POWER TRANSFORMER

1) Polarization index:

The polarization index is defined as a test that determines the condition of

insulation in electrical equipment by measuring the resistance over time. This
process is done to take note of the absorption current, which provides information
on the insulation’s condition and health. In a polarization index test, the
insulation resistance of the test object is measured continuously for a period of 10
minutes. The test set then automatically displays the ratio of the resistance
measured after 10 minutes to the resistance measured after one minute using
Megger. It shows the result in terms of MegaOhms. A PI value of greater than 2:1
or greater indicates that the transformer insulation is in good condition. This
parameter is determined by IEEE std 43.
2) DCR Measurement:

DCR refers to Direct Current Resistance. Transformer DC resistance test is

a testing method used to check whether there is inter turn short circuit inside three
phase winding of a transformer. The principle is to use a DC power supply and a
millivolt meter to measure the resistance of a transformer, and calculate the on
and off load losses of the transformer. Before conducting the transformer DC
resistance test, it is necessary to disconnect the power supply of the transformer
and connect the grounding switch. Then, connect the DC power supply to one
side of the transformer, connect the millivolt meter to the other side, and adjust
the voltage and direction of the DC power supply so that the pointer of the
millivolt meter points in the positive direction.
3) Turns ratio test:
The turns ratio can be used to call volts per turn. Volts per turn (V/turn) is the
voltage dropped across each turn of a coil or the voltage induced into each turn of
the secondary coil. Each transformer has a design value for the volts per turn.

V1 N1
Transformation Ratio= V 2 = N 2 =K

The constant K referred to as turns ratio.

4) Dielectric loss:
The power loss on insulating materials like oil, insulation substances in
transformers referred to as dielectric loss. It refers to heating of the dielectric
material by varying magnetic field causes heating of the material. When an
insulating material is subjected to an alternating electric field, the atoms get
stressed due to the inter atomic friction caused by repeated deformation. energy
released And due to this rotation of atomic structure (polarization) heat is
produced. It can be measured by loss tangent or tan delta. tan delta is the tangent
of the angle between the alternating field vector and the loss component of the
material. The higher the value of tan δ the greater the dielectric loss.

Dielectric loss in the bushings and winding of a transformer refers to the

energy dissipated as heat due to the dielectric properties of the insulation
materials when subjected to an alternating electric field. This loss is significant
because it affects the efficiency, temperature rise, and overall lifespan of the
transformer.
 Dielectric Loss in Transformer Bushings:

Definition:
Dielectric loss in bushings is the energy lost in the form of heat in the
insulating material of the bushing due to the application of an alternating voltage.

Causes:
Electrical Stress: High electrical stress across the bushing insulation can lead to
dielectric losses.
Deterioration of Insulation: Aging or degradation of the insulation material
increases dielectric losses.
Contaminants: Presence of moisture or other contaminants in the insulation
can increase dielectric losses.

Effects:
Heat Generation:
Increased dielectric loss generates heat, which can lead to overheating and
potential failure of the bushing.
Reduced Efficiency:
Higher losses reduce the overall efficiency of the transformer.
Insulation Degradation:
Continuous heat generation accelerates the aging of insulation, leading to
further losses and potential breakdown.

Monitoring:
Tan Delta Testing:
Measuring the dissipation factor (tan δ) to assess the condition of the
bushing insulation. A high tan δ indicates increased dielectric losses.
Dielectric Loss in Transformer Windings:

Definition:
Dielectric loss in winding is the energy lost as heat in the insulation
around the winding due to the alternating electric field.

Causes:
Electric Field:
The alternating electric field across the insulation of windings causes
dielectric losses.
Insulation Condition:
Degraded or aged insulation increases dielectric losses.

Moisture and Contaminants:

Presence of moisture and other contaminants in the insulation material
leads to higher dielectric losses.

Effects:
Heat Generation:
Dielectric loss causes localized heating in the winding insulation, which
can lead to hot spots.
Efficiency Reduction:
Higher dielectric losses decrease the transformer's efficiency.
Accelerated Aging:
Heat generated from dielectric losses accelerates the aging process of the
insulation

.
Monitoring:
Power Factor Testing:
Assessing the power factor of the winding insulation to detect
increased dielectric losses.
Infrared Thermography:
Using thermal imaging to identify hot spots caused by dielectric
losses in the windings.

Mitigation Strategies:
Regular Maintenance:
Conduct regular inspections and testing (e.g., tan delta and power factor
tests) to monitor the condition of insulation in bushings and windings.
Perform thermographic surveys to detect and address hot spots.
Insulation Quality:
Use high quality insulation materials that have low dielectric losses and are
resistant to aging and contaminants.
Ensure proper sealing of bushings to prevent moisture ingress.
Condition Monitoring:
Implement online monitoring systems to continuously assess the dielectric
condition of insulation in bushings and windings.
Cooling Systems:
Maintain and ensure the efficient operation of cooling systems to dissipate
heat generated by dielectric losses.

By understanding and managing dielectric losses, transformer operators can

improve the reliability, efficiency, and lifespan of their equipment.
5) Magnetic balance test:

The magnetic balance test is a most commonly used proactive test is performed
only on three phase transformers to detect the faults in the core and to verify the
imbalance in the magnetic circuit also to identify inter turn faults in the
transformer at the early stage of manufacturing work. The magnetic balance test
is usually done on the star side of a transformer. This is done by flux produced on
one of the limb is equal to summation of fluxes produced on other two limbs to
indicate no shorting.

Transformer Magnetic Balance Test Procedures

1 .Keep the transformer Tap Changer in an ordinary position.

2. Apply a single phase AC voltage on one of the terminals of the HV
winding.
3. Measure the voltage between the two other HV terminals.
4. Repeat the test for each of the three phases.

The Magnetic balance test is only an indicative test for the transformer. Its results
are not absolute. It needs to be used in conjunction with other tests.
Transformer Magnetic Balance Test

Left side limb Central limb Right side limb

AN BN CN
Voltage at left 100% 60 90% 10 40%
side phase
Voltage at centre 50% 100% 50%
side phase
Voltage at right 60 90% 10 40% 100%
side phase

Based on the results shown in the table above, if the voltage applied at one side is
equal the sum of the voltages obtained at the two other sides, this indicates that
the transformer is magnetically balanced. But If there is any short circuit between
turns, the sum of the two voltages may not be equal to the applied voltage.

6) Winding resistance:
The primary purpose of this test is to identify significant differences
between windings and detect any open connections. Measuring the resistance of
transformer windings ensures that each circuit is wired correctly and that all
connections are securely tightened.
The winding resistance in transformers can vary due to shorted turns, loose
connections, or deteriorating contacts in tap changers. Regardless of the
configuration, the resistance measurements are normally made phase to phase and
the readings are compared with each other to determine if they are acceptable.
Transformer winding resistance measurements are obtained by passing a
known DC current through the winding under test and measuring the voltage drop
 across each terminal (Ohms law). Modern test equipment for this purposes
utilizes a Kelvin Bridge to achieve results.

7) Evaluation of different parameters of oil:

Transformer oils are made from crude oil and are used in transformers and
other electrical equipment. The oil performs two main functions: insulation and
heat dissipation.

CLASSES OF TRANSFORMER OIL CHARACTERISTICS

The characteristics and properties of transformer oils can be grouped into

several classes:

 functional;

 properties related to purification and oxidation stability;

 operational;

 properties related to safety and the environment.

The functional properties describe the quality of insulation and cooling.

These include density, viscosity, dielectric strength, dissipation factor, pour point
and moisture content. Purification and oxidation stability are related to such
properties as appearance, acidity, presence of corrosive sulfur, furfurol content.
Operational properties determine the duration of transformer oil service life and
its reaction to external influences (electricity and temperature). These include
oxidation stability and gas solubility. Safety of transformer oil and their
environmental impact depends on flashpoint, the content of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls.

VISCOSITY AND DENSITY

The ability of oil to dissipate heat from hot transformer components

depends primarily on viscosity. Lower viscosity means better oil circulation and
better heat exchange. Viscosity decreases when the temperature of the oil drops,
which may reduce circulation and overheating of critical components.

As for density, it is better if this parameter is low. This helps prevent the
formation of ice in the oil from water at subzero temperatures. Otherwise an
electric breakthrough becomes possible. The density of transformer oil at 20°С
must not exceed 895 kg/m3, or 897 kg/m3 at 15°С.

POUR POINT

Pour point is another important parameter of transformer oil. It is the

minimum temperature at which the oil still flows. The recommended value for
this parameter is at least 10°С lower than the lowest possible load temperature
for cold start

WATER CONTENT

The presence of water in transformer oil influences such important

parameters as dielectric strength and dissipation factor. The former indicates the
voltage the oil can withstand in the electric equipment, the latter shows electrical
properties of the oil. Increase of moisture content causes the dielectric strength to
decrease and the dissipation factor to increase. This is why even new oil is
dehydrated before filling a transformer, since it can accumulate water during
transportation and storage. In general, the oil must be processed to achieve a
dielectric strength of at least 70 kV, and the dissipation factor below 0.005% at
90°С.

APPEARANCE

The appearance of transformer oil can be the first indication of possible

changes of its condition. A visual inspection of a 10cm thick sample in backlight
can help detect visible impurities, free water and suspended particles. New oil
must be transparent.

ACIDITY

New unused transformer oil must be neutral. During operation the acidity
gradually increases due to oxidation and aging of oil. The acid number of new oil
must not exceed 0.01 mg KOH/g.

CORROSIVE SULFUR

The presence of corrosive sulfur in the oil is not allowed due to its
aggressiveness to the copper, steel or silver surfaces in the transformer. It can
damage such components as switch contacts.

OXIDATION STABILITY

This parameters characterizes the ability of transformer oil to resist the

oxidation process, which increases acidity and causes the formation of sludge.
High oxidation stability extends transformer lifetime, reduces the amount of
sludge, corrosion and electric losses.
 HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

Some substances contained in transformer oil can be hazardous for human

health and the environment. These include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
polychlorinated biphenyls and 2 furfurol. There are maximum permissible
concentrations for each of these. For instance, PCB content may be regulated to
not exceed 0.1 mg/kg.

TRANSFORMER OIL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

Transformer oil comes under the influence of many factors which reduce
its quality, such as high voltage, high temperature, oxygen, water etc. With time
the oil ages beyond usability in a transformer.

The oil can be restored using special equipment. Depending on the extent
of changes, purification may be sufficient. In other cases, when the oil is aged and
acidic, oil regeneration must be used.

8)Dissolved gas analysis:

Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is the study of dissolved gases in transformer oil.
It is also referred to as a DGA test. Whenever a transformer undergoes abnormal
thermal and electrical stresses, certain gases are produced due to the
decomposition of the transformer oil. When the fault is major, the production of
decomposed gases are significant and they get collected in a Buchholz relay. But
when abnormal thermal and electrical stresses are not significantly high the
gasses due to decomposition of transformer insulating oil will get enough time to
dissolve in the oil.

Hence by only monitoring the Buchholz relay it is not possible to predict the
condition of the total internal healthiness of electrical power transformer. That is

why it becomes necessary to analyze the number of different gasses dissolved in

transformer oil in service.

In a DGA test, the gases in oil are extracted and analyzed to determine the
quantity of gasses in a specific amount of oil. By observing the percentages of
different gasses present in the oil, you can predict the internal condition of the
transformer.

Generally, the gasses found in the oil in service are hydrogen (H 2), methane
(CH4), Ethane (C2H6), ethylene (C2H4), acetylene (C2H3), carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen(O2).

Most commonly used method of determining the content of these gases in oil, is
using a Vacuum Gas Extraction Apparatus and Gas Chronographs. Using this
apparatus, gasses are extracted from oil by stirring it under vacuum. These
extracted gasses are then introduced in gas Chronographs for measurement of
each component.

Hydrogen and methane production increases when a transformer’s internal

temperature reaches 150oC to 300oC. Above 300°C, ethylene (C2H4) levels rise
significantly. Temperatures over 700°C lead to high outputs of both hydrogen
(H2) and ethylene (C2H4).

Ethylene (C2H4) is an indication of a very high temperature hot spot inside an

electrical transformer. If during DGA test of transformer oil, CO and CO 2 are
 found in large quantity it is predicted that there is decomposition of proper
insulation.

9)SFRA:

Sweep Frequency Response Test can detect efficiently, displacement of

transformer core, deformation and displacement of winding, faulty core grounds,
collapse of partial winding, broken or loosen clamp connections, short circuited
turns, open winding conditions etc. This cause insulation failure or dielectric
faults.

In a transformer, each winding is separated by paper insulation acting as a

dielectric, and the windings have their own resistance and inductance. This makes
the transformer a complex network of resistance, inductance, and capacitance—a
complicated RLC circuit.
 Signal applied across
Conditions
transformer terminals

HV Red phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are open

HV Yellow phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are open

HV Blue phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are open

HV Red phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are shorted

HV Yellow phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are shorted

HV Blue phase to Neutral LV Red Yellow Blue phases are shorted

HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Blue phase are

LV Red to Yellow phase
open

HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Red phase are

LV Yellow to Blue phase
open

HV Red Yellow Blue phases and LV Yellow phase

LV Blue to Red phase
are open

Because of that each winding of a transformer exhibits a particular frequency

response. In Sweep Frequency Response Analysis a sinusoidal voltage Vi is applied to
one end of a winding and output voltage V o is measured at the other end of the winding.
Other windings are kept open. As the winding is itself an distributed RLC circuit it will
behave like RLC filter and gives different output voltages at different frequencies.

That means if we go on increasing the frequency of the input signal

without changing its voltage level we will get different output voltages at
different frequencies depending upon the RLC nature of the winding. If we plot
these output voltages against the corresponding frequencies we will get a
 particular patter for a particular winding. But after transportation, heavy short
circuit faults, transient switching impulses and lightening impulses etc, if we do
same Sweep Frequency Response Analysis test and superimpose the present
signature with the earlier patterns and observe some deviation between these tow
graphs, we can asses that there is mechanical displacement and deformation
occurred in the winding.

10)Calibration of OTI & WTI:

The device that shows us the values of oil and winding temperatures of the
transformer is called OTI and WTI.

OTI represents Oil Temperature Indicator. WTI represents Winding

Temperature Indicator. Oil and winding temperature is directly proportional to load.
We need to check the transformer effect on oil and winding on full load or
fed/running condition. So at maximum load, we will have maximum Winding

temperature and transformer heating will also increase. We know winding is

dipped in oil and as soon as transformer winding temperature is increasing, the
oil temperature will also increase.
 Black color needle tells us at present condition what is the temperature of
winding.

Red color needle tells us how much maximum temperature was rose. It mean
WTI, OTI is telling us two parameters; present temperature and maximum noted
temperature of winding and oil.

Ranges of WTI and OTI:

We can see 150 degrees values of OTI, which means at 150 160 degrees oil will
burn up. This is the maximum temperature value.

We can see 150 degrees values of WTI, which means at 150 160 degrees winding
will burn up. This is maximum temperature value.

Tripping in WTI and OTI:

We can set up an alarm for tripping at a specific temperature value and at that
value circuit breaker will ring alarm and after that at specific value there will be
tripping in circuit breaker.
 We perform wiring in circuit breaker relay. In other words, if we are not able to
monitor temperature or oil values continuously, then on our set value relay
will ring alarm and trip on our pre set value.

OTI tripping:

In industries the tripping values of OTI is normally on:

Its alarm is on 80 degrees

Its tripping is on 90 degrees.

WTI tripping:

In industries the tripping values of WTI is normally on:

Its alarm is on 85 degrees

Its tripping is on 95 degrees.

Relay will take these values as an abnormal condition and will trip over these
values with an alarm before tripping.

On dial of WTI and OTI is for 2 degrees. So, these meters are crucial in industry
working and operation.

11)OLTC operation:

For a transformer to adapt to various operating conditions at any given time, a

different type of tap changer design is necessary. The On Load Tap Changer
(OLTC or LTC) is designed to change positions several times a day to
compensate for daily shifts in load conditions without interrupting the nominal
output power supply.

LTCs can be internal to the main tank or contained within a separate,

sealed liquid filled compartment with feed through tap connections located on the
rear panel. Externally mounted load tap changers are typically welded around a
cutout on the transformer tank where tap connections are made to a regulator
winding that is connected in series with the transformer low voltage winding.
Control circuitry enables operators to assess the need for a raised or
lowered tap change operation to maintain output voltage. Selector switches
facilitate changing the physical tap position on the transformer’s regulating
windings, but they do not make or break the circuit load current.

On load tap changers may be generally classified as either mechanical,

electronically assisted, or fully electronic.
A mechanical tap changer physically makes the new connection before releasing
the previous by using multiple tap selector switches. High circulating currents are
avoided by using a diverter switch to temporarily place a large impedance in
series with the short circuited turns.
A high speed resistive type OLTC utilizes a resistor pair to absorb energy and
doesnot utilize the bridging position as a service position. In a resistance type tap
changer, the transition to another tap must be executed swiftly to prevent
overheating of the diverter circuit.
A reactance type tap changer uses a dedicated preventive autotransformer
winding to function as the diverter impedance. The preventive autotransformer
acts as a current limiting device when the LTC is on, or passing through, a
bridging tap position.
Since the load current must never be interrupted during a tap change, there is an
interval where two voltage taps are spanned. The PA (also known as bridging a
reactor) is used in the circuit to increase the impedance of the selector circuit and
limit the amount of current circulating due to this voltage difference.
The operating mechanism for most load tap changers is motor driven, but manual
operation can be employed in the event of motor failure. The sequence of
operation is mechanically interlocked to ensure that all contacts will always
operate in their correct order. Any failure of the operating mechanism can result
in severe damage to the transformer and tap changer.
A standard 32 step LTC comprises 16 raise positions and 16 lower positions. The
physical taps are situated on a regulating winding within the main transformer
tank, which is connected in series with the main winding via a reversing switch.
Voltage is increased or decreased by movable contacts that employ a “stepping”
action to move from one connection to the next, thereby adding or subtracting

turns on the regulating winding. The raise or lower mode is dependent on the
polarity of the connection through the switch.

The neutral position is the normal position where the LTC is neither raising or
lowering voltage and/or where the tap windings are not in the circuit. The neutral
position is the only position where the reversing switch is not carrying current.
OLTC Testing:

Electrical tests can be performed on tap changer components to compliment oil

analysis and further detect problems that might not show up with just an oil test.

Exciting current tests are capable of detecting a wide range of transformer tap
changer problems in both de energized and on load tap changers. Mechanical
issues such as misalignment, contact wear, loose connections, open or short
circuited turns, and much more can be identified through these tests.
DC winding resistance is a valuable test for detecting potential problems with the
current carrying path of a transformer circuit. It can identify loose electrical
connections and pinpoint partial open circuited conditions by applying a known
DC current and measuring the voltage drop between each test point.
Dynamic winding resistance is another test that measures DC current and
resistance as a function of time as the OLTC changes tap position. This test is
best used to identify potential problems with the diverter circuit or transition
resistors of an OLTC during operation.
The turns ratio of each tap should also be checked when measuring the ratio of
the main transformer windings. When performing Sweep frequency response
analysis (SFRA) on transformers, the mechanical integrity of the tap windings
and their leads are included with the mid to upper frequency ranges.

The frequency of tap changer inspection and testing varies depending on the
environmental and physical conditions of the equipment, as well as the criticality
of the tap changer and associated transformer in relation to the overall power
system. Since tap changers are mechanical devices, it is recommended to take an
oil sample each year, with electrical testing performed at least every two years.
12)Thermogram:

In transformers, thermography is used to monitor and maintain their health and

performance by detecting abnormal temperature rises that may indicate potential
issues. Here’s how thermography is applied in the context of transformers:

1. Hot Spot Detection:

Windings and Connections: Identifying overheating in windings, connections,
and terminals which can lead to insulation breakdown and failure.
Bushings: Detecting hot spots in bushings which could indicate partial
discharges or insulation degradation.

2. Oil Temperature Monitoring:

Cooling Efficiency: Monitoring the temperature of the transformer oil to ensure
efficient cooling. High oil temperatures can indicate cooling system failures or
overload conditions.
Insulation Health: Assessing the thermal condition of the oil, which directly
affects the insulation life of the transformer.

3. Core and Coil Inspection:

Core: Identifying areas of excessive heating in the core, which could be due to
core lamination faults or stray flux.
Coils: Detecting uneven heating in coils which might suggest issues like
circulating currents or turn to turn faults.

4. Load Analysis:
Balanced Loading: Ensuring the transformer is not experiencing unbalanced
loading which can cause localized heating and premature aging.
Overloading: Identifying overload conditions that cause excessive heating and
can lead to thermal runaway.
Benefits of Using Thermography in Transformers:

Preventive Maintenance: Early detection of potential faults allows for timely

maintenance, preventing costly failures and downtime.
Non Destructive Testing: Thermography is non invasive and can be performed
without shutting down the transformer, ensuring continuous operation.
Safety: Detecting hot spots reduces the risk of catastrophic failures that could
pose safety hazards.
Efficiency Improvement: Ensuring transformers operate within their thermal
limits helps in maintaining their efficiency and prolonging their lifespan.

Procedure:

1. Regular Monitoring: Schedule regular thermographic inspections to establish

baseline temperature profiles and identify any deviations.
 2. Capture Images: Use a thermal camera to capture thermographic images of
the transformer, focusing on key components like windings, bushings, and
cooling systems.
3. Analyze Data: Compare the thermograms against normal operating conditions
to identify abnormal heat patterns.
4. Report Findings: Document any issues detected and recommend corrective
actions to address potential problems.

By integrating thermography into the maintenance routine, transformer operators

can ensure reliable performance, extend equipment life, and enhance overall
system safety.

13)Excitation current measurenent at low voltage

When normal voltage is applied to the terminals of a transformer with

the secondary circuit open, a small current will flow in the primary. This current is
called as transformer excitation current and flows all the time during the
operation of the transformer. Excitation current is required by transformer to
sustain a magnetic field inside the core and is largely independent of the secondary
load. There are two components to this current:

Core loss current component

Magnetizing current component

Core loss current

The core loss current can be considered the resistive loss in the core and is
in phase with the applied voltage. Core loss current determines the noload losses
of the transformer. Core loss current represents the noload losses of the
 transformer and includes iron losses, small dielectric losses and copper losses
caused by flow of excitation current. Of these only the iron losses caused by
eddy currents are significant. Losses depend on frequency, maximum flux
density and characteristics of magnetic circuit. Core loss values are usually
provided from transformer factory at the time of product delivery.

Magnetizing current

The magnetizing current component lags the applied voltage by 90 degree

and its magnitude depends on the number of turns in the primary winding, shape
of transformer saturation curve and maximum flux density at which the
transformer was designed. Magnetizing current is a purely reactive current and
hence do not contribute directly to noload losses. Reactive magnetizing power
(VARS) is required by a transformer to operate and this current has to be
supplied by the source.
Exciting current test in transformer is an open circuit test done by applying rated
voltage at rated frequency to one of the windings with the other winding open
circuited. For reasons of safety and convenience, measurements are usually made
on the low voltage side leaving the high voltage side open circuited. This test is
used primarily to evaluate:

Health of magnetic circuit of the transformer

Turn to turn winding insulation

Condition of tap changer

Find the transformer core parameters (resistance and impedance)

Any core problem will increase the reluctance of the magnetic circuit and
consequently higher primary current. A turn to turn short will create additional
current flow in the transformer that will translate in to higher than expected
exciting current. Higher than expected/published exciting current will indicate
problems with the transformer that may need additional inspection.
 Exciting current and noload loss measurements are recommended as routine
diagnostic tests and during acceptance testing or when the transformer is
subjected to extreme physical stress.

14) Cooling of transformers:

For the dry type transformers
 Natural (AN) Cooling
 Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast (AB) Cooling
For oil immersed type transformers
 Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) Cooling
 Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) Cooling
 Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) Cooling

Air Natural (AN) Cooling

The air natural (AN) cooling is used in dry type, selfcooled
transformers. In this method, the natural circulation of surrounding air is
used for cooling of the transformer. The windings of the transformer are
protected against the mechanical damages by a sheet metal enclosure. The
air natural cooling is used for low voltage small transformers upto a few
kVA.

Air Forced (AF) or Air Blast (AB) Cooling

The air forced (AF) cooling is used in the dry type, forcedair cooled
transformers. In this method, a continuous blast of filtered cool air is forced with
the help of a fan through the core and windings of the transformer for cooling.
This method is used for cooling of the transformers upto 15 MVA

Oil Natural Air Natural (ONAN) Cooling

 The oil natural air natural cooling is used in oil immerged type
transformers. The most of the transformers of the medium and large ratings have
their core and windings immerged in dielectric oil, which acts both as cooling
medium and insulating medium.
The oil immerged transformers are enclosed in a sheet steel tank. The heat
generated in the core and windings being transferred to the oil. The heated oil
becomes lighter and rises to the top and the cool oil takes its place from the
bottom of the transformer tank.
The heat of the oil is transferred to the walls of the tank by natural
circulation of the oil and the heat is then transferred to the surrounding air
through the natural radiation and convection. Hence, the oil gets cooler and falls
to the bottom. Therefore, a natural circulation of oil takes place for the cooling of
the transformer.

Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) Cooling

In oil natural air forced cooling of the transformer, the heat generated by the core
and windings of the transformer is transferred to the walls of the tank and to the
radiator through the natural circulation of the oil. Now, the forced air is directed
over cooling elements (tank, radiator, tubes, fins etc.) of the transformer. Hence,
the transformer is cooled by the natural circulation of oil and blast of air.This
method of cooling is suitable for the large transformers upto 60 MVA.

Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) Cooling

In this method of cooling, the heated oil is circulated from the top of the
transformer tank to a heat exchanger and the blast of air is forced through the heat
exchanger by turning on a fan. Then, the cool oil is returned to the bottom of the
transformer tank.

Oil Forced Air Natural (OFAN) Cooling

 Oilforced, airnatural (OFAN) cooling is a type of cooling system used in
transformers.
Oilforced (OF): The transformer oil is pumped through the coils and core to
absorb heat.
Airnatural (AN): The heated oil is then cooled naturally by air, usually through a
radiator or heat exchanger.

In OFAN cooling, the oil is forced through the transformer windings and core,
allowing for more efficient heat transfer. The heated oil is then cooled by natural
convection, eliminating the need for fans or pumps.
RESIDUAL LIFE ASSESSMENT
 SCOPE OF STUDY:
The scope of the study broadly includes review and assessment of present

status of Electrical System related to 132KV / 6.9 KV Transformers.

The aim of study is to assess the current health of the transformers for the
132KV substation and its recommendations of various Tests can be made the system in
service at rated capacity with an extension of life for Long term.

A number of electrical tests were conducted on transformers. The list of tests

carried out is enclosed at Table 1 of this report.

Available documents and drawings were studied along with the O&M records
of the substation. Also detailed interactions with the plant authorities and O & M
personnel’s of the 132KV systems were held to gain insight of the operational history

and behavior of the equipment in addition to walk down surveys and spot studies.

The results obtained from the above studies have been used as the basis for
health assessment of transformer for preparation of this detailed report. It was decided
that the testing of equipment shall be carried out in one phase. The list of equipment
within the scope of RLA study and their present testing status are as mentioned.

LIST OF ELECTRICAL TESTS

  Polarization index and DCAR
measurement

 Ratio Measurement.

 Excitation current measurement at

low voltage.

 Dielectric loss and power factor

measurement on winding insulation
and bushings.

 Magnetic balance test

POWER TRANSFORMERS
 Winding resistance

 Evaluation of different parameters of

oil such as BDV, resistivity, water

 PPM and TanDelta.

 Dissolved gas analysis.

 SWEEP FREQUENCY RESPONSE

ANALYSIS

 OTI and WTI Calibration.

 Thermo Gram.

 Mechanical / Electrical operation for

OLTC.
METHODOLOGY
General Overview
The assignment of conducting a Residual Life Assessment (RLA) and Life
Extension Study (LES) for transformers is a specialized task. It involves a
meticulous methodology and a detailed process that requires systematic analysis
and evaluation of various factors related to transformers. The successful
completion of this work relies heavily on the team's exposure and experience with
similar assignments, as well as the expertise of the team members handling the
project.

Residual Life Evaluation / Assessment

The evaluation of the remaining useful life and the associated expenditure of
critical components is performed through both testing and analysis.
Nondestructive tests (NDT) are particularly valuable in identifying internal
defects, cracks, erosion, corrosion, distortions, and changes in shape. These tests
are applied to all critical components.

Based on the life expenditure evaluation conducted through analysis and tests,
items can be classified into categories such as:

Physical Condition: This includes the presence of defects that cannot be

eliminated or repaired, or a high degree of erosion.
Metallurgical and Metallographic Condition: This involves the degradation of
mechanical properties, embrittlement, and structural changes due to time
dependent damaging mechanisms.
This combination of experimental and theoretical approaches to evaluating life
expenditure allows for determining the feasibility of life extension for each
critical component. The outcomes include identifying:

Critical Components for Replacement: These are components with significant

material degradation and defects that offer a low creep fatigue safety margin.
Critical Components for Continued Use: These are components with minimal
material degradation and a high creep fatigue safety margin, allowing them to be
accepted without limitations for the life extension phase.
Critical Components Requiring Further Evaluation: These components have
safety margins that need to be reassessed during the life extension phase.

Condition Assessment
The condition assessment of transformers primarily involves either or both of the
following approaches:

Electrical / Non Destructive Tests (NDT): These tests determine the necessary
corrective actions for ensuring trouble free operation.
Functional / Operational Checks: These checks involve comparing operational
results with design parameters to assess the condition of the equipment.

The entire RLA study is carried out through the following steps:

1. Site Study and Data Collection: Conduct a thorough site study, collect relevant
data, and assess the current condition of the equipment.
2. Action Plan Finalization: Develop a detailed action plan for conducting the
study and tests.
3. Non Destructive Testing: Perform NDT on various plant equipment according
to the agreed plan and schedule.
 4. Compilation of Test Results: Gather and compile the results of the tests
conducted.
5. Analysis of Test Results: Analyze the test results to determine the need for
refurbishment or replacement, aiming to extend the operating life by another
1520 years.

6. Final Recommendations: Finalize the recommendations for replacement or

refurbishment of different equipment/components based on the RLA findings.

7. Report Preparation: Prepare a comprehensive report detailing the findings,

analysis, and recommendations.

These steps ensure a thorough and systematic approach to assessing and

extending the life of critical transformer components, ultimately contributing to
the reliable and efficient operation of the equipment.

ANALYSIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

POWER TRANSFORMER - 1:

Observations / Analysis: -

i. As there is no base SFRA plot is available for this unit, and Open circuit
SFRA

measurements are identical for Three Phases on 3 Different Tap, which

gives indication of no sign of any winding movement. The SFRA plot measured
for the transformer are found in order and does not indicate any abnormality by
 Analyzing the 3 Different Tap’s of open and short circuit SFRA plots of
unit.

This is a good reference plots for future measurement.

ii. The Polarization index for the transformer and DC absorption ratio are
found satisfactory.

iii. No hot spot found in the transformer body, bushings and connectors etc.

iv. From the oil test result for the transformer oil Electric Strength (Break
down voltage) found low, [As per IS: 1866 the break down voltage should be
40KV RMS or more, but the value for the oil is 16 KV RMS only.

v. From the oil test result for the transformer oil, Water content (ppm) found
high, [As per IS: 1866 the Water content (ppm) should be 40ppm or less, but the
value for the oil is 58 ppm.

vi. From the oil test result (DGA) some count of Methane 28ppm and it may
be due to local over heating

vii. Ethylene 9 ppm and it may be due to Thermal degradation of oil /

thermal fault from 300 Deg.C upto 700 Deg.C.

viii. Ethane 11ppm, it may be due to over heating / thermal fault less then
300 Deg.C.

ix. Acetylene 1 ppm it may be due to internal arcing & Sparking / thermal
fault more then 700 Deg.C.

x. Hydrogen 7 ppm it may be due to Electrical / thermal fault / Partial

discharge. All the above parameters are more related with the high temperature.
More over the values are below the violation limits.
 Recommendations: -

i. Dry out the transformer

ii. Reconditioning / Purification of transformer oil.

iii. Rectify or replace the non functional cooling fans

iv. Service or replace the buchholz Relay.

v. Routine maintenance including sealing of all junction boxes, marshalling

boxes, cooling cabinet, bushing compartment, associated ducts, CT
compartments etc.

Replacement of silica gel of the breathers.

Overhauling, Cleaning and painting of transformer during R & M

RESIDUAL LIFE EVALUATION/ASSESSMENT:

Residual life assessment (RLA) of a transformer is a process used to determine
the remaining useful life of the transformer and predict its future reliability.
Residual life assessment of a transformer is a critical process that involves a
combination of various diagnostic techniques and analytical models. The goal is
to ensure reliable operation and to plan for maintenance or replacement before
unexpected failures occur.

Determining Moisture in paper Insulation

Method: 1

Oomen 1983 developed a set of moisture equilibrium curves. Which are

now widely

used to determine the presence of moisture in paper. The method is based on

 principle that the equilibrium curve represents the same relative saturation
of oil and

for paper at same temp.

The moisture of oil (in ppm) is obtained from analysis = 58 ppm.

Temperature of oil at bottom of tank (max) =500 C

Moisture in Paper = 3.7 %.

Method: 2

Based on IEEE 62-1995 Diagnostics fields testing of electrical power

apparatus

Part: 1: oil filled transformers, regulator

Temp of oil at bottom of tank = 35 °C

Meyer’s multiplier =0.07 (By IEEE STD 62-1995)

The moisture in oil (in ppm) is obtained from oil analysis = 58 ppm

Moisture in paper = 58 x 0.07 = 4.06 %

Average moisture in paper =( (3.7 + 4.06) % ) ÷ 2= 3.88 %

Determining Aging of Transformer:

Hot spot temperature = 75 °C

Temp of Oil (Bottom oil) max = 35 °C

FAA = Age per unit = e^ ((15000 ÷ 383) - (15000 ÷
(THS+273)))

= 0.0175<1

It means that temperature is below than the bubbling temp 110°C

Thus for a designed life of hrs for normal life for the temp Class A

Total life of Transformer = 1027300 hrs.

Aging factor multiplier (Moisture) = % of Moisture in Paper

1%

= 3.88 %

1%

= 3.88

Therefore the life of transformers after accounting for degradation due to

moisture in paper

Life = 1027300 / 3.88

= 264768 hrs.

Assuming the transformer is operating for 26 years of the given 227760 hrs
since

manufacturing (1976).

Residual life of Transformer = (2647668 - 271560) hrs = 37008.04 hrs.

Residual life of Transformer = 4.22 years.

 The transformer is currently in good condition. However, it's important to note
that the moisture content in the transformer is low. This raises the need to verify
if the oil has been recently filtered or reclaimed. If this is the case, the low
moisture content in the paper insulation might not accurately reflect the
condition of the KRAFT paper insulation. An increase in moisture content in
either the oil or the paper insulation can significantly reduce the transformer's
lifespan. Therefore, it's essential to monitor the moisture content periodically,
ideally once a year.

The residual life of the transformer is calculated based on the assumption that it
will continue to operate under conditions similar to its current operation. If the
load or temperature increases, the expected lifespan will decrease accordingly.
The low moisture content reported in the Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA)

suggests that the transformer is either in excellent condition or that the oil has
been recently filtered or reclaimed. This low moisture content contributes to a
longer transformer life. However, if the hotspot temperatures are higher than
currently assumed, especially during the summer, the transformer's lifespan will
decrease more significantly.

In summary, the transformer's current good condition may be attributed to low

moisture content, possibly due to recent oil filtration or reclamation. Regular
monitoring of moisture content is crucial, and any increase in load or
temperature could reduce the transformer's lifespan.

ELECTRICAL TESTS
GENERAL

Various electrical tests were carried out as per the list already furnished in
scope of study to assess the Present health and Residual life of the transformers
and also to identify major "Malfunction" conditions.

General observation, analysis and recommendations for transformers are

briefly discussed below.

BRIEF OBSERVATIONS, ANALYSIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

POWER TRANSFORMER - 1

Observations / Analysis:

As there is no base SFRA plot is available for this unit, and Open circuit SFRA

measurements are identical for Three Phases on 3 Different Tap, which gives

indication of no sign of any winding movement. The SFRA plot measured for

the transformer are found in order and does not indicate any abnormality by

Analyzing the 3 Different Tap’s of open and short circuit SFRA plots of unit.

This is a good reference plots for future measurement. The Polarization index for
the transformer and DC absorption ratio are found

satisfactory.

No hot spot found in the transformer body, bushings and connectors etc.

From the oil test result for the transformer oil Electric Strength (Break down

voltage) found low, [As per IS: 1866 the break down voltage should be 40KV
 RMS or more, but the value for the oil is 16 KV RMS only.

 From the oil test result (DGA) some count of Methane 28ppm and it may
be due to local over heating

 Ethylene 9 ppm and it may be due to Thermal degradation of oil / thermal

fault from 300 Deg.C upto 700 Deg.C.

 Ethane 11ppm, it may be due to over heating / thermal fault less then 300
Deg.C.

 Acetylene 1 ppm it may be due to internal arcing & Sparking / thermal

fault more then 700 Deg.C.

Hydrogen 7 ppm it may be due to Electrical / thermal fault / Partial discharge.

All the above parameters are more related with the high temperature. More over

the values are below the violation limits.

Recommendations:

 Dry out the transformer

 Reconditioning / Purification of transformer oil.

 Routine maintenance including sealing of all junction boxes,

marshalling boxes, cooling cabinet, bushing compartment, associated ducts, CT
compartments etc.

 Replacement of silica gel of the breathers.

 Overhauling, Cleaning and painting of transformer during R & M.

  Repair or replace the bucholtz relay

Designation : TRANSFORMER Date: 15-12-09

Location : TR - 1 Amb. Temp: 28ºC

Name plate Details :

Make : CGL

Rating : 18 MVA

Rated volts : HV: 132 KV, LV: 6.9KV

Rated current : HV: 78.7 A, LV: 1506.1 A

Vector Group : YNyn0

Sl No : 24497

Frequency : 50 Hz

%Z : 9.71%

Year of Manufacture : 1983

Insulation Resistance Measurement: (Using 5KV Megger) (All values in MΩ)

DC Absorption and Polarization Index

Magnetization Current Test: H.V SIDE

Plot for “Tap number V/S Magnetizing Current:
L.V SIDE:
Magnetic Balance Test: HV Side:

Magnetic Balance Test: LV Side:

Vector Group Test:

Winding Resistance Test: (All values in Ω) H.V SIDE

Plot for “Tap Number V/S Winding Resistance:

Winding Resistance Test: (All values in mΩ) L.V SIDE

Voltage Ratio Test:

Tan delta Test: BUSHING