
3. Chips produced when machining cast iron (c) Medium (d) Design value
(a) Continuous chips 8. Segmental chips are produced while ma-
(b) Discontinuous chips chining–
(c) Continuous chips with built up edge (a) Mild steel (b) High speed steel
(d) None of the above (c) Tungsten carbide (d) Cast iron
4. While machining ductile material, the chips 9. The type of tool used on a Lathe
produced are: (a) Single point tool
(a) Continuous chips (b) Two point cutting tool
(b) Continuous chips with BUE
(c) Three point cutting tool
(c) Discontinuous chips
(d) Multi point cutting tool
(d) All of the above
372 Manufacturing Science and Technology

10. Drill bit belongs to (b) High speed steel tools

(a) Single point utility tool (c) Cemented carbide tools
(b) Two point cutting tool (d) All of the above
(c) Three point cutting tool 19. Chip Breaker is used to
(d) Multipoint cutting tool (a) Increase tool life
11. Grinding wheel belongs to (b) Break the chips
(a) Two point cutting tool (c) Remove chips
(b) Single point cutting tool (d) To minimize heat generation
(c) Multipoint cutting tool 20. Tool life equation is
(d) Three point cutting tool
(a) VTn = c (b) VnT = c
12. In metal cutting, chips break due to
(c) Vn/T = c (d) V/Tn = c
(a) Plasticity (b) Ductility
21. Machinability depends on
(c) Toughness (d) Work hardening
(a) Physical and Mechanical properties of
13. In Metal cutting, the shear angle is the angle
workpiece
made by shear plane with
(b) Cutting force
(a) Direction of tool travel
(c) Type of chip
(b) Direction of tool axis
(d) Tool life
(c) Central plane of work-piece
22. Lathe is used for Machining
(d) Perpendicular to tool axis
(a) Flat surfaces
14. While machining Mild Steel, the chips pro-
duced are– (b) Convex surfaces
(a) Segmental chips (c) Cylindrical surfaces
(b) Discontinuous chips 23. Lead screw of a Lathe is used for
(c) Continuous chips (a) Thread cutting
(d) Continuous chips with BUE (b) Taper turning
15. The velocity of the tool relative to workpiece (c) Cylindrical surfaces
(a) Cutting velocity (b) Shear velocity 24. Lathe bed is made of
(c) Chip velocity (d) Mean velocity (a) M.S. (b) Cast Iron
16. The velocity of chip relative to tool (c) Tool Steel (d) Ceramics
(a) Cutting velocity 25. Compound rest is used in
(b) Shear velocity (a) Turning short taper
(c) Mean velocity (b) Turning Long tapers
(d) Chip flow velocity (c) Chamfering the Job
17. The strength of the tool depends on 26. In a lathe the carriage and tailstock are
(a) Rake angle (b) Cutting angle guided on
(c) Clearance angle (d) Lip angle (a) Same guide ways
18. The negative rake angle is provided on (b) Different guide ways
(a) High carbon steel tools (c) Not guided on guide ways
 Appendix II: Objective Type Questions 373

27. Lathe spindle got 36. The Mandrel is used for holding
(a) Internal threads (a) Cylindrical jobs
(b) Taper threads (b) Bar stock
(c) External threads (c) Jobs with predrilled holes or bored jobs
28. The lathe centers are provided with stan- 37. Cutting speed is expressed in
dard taper known as– (a) mm/sec. (b) m/min
(a) Morse taper (b) Seller’s taper (c) mm/min
(c) Metric taper (d) Chapman taper 38. Feed is expressed in
29. The angle between lathe centers is (a) mm/sec (b) m/min
(a) 30° (b) 45° (c) both
(c) 60° (d) 90° 39. Collets are used for holding
30. The taper on the Lathe spindle is (a) Bar stock of various shapes
(a) 1 : 10 (b) 1 : 12 (b) Irregular
(c) 1 : 15 (d) 1 : 20 (c) Cylindrical
31. The chuck used for setting heavy and ir- 40. When the tool moves parallel to the lathe
regular shaped work is axis, movement is turned as
(a) Magnetic chuck (b) Four Jaw chuck (a) Cross feed
(c) Three Jaw chuck (d) Drill chuck (b) Angular feed
32. The easiest way of centering a cylindrical (c) Longitudinal feed
job on a lathe is to use 41. The chamfering is essential operation after
(a) 4-Jaw chuck (a) Knurling (b) Thread cutting
(b) Face plate (c) Boring (d) Rough turning
(c) Self centering chuck 42. The average cutting speed for turning M. S
33. The tail stock set over method is used for with HSS tool
taper turning of (a) 15 to 20 m/min (b) 25 to 30 m/min
(a) Internal tapers (c) 60 to 100 m/min (d) 120 m/min
(b) Long slander tapers 43. The cutting speed is maximum while ma-
(c) Small tapers chine with HSS tool is
(d) Steep taper (a) Cast Iron (b) M.S.
34. The spindle speeds are in (c) Brass (d) Aluminium
(a) Arithmetical progression 44. Drilling machine is used for
(b) Geometrical progression (a) Originating hole (b) Boring
(c) Harmonic progression (c) Slotting
35. Face plate is used to hold 45. In drilling operation, the metal is removed
by
(a) Odd jobs
(a) Shearing (b) Extrusion
(b) Cylindrical jobs
(c) Shearing and extrusion
(c) Pre drilled Jobs
(d) Shearing and compression
374 Manufacturing Science and Technology

46. Size of the lathe is specified by (a) In collet (b) Turret

(a) Weight of the lathe (c) Rear tool post (d) Chuck
(b) Swing over the bed 55. In capstan of turret lathes, threads are cut
(c) Diameter of the Job by
(d) Height of centers from ground (a) Thread cutting tool
47. Steady Rest is (b) Die head and taps
(a) Support for long jobs (c) Special tool
(b) Used while turning symmetrical jobs 56. In capstan lathe, the turret is mounted on
(c) Workpiece subjected to vibration (a) A short slide of ram sliding on the saddle
48. Determine the angle at which compound (b) Compound rest
rest swivel when D = 45; d= 30; L = 200 (c) Back tool post
(a) 5° (b) 10° 57. In the head of turret of a capstan lathe, no.
(c) 2° 9' (d) 3° 5' of tools to be fixed
49. Follower rest is mounted on (a) Single tool only
(a) Lathe bed guidways (b) Any number of tools or tool holders
(b) On the saddle of carriage (c) Sin tools
(c) On the tailstock 58. On bar type turret lathe, work is held by
50. The purpose of tumbler gears in lathe is (a) Three jaw chuck (b) Four jaw chuck
(a) Cut gears (c) Pneumatic chuck (d) Collet
(b) Cut threads 59. The drill spindle is provide taper as
(a) More taper
(c) Reduce spindle speeds
(b) Seller’s taper
(d) Give direction of movement to the lathe
carriage (c) Chapman taper
51. The slowest speed in lathe is used for (d) Brown and Shaper taper
(a) Normal turning 60. Lip angle of the drill
(b) Taper turning (a) 120° (b) 118°
(c) Turning big diameters (c) 130°
61. Drill chucks are used for holding
(d) Thread cutting
(a) Taper shank drills
52. In a lathe center height is 15 cm, then swing
over bed is (b) Straight shank drills
(a) 30 cm (b) 7.5 cm (c) Square shank drills
(c) 15 cm (d) 45 cm 62. In Gang drilling machine, the spindles are
driven by
53. Capstan and turret lathes are used for
(a) Individual motor (b) A single motor
(a) Make small components
(c) Universal motor
(b) Mass production
63. A twist drill is
(c) Large components
(a) Side cutting tool (b) Front cutting tool
(d) For ordinary work
(c) End cutting tool
54. In the capstan and turret lathes, parting tool
is fixed
 Appendix II: Objective Type Questions 375

64. The operation of accurate way of sizing and (a) Simple indexing (b) Direct indexing
finishing is (c) Differential indexing
(a) Drilling (b) Reaming 75. Dovetail milling cutter is a
(c) Boring (d) Tapping (a) Plain milling cutter
65. The operation of making cone-shaped en- (b) End Milling cutter
largement of hole is
(c) Side milling cutter
(a) Counter-sinking (b) Counter-boring
76. Helical gears can cut on
(c) Trepaning
(a) Vertical milling M/c
66. The operation of smoothing and squaring
the surface around hole is (b) Horizontal milling M/c
(a) Counter-sinking (b) Counter-boring (c) Universal milling M/c
(c) Spot facing 77. Shaping machine is used for
67. The helix angle of a drill bit (a) Cutting gears
(a) 20° (b) 30° (b) Machining flat surfaces
(c) 45° (d) 60° (c) Cylindrical surfaces
68. Milling cutter is mounted on 78. Cutting motion in a shaper is obtained by
(a) Shaft (b) Arbor (a) Downward motion of tool
(c) Dividing head (b) Reciprocating of the ram
69. Down milling is also called (c) Horizontal movement of table
(a) Climb milling (b) End milling 79. Quick return motion is obtained by
(c) Face milling (a) Crank and slotted lever mechanism
70. Up milling is also called (b) Gear train
(a) Climb milling
(c) Crank and connecting rod mechanism
(b) Conventional milling
80. In slotting machine the ram moves
(c) Face milling
(a) Horizontal (b) Vertical
71. Gears are produced on Mass production by
(c) Both Vertical and Horizontal
(a) Shaping (b) Casting
81. In a planner, while machining
(c) Hobbing (d) Milling
72. UDH in milling machine for (a) The job is stationary
(a) Plain indexing (b) Tool is stationary
(b) Differential indexing (c) Both alternatively change in motion
(c) Direct indexing 82. Grinding operation is used for
73. In which milling, the thickness is minimum (a) Forming (b) Shaping
at the beginning and reaches maximum at (c) Finishing (d) Dressing
the end 83. The highest cutting speed used in
(a) Up Milling (b) Down Milling (a) Surface grinding machine
(c) Face milling (b) Centreless grinding machine
74. Any number of equal divisions can be made (c) Internal grinding machine
on milling machine by (d) Cylindrical grinding machine
376 Manufacturing Science and Technology

84. For grinding flat surfaces use (c) Hold and locates the workpiece
(a) Surface grinding machine 93. Fixture is defined as
(b) Internal grinding machine (a) Holds and locates and guide the tool
(c) Cylindrical grinding machine (b) Used to check accuracy of workpiece
85. The workpiece advanced in centreless (c) Holds and locates the workpiece
grinding due to 94. If the diameter of hole is subjected to varia-
(a) Machine drive tion, then for locating. What type of locator
(b) Force exerted by grinding wheel is used?
(c) Force exerted by regulating wheel (a) Conical locator
86. Artificial abrasives are (b) Cylindrical locator
(a) Sandstone, Diamond (c) Diamond pin locator
(b) Silicon carbide, Aluminium oxide 95. A workpiece in space to move in any di-
(c) Corundum rection can have
87. Majority of grinding wheels uses (a) 3 degrees of freedom
(a) Silicate bond (b) Rubber bond (b) 12 degrees of freedom
(c) Vitrified bond (c) 6 degrees of freedom
88. For soft material, the grain of abrasives used 96. A process of removing metal by pushing or
is pulling a cutting tool is called
(a) Coarse grains (b) Fine grains (a) Upmilling (b) Forming
(c) Medium grains (c) Broaching
89. For hard material, the grains of abrasives 97. Ball bearing races are
used as
(a) Lapped (b) Buffing
(a) Coarse grains (b) Fine grains
(c) Moving
(c) Medium grains
98. Least Material is removed by
90. Surface speed of the grinding wheel in
(a) Grinding (b) Lapping
centreless grinding is
(c) Super finishing
(a) 1500–1800 (b) 10000–1500
99. Which process used for finishing cylindri-
(c) 100–500
cal holes?
91. Truing of grinding wheel is done by
(a) Lapping (b) Honing
(a) Balancing the wheel
(c) Polishing
(b) Dressing the wheel
100. While abrasive particles hold in the form of
(c) Glazing the wheel
sticks in Honing process
92. A Jig is defined as
(a) Al2O3 (b) Diamond
(a) Holds and locates the workpiece and
(c) Quartz
also guide the tool
(b) Used to check the accuracy of work-
piece
 Appendix II: Objective Type Questions 377

ANSWERS

1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d)

9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (d)
17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (a) 21. (a) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (c) 30. (d) 31. (b) 32. (c)
33. (b) 34. (b) 35. (a) 36. (c) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (c)
41. (a) 42. (b) 43. (d) 44. (a) 45. (c) 46. (b) 47. (a) 48. (c)
49. (b) 50. (d) 51. (d) 52. (a) 53. (b) 54. (c) 55. (b) 56. (a)
57. (b) 58. (c) 59. (a) 60. (c) 61. (b) 62. (a) 63. (c) 64. (b)
65. (a) 66. (c) 67. (b) 68. (b) 69. (a) 70. (b) 71. (c) 72. (b)
73. (a) 74. (c) 75. (b) 76. (c) 77. (b) 78. (b) 79. (a) 80. (b)
81. (b) 82. (c) 83. (d) 84. (a) 85. (c) 86. (b) 87. (c) 88. (a)
89. (b) 90. (a) 91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (c) 94. (a) 95. (b) 96. (c)
97. (a) 98. (c) 99. (b) 100. (a)
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 Index

A Braze welding (or) bronze welding 121

Abrasive wear 199 Brazing 120
According to Brazing methods 120
the position of wheel spindle 327 British system (MRS) 183
the table movement 327 Butt welding 112
Adhesive wear 199
C
Advantages and disadvantages of hydraulic
drive 297 Calendering 145
Advantages of Cemented carbides 229
forging 73 Centreless grinders 325
lapping 369 Centreless grinding 327
oxy-acetylene welding 99 Ceramics 230
American system (ASA system) 184 Chain type continuous broaching machine 360
Applications 86, 368-369 Channel jig 343
Applications of Clamp type chip breaker 191
gas welding 99 Classification of rolling mills 75
Arc welding 100 Classification of shapers 293
Arc welding equipments 101 Cold extrusion 82
Collets 238
B Column and knee types 263
Back gear mechanism of a lathe 218 Combination dies 157
Backward extrusion 81 Comparison between thermosetting plastics and
Blow moulding 144 thermoplastics 142
380 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Compound dies 157 Fettling 46

Compound indexing 282 Fibrous structure of forgings 71
Compression moulding 145 Fixed bushes 341
Continuous broaching machine 359 Fly press 152
Continuous chip with built up edge 189 Forgeability of metal and alloys 58
Continuous chips 188 Forgeable materials 59
Core making machines 34 Forging temperatures 59
Cores 32 Form lapping 369
Crank and slotted link mechanism 295 Friction welding 113
Cupola furnace 34 Functions of cutting fluids (coolants) 201

D G
Defects in forged parts 72 Gang drilling machine 253
Defects in rolled products 80 Gap frame press 153
Diamond 230 Gas welding 92
Difference between pattern and casting 3 Gas welding techniques 97
Differential indexing 284 Gating ratio 41
Diffusion wear 198 Gating system 39
Direct hot extrusion (forward extrusion) 80 German system (DIN system) 185
Direct or rapid indexing 280 Groove type chip breakers 191
Directional solidification 42
Disadvantages of oxy-acetylene welding 99 H
Down milling 274 Hand drill 248
Drill size 248 Hand forging tools and equipment used in smithy
59
E Hand lapping 362
Economics of welding 125 High carbon steel 229
Edge preparation 95 High frequency induction welding 119
Electro slag welding 108 High speed steel 229
Electron beam welding 117 Horizontal broaching machines 358
Equalising lapping 369 Horizontal honing machines 366
Equipment for oxy-acetylene welding 92 Horizontal spindle reciprocating table 329
Explosive welding 114 Hot extrusion process 80
Extrusion moulding 144 Hot and cold rolling 74
Hydraulic mechanism 297
F
I
Factor’s affecting tool like 197
Factors affecting the selection of pattern materials 6 Inert gas welding 104
Feed mechanism of shaper 298 Injection moulding 143
 Index 381

Inspection and testing of castings 49 Plasma arc welding 107

Internal grinder 326 Plate jig 343
Plunge grinding 322
L Portable drilling machine 248
Laser beam welding 118 Position of welding 97
Lathe centres 222 Power press 152
Leaf jig 344 Principle parts of a planer 304
Liner bushes 341 Principle parts of a shaper 292
Lubrication in rolling process 80 Principle parts of a slotter 301
Production sequence in getting rolled products 77
M Progressive dies 158
Machine lapping 362 Projection welding 111
Manufacturing of metal powders 132 Properties of cutting fluids 201
Melting and pouring 34 Properties of moulding sand 16
Metal inert gas (MIG) welding 106
Q
Method of buffing 368
Methods of centreless grinding 325 Quick return mechanism 295
Mould and core making 14
R
Moulding processes 21
Moulding sands 14 Radial drilling machine 252
Multi-spindle drilling machine 253 Range of extrusion products 84
Range of rolled products 79
N Reasons for using the chip breaker 190
Numerically controlled drilling machine 253 Renewable bushes 341
Resistance welding 109
O Roll passes 77
Operation performed on a slotter 304 Rolling mill 74
Orthogonal rake system (ORS) 186 Rotary type continuous broaching machine 359
Oxy-acetylene cutting 99
S
Oxy-acetylene welding 92
Sand conditioning 18
P Sand testing 18
Pattern allowances 6 Screw or clamp bushes 342
Pattern making 3 Seam welding 110
Pattern materials 4 Selection of buffing wheels 368
Pillar drilling machine 251 Sensitive drilling machine 250
Plain milling machine 263 Shaper size and specification 294
Plain or simple indexing 281 Shearing at high temperature (plastic shear) 198
Planer size and specifications 308 Sheet metal drawing operations 165
382 Manufacturing Science and Technology

Sheet metal forming operations 163 Tool and cutter grinder 330
Simple dies 157 Tool life equation 197
Slip bushes 341 Transfer moulding 145
Slotted disc mechanism 303 Traverse grinding 322
Smith forging operations 63 Tungsten-inert gas (TIG) welding 104
Soldering 120 Types of welding 146
Solid state welding 113 Types of arc welding 102
Solidification of pure metals 52 Types of chip breakers 190
Special bushes 342 Types of flames 94
Special moulding processes 27 Types of forging processes 65
Special purpose milling machine 268 Types of patterns 10
Specifications of a slotter 303 Types of roughing passes 77
Spot welding 109 Types of shapers 294
Stellite (cast alloys) 229 Types of slotting machines 302
Step type chip breaker 191 Types of turret lathes 234
Submerged arc welding 103 Types of welded joints 95
Surface grinding machines 327
U
T Ultrasonic welding 114
Table drive mechanism 309 Universal milling machine 265
Tail stock set over method 212 Up milling 274
Taper turning 211 Using a taper turning attachment 213
Taper turning by form tool method 214
V
Taper turning by swivelling of compound rest 212
Template jig 343 Vertical broaching machines 359
The capstan lathe 234 Vertical honing machines 366
The turret lathe 235 Vertical milling machine 265
Thermit welding 116
Thermo chemical welding 116 W
Thermoforming 144 Wire drawing 87
Thread cutting on a lathe 215 Working principle 291