n signals, parking brake, headlights, transmission position).

Cautions may be displayed

for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt
unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported to diagnostic equipment.
Navigation systems caContents hide

(Top)
History
Statistical mechanics theories
Toggle Statistical mechanics theories subsection
Einstein's theory
Smoluchowski model
Other physics models using partial differential equations
Astrophysics: star motion within galaxies
Mathematics
Toggle Mathematics subsection
Statistics
Lévy characterisation
Spectral content
Riemannian manifold
Narrow escape
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Brownian motion
70 languages

Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history
Tools
Appearance hide

Text
Small
Standard
 Large
Width
Standard
Wide
Color (beta)
Automatic
Light
Dark
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[1]
2-dimensional random walk of a silver adatom on an Ag(111) surface

Simulation of the Brownian motion of a large particle, analogous to a dust particle, that collides
with a large set of smaller particles, analogous to molecules of a gas, which move with different
velocities in different random directions.

Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a medium (a liquid or

[2]
a gas).
This motion pattern typically consists of random fluctuations in a particle's position
inside a fluid sub-domain, followed by a relocation to another sub-domain. Each
relocation is followed by more fluctuations within the new closed volume. This pattern
describes a fluid at thermal equilibrium, defined by a given temperature. Within such a
fluid, there exists no preferential direction of flow (as in transport phenomena). More
specifically, the fluid's overall linear and angular momenta remain null over time. The
kinetic energies of the molecular Brownian motions, together with those of molecular
rotations and vibrations, sum up to the caloric component of a fluid's internal energy
[citation needed]
(the equipartition theorem).

This motion is named after the botanist Robert Brown, who first described the
phenomenon in 1827, while looking through a microscope at pollen of the plant Clarkia
pulchella immersed in water. In 1900, the French mathematician Louis Bachelier
modeled the stochastic process now called Brownian motion in his doctoral thesis, The
Theory of Speculation (Théorie de la spéculation), prepared under the supervision of
Henri Poincaré. Then, in 1905, theoretical physicist Albert Einstein published a paper
where he modeled the motion of the pollen particles as being moved by individual water
[3]
molecules, making one of his first major scientific contributions.

The direction of the force of atomic bombardment is constantly changing, and at

different times the particle is hit more on one side than another, leading to the
seemingly random nature of the motion. This explanation of Brownian motion served as
convincing evidence that atoms and molecules exist and was further verified
experimentally by Jean Perrin in 1908. Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
[4]
in 1926 "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter".

The many-body interactions that yield the Brownian pattern cannot be solved by a
model accounting for every involved molecule. Consequently, only probabilistic models
[5]
applied to molecular populations can be employed to describe it. Two such models of
the statistical mechanics, due to Einstein and Smoluchowski, are presented below.
Another, pure probabilistic class of models is the class of the stochastic process
models. There exist sequences of both simpler and more complicated stochastic
processes which converge (in the limit) to Brownian motion (see random walk and
[6][7]
Donsker's theorem).

History[edit]
 Reproduced from the book of Jean Baptiste Perrin, Les Atomes, three tracings of the motion of
colloidal particles of radius 0.53 μm, as seen under the microscope, are displayed. Successive
[8]
positions every 30 seconds are joined by straight line segments (the mesh size is 3.2 μm).

The Roman philosopher-poet Lucretius' scientific poem "On the Nature of Things" (c. 60
BC) has a remarkable description of the motion of dust particles in verses 113–140
from Book II. He uses this as a proof of the existence of atoms:

Observe what happens when sunbeams are admitted into a building and shed light on
its shadowy places. You will see a multitude of tiny particles mingling in a multitude of
ways... their dancing is an actual indication of underlying movements of matter that are
hidden from our sight... It originates with the atoms which move of themselves [i.e.,
spontaneously]. Then those small compound bodies that are least removed from the
impetus of the atoms are set in motion by the impact of their invisible blows and in turn
cannon against slightly larger bodies. So the movement mounts up from the atoms and
gradually emerges to the level of our senses so that those bodies are in motion that we
see in sunbeams, moved by blows that remain invisible.

Although the mingling, tumbling motion of dust particles is caused largely by air
currents, the glittering, jiggling motion of small dust particles is caused chiefly by true
Brownian dynamics; Lucretius "perfectly describes and explains the Brownian
[9]
movement by a wrong example".

While Jan Ingenhousz described the irregular motion of coal dust particles on the
surface of alcohol in 1785, the discovery of this phenomenon is often credited to the
botanist Robert Brown in 1827. Brown was studying pollen grains of the plant Clarkia
pulchella suspended in water under a microscope when he observed minute particles,
ejected by the pollen grains, executing a jittery motion. By repeating the experiment
with particles of inorganic matter he was able to rule out that the motion was life-related,
although its origin was yet to be explained.

The first person to describe the mathematics behind Brownian motion was Thorvald N.
Thiele in a paper on the method of least squares published in 1880. This was followed
independently by Louis Bachelier in 1900 in his PhD thesis "The theory of speculation",
in which he presented a stochastic analysis of the stock and option markets. The
Brownian motion model of the stock market is often cited, but Benoit Mandelbrot
rejected its applicability to stock price movements in part because these are
[10]
discontinuous.

Albert Einstein (in one of his 1905 papers) and Marian Smoluchowski (1906) brought
the solution of the problem to the attention of physicists, and presented it as a way to
indirectly confirm the existence of atoms and molecules. Their equations describing
Brownian motion were subsequently verified by the experimental work of Jean Baptiste
Perrin in 1908.

Statistical mechanics theories[edit]

Einstein's theory[edit]

There are two parts to Einstein's theory: the first part consists in the formulation of a
diffusion equation for Brownian particles, in which the diffusion coefficient is related to
the mean squared displacement of a Brownian particle, while the second part consists
[11]
in relating the diffusion coefficient to measurable physical quantities. In this way
Einstein was able to determine the size of atoms, and how many atoms there are in a
[12]
mole, or the molecular weight in grams, of a gas. In accordance to Avogadro's law,
this volume is the same for all ideal gases, which is 22.414 liters at standard
temperature and pressure. The number of atoms contained in this volume is referred to
as the Avogadro number, and the determination of this number is tantamount to the
knowledge of the mass of an atom, since the latter is obtained by dividing the molar
mass of the gas by the Avogadro constant.

The characteristic bell-shaped curves of the diffusion of Brownian particles. The distribution
begins as a Dirac delta function, indicating that all the particles are located at the origin at time t
= 0. As t increases, the distribution flattens (though remains bell-shaped), and ultimately
becomes uniform in the limit that time goes to infinity.
The first part of Einstein's argument was to determine how far a Brownian particle
[3]
travels in a given time interval. Classical mechanics is unable to determine this
distance because of the enormous number of bombardments a Brownian particle will
14 [2]
undergo, roughly of the order of 10 collisions per second.

He regarded the increment of particle positions in time

in a one-dimensional (x) space (with the coordinates chosen so that the origin lies at
the initial position of the particle) as a random variable (

) with some probability density function

φ(q)

(i.e.,

φ(q)

is the probability density for a jump of magnitude

, i.e., the probability density of the particle incrementing its position from

to

x+q

in the time interval

τ
 ). Further, assuming conservation of particle number, he expanded the number density

ρ(x,t+τ)

(number of particles per unit volume around

) at time

t+τ

in a Taylor series,

ρ(x,t+τ)=ρ(x,t)+τ∂ρ(x,t)∂t+⋯
=∫−∞∞ρ(x−q,t)φ(q)dq=Eq[ρ(x−q,t)]=ρ(x,t)∫−∞∞φ(q)dq−∂ρ∂x∫−∞∞qφ(q)
dq+∂2ρ∂x2∫−∞∞q22φ(q)dq+⋯=ρ(x,t)⋅1−0+∂2ρ∂x2∫−∞∞q22φ(q)dq+⋯

where the second equality is by definition of

. The integral in the first term is equal to one by the definition of probability, and the
second and other even terms (i.e. first and other odd moments) vanish because of
space symmetry. What is left gives rise to the following relation:

∂ρ∂t=∂2ρ∂x2⋅∫−∞∞q22τφ(q)dq+higher-order even moments.

 Where the coefficient
after the Laplacian, the second moment of probability of displacement

, is interpreted as mass diffusivity D:

D=∫−∞∞q22τφ(q)dq.

Then the density of Brownian particles ρ at point x at time t

satisfies the diffusion equation:

∂ρ∂t=D⋅∂2ρ∂x2,

Assuming that N particles start from the origin at the initial time t = 0, the diffusion
equation has the solution

ρ(x,t)=N4πDtexp⁡(−x24Dt).

This expression (which is a normal distribution with

the mean

μ=0

and variance

σ2=2Dt

usually called Brownian motion

Bt

) allowed Einstein to calculate the moments directly. The first moment is seen to
vanish, meaning that the Brownian particle is equally likely to move to the left as it is to
move to the right. The second moment is, however, non-vanishing, being given by

E[x2]=2Dt.

This equation expresses the mean squared displacement in terms of the

time elapsed and the diffusivity. From this expression Einstein argued that the
displacement of a Brownian particle is not proportional to the elapsed time, but rather to
[11]
its square root. His argument is based on a conceptual switch from the "ensemble"
of Brownian particles to the "single" Brownian particle: we can speak of the relative
number of particles at a single instant just as well as of the time it takes a Brownian
[13]
particle to reach a given point.

The second part of Einstein's theory relates the diffusion constant to physically
measurable quantities, such as the mean squared displacement of a particle in a given
time interval. This result enables the experimental determination of the Avogadro
number and therefore the size of molecules. Einstein analyzed a dynamic equilibrium
being established between opposing forces. The beauty of his argument is that the final
result does not depend upon which forces are involved in setting up the dynamic
equilibrium.

In his original treatment, Einstein considered an osmotic pressure experiment, but the
same conclusion can be reached in other ways.

Consider, for instance, particles suspended in a viscous fluid in a gravitational field.

Gravity tends to make the particles settle, whereas diffusion acts to homogenize them,
driving them into regions of smaller concentration. Under the action of gravity, a particle
acquires a downward speed of v = μmg, where m is the mass of the particle, g is the
acceleration due to gravity, and μ is the particle's mobility in the fluid. George Stokes
had shown that the mobility for a spherical particle with radius r is

μ=16πηr

, where η is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. In a state of dynamic

equilibrium, and under the hypothesis of isothermal fluid, the particles are distributed
according to the barometric distribution
 ρ=ρoexp⁡(−mghkBT),

where ρ − ρo is the difference in density of particles separated

by a height difference, of

h=z−zo

, kB is the Boltzmann constant (the ratio of the universal gas constant, R, to

the Avogadro constant, NA), and T is the absolute temperature.

Perrin examined the equilibrium (barometric distribution) of granules (0.6 microns) of gamboge,
a viscous substance, under the microscope. The granules move against gravity to regions of
lower concentration. The relative change in density observed in 10 microns of suspension is
equivalent to that occurring in 6 km of air.

Dynamic equilibrium is established because the more that particles are pulled down by
gravity, the greater the tendency for the particles to migrate to regions of lower
concentration. The flux is given by Fick's law,

J=−Ddρdh,

where J = ρv. Introducing the formula for ρ, we find that

v=DmgkBT.
In a state of dynamical equilibrium, this speed must also be equal to v = μmg. Both
expressions for v are proportional to mg, reflecting that the derivation is independent of
the type of forces considered. Similarly, one can derive an equivalent formula for
identical charged particles of charge q in a uniform electric field of magnitude E, where
mg is replaced with the electrostatic force qE. Equating these two expressions yields
the Einstein relation for the diffusivity, independent of mg or qE or other such forces:

E[x2]2t=D=μkBT=μRTNA=RT6πηrNA.

Here the first equality follows from the

first part of Einstein's theory, the third equality follows from the definition of the
Boltzmann constant as kB = R / NA, and the fourth equality follows from Stokes's
formula for the mobility. By measuring the mean squared displacement over a time
interval along with the universal gas constant R, the temperature T, the viscosity η, and
the particle radius r, the Avogadro constant NA can be determined.

The type of dynamical equilibrium proposed by Einstein was not new. It had been
[14]
pointed out previously by J. J. Thomson in his series of lectures at Yale University in
May 1903 that the dynamic equilibrium between the velocity generated by a
concentration gradient given by Fick's law and the velocity due to the variation of the
partial pressure caused when ions are set in motion "gives us a method of determining
Avogadro's Constant which is independent of any hypothesis as to the shape or size of
[14]
molecules, or of the way in which they act upon each other".

An identical expression to Einstein's formula for the diffusion coefficient was also found
[15]
by Walther Nernst in 1888 in which he expressed the diffusion coefficient as the ratio
of the osmotic pressure to the ratio of the frictional force and the velocity to which it
gives rise. The former was equated to the law of van 't Hoff while the latter was given by
Stokes's law. He writes

k′=po/k

for the diffusion coefficient k′, where

po

is the osmotic pressure and k is the ratio of the frictional force to the molecular
viscosity which he assumes is given by Stokes's formula for the viscosity. Introducing
the ideal gas law per unit volume for the osmotic pressure, the formula becomes
[16]
identical to that of Einstein's. The use of Stokes's law in Nernst's case, as well as in
Einstein and Smoluchowski, is not strictly applicable since it does not apply to the case
[17]
where the radius of the sphere is small in comparison with the mean free path.

At first, the predictions of Einstein's formula were seemingly refuted by a series of

experiments by Svedberg in 1906 and 1907, which gave displacements of the particles
as 4 to 6 times the predicted value, and by Henri in 1908 who found displacements 3
[18]
times greater than Einstein's formula predicted. But Einstein's predictions were finally
confirmed in a series of experiments carried out by Chaudesaigues in 1908 and Perrin
in 1909. The confirmation of Einstein's theory constituted empirical progress for the
kinetic theory of heat. In essence, Einstein showed that the motion can be predicted
directly from the kinetic model of thermal equilibrium. The importance of the theory lay
in the fact that it confirmed the kinetic theory's account of the second law of
[19]
thermodynamics as being an essentially statistical law.

Duration: 1 minute and 53 seconds.

1:53

Brownian motion model of the trajectory of a particle of dye in water.

Smoluchowski model[edit]

[20]
Smoluchowski's theory of Brownian motion starts from the same premise as that of
Einstein and derives the same probability distribution ρ(x, t) for the displacement of a
Brownian particle along the x in time t. He therefore gets the same expression for the
mean squared displacement:

E[(Δx)2]

. However, when he relates it to a particle of mass m moving at a velocity u

which is the result of a frictional force governed by Stokes's law, he finds

E[(Δx)2]=2Dt=t3281mu2πμa=t642712mu23πμa,
 where μ is the viscosity coefficient,
and a is the radius of the particle. Associating the kinetic energy

mu2/2

with the thermal energy RT/N, the expression for the mean squared
displacement is 64/27 times that found by Einstein. The fraction 27/64 was commented
on by Arnold Sommerfeld in his necrology on Smoluchowski: "The numerical coefficient
[21]
of Einstein, which differs from Smoluchowski by 27/64 can only be put in doubt."

[22]
Smoluchowski attempts to answer the question of why a Brownian particle should be
displaced by bombardments of smaller particles when the probabilities for striking it in
the forward and rear directions are equal. If the probability of m gains and n − m
losses follows a binomial distribution,

Pm,n=(nm)2−n,

with equal a priori probabilities of 1/2, the mean total gain is

E[2m−n]=∑m=n2n(2m−n)Pm,n=nn!2n[(n2)!]2.

ure radius and the distance from the focal point, respectively.[11]

The concept of the dimensionality of space, first proposed by Immanuel Kant, is an

[12]
ongoing topic of debate in relation to the inverse-square law. Dimitria Electra Gatzia
and Rex D. Ramsier, in their 2021 paper, argue that the inverse-square law pertains
[12]
more to the symmetry in force distribution than to the dimensionality of space.
Within the realm of non-Euclidean geometries and general relativity, deviations from the
inverse-square law might not stem from the law itself but rather from the assumption
that the force between bodies depends instantaneously on distance, contradicting
special relativity. General relativity instead interprets gravity as a distortion of
spacetime, causing freely falling particles to traverse geodesics in this curved
[13]
spacetime.

History[edit]
John Dumbleton of the 14th-century Oxford Calculators, was one of the first to express
functional relationships in graphical form. He gave a proof of the mean speed theorem
stating that "the latitude of a uniformly difform movement corresponds to the degree of
the midpoint" and used this method to study the quantitative decrease in intensity of
illumination in his Summa logicæ et philosophiæ naturalis (ca. 1349), stating that it was
not linearly proportional to the distance, but was unable to expose the Inverse-square
[14]
law.

German astronomer Johannes Kepler discussed the inverse-square law and how it affects the
intensity of light.
In proposition 9 of Book 1 in his book Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae
pars optica traditur (1604), the astronomer Johannes Kepler argued that the spreading
[15][16]
of light from a point source obeys an inverse square law:

Sicut se Just as [the ratio

habent of] spherical
spharicae surfaces, for
superificies, which the
quibus origo source of light is
lucis pro centro the center, [is]
est, amplior ad from the wider to
angustiorem: the narrower, so
ita se habet the density or
fortitudo seu fortitude of the
densitas lucis rays of light in
radiorum in the narrower
angustiori, ad [space], towards
illamin in laxiori the more
sphaerica, hoc spacious
est, conversim. spherical
Nam per 6. 7. surfaces, that is,
tantundem inversely. For
lucis est in according to
angustiori [propositions] 6
sphaerica & 7, there is as
superficie, much light in the
quantum in narrower
fusiore, tanto spherical
ergo illie surface, as in
stipatior & the wider, thus it
densior quam is as much more
 hic. compressed and
dense here than
there.

In 1645, in his book Astronomia Philolaica ..., the French astronomer Ismaël Bullialdus
[17]
(1605–1694) refuted Johannes Kepler's suggestion that "gravity" weakens as the
inverse of the distance; instead, Bullialdus argued, "gravity" weakens as the inverse
[18][19]
square of the distance:

Virtus autem As for the

illa, qua Sol power by which
prehendit seu the Sun seizes
harpagat or holds the
planetas, planets, and
corporalis quae which, being
ipsi pro manibus corporeal,
est, lineis rectis functions in the
in omnem manner of
mundi hands, it is
amplitudinem emitted in
emissa quasi straight lines
species solis throughout the
cum illius whole extent of
corpore rotatur: the world, and
cum ergo sit like the species
corporalis of the Sun, it
imminuitur, & turns with the
 extenuatur in body of the
maiori spatio & Sun; now,
intervallo, ratio seeing that it is
autem huius corporeal, it
imminutionis becomes
eadem est, ac weaker and
luminus, in attenuated at a
ratione nempe greater
dupla distance or
intervallorum, interval, and
sed eversa. the ratio of its
decrease in
strength is the
same as in the
case of light,
namely, the
duplicate
proportion, but
inversely, of
the distances
[that is, 1/d²].

In England, the Anglican bishop Seth Ward (1617–1689) publicized the ideas of
Bullialdus in his critique In Ismaelis Bullialdi astronomiae philolaicae fundamenta
inquisitio brevis (1653) and publicized the planetary astronomy of Kepler in his book
Astronomia geometrica (1656).

In 1663–1664, the English scientist Robert Hooke was writing his book Micrographia
(1666) in which he discussed, among other things, the relation between the height of
the atmosphere and the barometric pressure at the surface. Since the atmosphere
surrounds the Earth, which itself is a sphere, the volume of atmosphere bearing on any
unit area of the Earth's surface is a truncated cone (which extends from the Earth's
center to the vacuum of space; obviously only the section of the cone from the Earth's

surface Waveguide
29 languages

Article
Talk

Read
Edit
View history

Tools

Appearance hide

Text

Small
Standard
Large

Width

Standard
Wide

Color (beta)

Automatic
Light
 Dark
Report an issue with dark mode

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An example of a waveguide: A section of flexible waveguide used for RADAR that has a flange.

Electric field Ex component of the TE31 mode inside an x-band hollow metal waveguide.

A waveguide is a structure that guides waves by restricting the transmission of energy

to one direction. Common types of waveguides include acoustic waveguides which
direct sound, optical waveguides which direct light, and radio-frequency waveguides
which direct electromagnetic waves other than light like radio waves.

Without the physical constraint of a waveguide, waves would expand into three-
dimensional space and their intensities would decrease according to the inverse square
law.
There are different types of waveguides for different types of waves. The original and
most common meaning is a hollow conductive metal pipe used to carry high frequency
[1]
radio waves, particularly microwaves. Dielectric waveguides are used at higher radio
frequencies, and transparent dielectric waveguides and optical fibers serve as
waveguides for light. In acoustics, air ducts and horns are used as waveguides for
sound in musical instruments and loudspeakers, and specially-shaped metal rods
conduct ultrasonic waves in ultrasonic machining.

The geometry of a waveguide reflects its function; in addition to more common types
that channel the wave in one dimension, there are two-dimensional slab waveguides
which confine waves to two dimensions. The frequency of the transmitted wave also
dictates the size of a waveguide: each waveguide has a cutoff wavelength determined
by its size and will not conduct waves of greater wavelength; an optical fiber that guides
light will not transmit microwaves which have a much larger wavelength. Some naturally
occurring structures can also act as waveguides. The SOFAR channel layer in the
[2]
ocean can guide the sound of whale song across enormous distances. Any shape of
cross section of waveguide can support EM waves. Irregular shapes are difficult to
analyse. Commonly used waveguides are rectangular and circular in shape.

Uses[edit]

Waveguide supplying power for the Argonne National Laboratory Advanced Photon Source.
The uses of waveguides for transmitting signals were known even before the term was
coined. The phenomenon of sound waves guided through a taut wire have been known
for a long time, as well as sound through a hollow pipe such as a cave or medical
stethoscope. Other uses of waveguides are in transmitting power between the
components of a system such as radio, radar or optical devices. Waveguides are the
fundamental principle of guided wave testing (GWT), one of the many methods of non-
[3]
destructive evaluation.

Specific examples:

● Optical fibers transmit light and signals for long distances with low attenuation
and a wide usable range of wavelengths.
● In a microwave oven a waveguide transfers power from the magnetron,
where waves are formed, to the cooking chamber.
● In a radar, a waveguide transfers radio frequency energy to and from the
antenna, where the impedance needs to be matched for efficient power
transmission (see below).
● Rectangular and circular waveguides are commonly used to connect feeds of
parabolic dishes to their electronics, either low-noise receivers or power
amplifier/transmitters.
● Waveguides are used in scientific instruments to measure optical, acoustic
and elastic properties of materials and objects. The waveguide can be put in
contact with the specimen (as in a medical ultrasonography), in which case
the waveguide ensures that the power of the testing wave is conserved, or
the specimen may be put inside the waveguide (as in a dielectric constant
measurement, so that smaller objects can be tested and the accuracy is
[4]
better.
[5]
● A transmission line is a commonly used specific type of waveguide.

History[edit]
 This section
duplicates the
scope of other
articles,
specifically
Waveguide
(electromagnetis
m)#History.
Please discuss
this issue and
help introduce a
summary style
to the section by
replacing the
section with a
link and a
summary or by
splitting the
content into a
new article.
(November
2020)

The first structure for guiding waves was proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1893, and was
first experimentally tested by Oliver Lodge in 1894. The first mathematical analysis of
[6]: 8
electromagnetic waves in a metal cylinder was performed by Lord Rayleigh in 1897.
For sound waves, Lord Rayleigh published a full mathematical analysis of propagation
[7]
modes in his seminal work, "The Theory of Sound". Jagadish Chandra Bose
researched millimeter wavelengths using waveguides, and in 1897 described to the
[8][9]
Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata.
The study of dielectric waveguides (such as optical fibers, see below) began as early as
the 1920s, by several people, most famous of which are Rayleigh, Sommerfeld and
[10]
Debye. Optical fiber began to receive special attention in the 1960s due to its
importance to the communications industry.

The development of radio communication initially occurred at the lower frequencies

because these could be more easily propagated over large distances. The long
wavelengths made these frequencies unsuitable for use in hollow metal waveguides
because of the impractically large diameter tubes required. Consequently, research into
hollow metal waveguides stalled and the work of Lord Rayleigh was forgotten for a time
and had to be rediscovered by others. Practical investigations resumed in the 1930s by
George C. Southworth at Bell Labs and Wilmer L. Barrow at MIT. Southworth at first
took the theory from papers on waves in dielectric rods because the work of Lord
Rayleigh was unknown to him. This misled him somewhat; some of his experiments
failed because he was not aware of the phenomenon of waveguide cutoff frequency
already found in Lord Rayleigh's work. Serious theoretical work was taken up by John

R. Carson and Sallie P. Mead. This work led to the discovery that for the TE01 mode in
circular waveguide losses go down with frequency and at one time this was a serious
[11]: 544–548
contender for the format for long-distance telecommunications.

The importance of radar in World War II gave a great impetus to waveguide research,
at least on the Allied side. The magnetron, developed in 1940 by John Randall and
Harry Boot at the University of Birmingham in the UnitContents hide

(Top)
Vs monocrystalline silicon
Components

Toggle Components subsection

Feedstock for PV industry

Deposition methods
 Toggle Deposition methods subsection

Siemens process

Upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon

Potential applications
Novel ideas
Manufacturers

Toggle Manufacturers subsection

Capacity
Leading producers
Price

Dumping
Waste

See also
References
External links

Polycrystalline
silicon
18 languages

Article
Talk
 Read
Edit
View history

Tools

Appearance hide

Text

Small
Standard
Large

Width

Standard
Wide

Color (beta)

Automatic
Light
Dark
Report an issue with dark mode

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

T
h
i
s

a
r
t
i
c
l
e

n
e
e
d
s

t
o

b
e

u
p
d
a
t
e
d
.

T
h
e
r
e
a
s
o
n

g
i
v
e
n

i
s
:

i
n
d
u
s
t
r
y

a
n
d

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

f
i
g
u
r
e
s
,

i
n

p
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
r
,
a
r
e

v
e
r
y

o
u
t

o
f

d
a
t
e
.

P
l
e
a
s
e

h
e
l
p

u
p
d
a
t
e

t
h
i
s

a
r
t
i
c
l
e

t
o

r
e
f
l
e
c
t

r
e
c
e
n
t

e
v
e
n
t
s

o
r

n
e
w
l
y

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n
.

(
J
u
n
e

2
0
2
4
)
 Left side: solar cells made of polycrystalline silicon Right side: polysilicon rod (top) and chunks
(bottom)

Polycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline silicon, also called polysilicon, poly-Si,

or mc-Si, is a high purity, polycrystalline form of silicon, used as a raw material by the
solar photovoltaic and electronics industry.

Polysilicon is produced from metallurgical grade silicon by a chemical purification

process, called the Siemens process. This process involves distillation of volatile silicon
compounds, and their decomposition into silicon at high temperatures. An emerging,
alternative process of refinement uses a fluidized bed reactor. The photovoltaic industry
also produces upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si), using metallurgical
[1]
instead of chemical purification processes. When produced for the electronics
industry, polysilicon contains impurity levels of less than one part per billion (ppb), while
polycrystalline solar grade silicon (SoG-Si) is generally less pure. A few companies
from China, Germany, Japan, Korea and the United States, such as GCL-Poly, Wacker
Chemie, Tokuyama, OCI, and Hemlock Semiconductor, as well as the Norwegian
headquartered REC, accounted for most of the worldwide production of about 230,000
[2]
tonnes in 2013.

The polysilicon feedstock – large rods, usually broken into chunks of specific sizes and
packaged in clean rooms before shipment – is directly cast into multicrystalline ingots or
submitted to a recrystallization process to grow single crystal boules. The boules are
then sliced into thin silicon wafers and used for the production of solar cells, integrated
circuits and other semiconductor devices.

Polysilicon consists of small crystals, also known as crystallites, giving the material its
typical metal flake effect. While polysilicon and multisilicon are often used as synonyms,
multicrystalline usually refers to crystals larger than one millimetre. Multicrystalline solar
cells are the most common type of solar cells in the fast-growing PV market and
consume most of the worldwide produced polysilicon. About 5 tons of polysilicon is
[3][citation
required to manufacture one 1 megawatt (MW) of conventional solar modules.
needed]
Polysilicon is distinct from monocrystalline silicon and amorphous silicon.

Vs monocrystalline silicon[edit]

Comparing polycrystalline (left) to monocrystalline (right) solar cells

In single-crystal silicon, also known as monocrystalline silicon, the crystalline framework

[4]
is homogeneous, which can be recognized by an even external colouring. The entire
sample is one single, continuous and unbroken crystal as its structure contains no grain
boundaries. Large single crystals are rare in nature and can also be difficult to produce
in the laboratory (see also recrystallisation). In contrast, in an amorphous structure the
order in atomic positions is limited to short range.
Polycrystalline and paracrystalline phases are composed of a number of smaller
crystals or crystallites. Polycrystalline silicon (or semi-crystalline silicon, polysilicon,
poly-Si, or simply "poly") is a material consisting of multiple small silicon crystals.
Polycrystalline cells can be recognized by a visible grain, a "metal flake effect".
Semiconductor grade (also solar grade) polycrystalline silicon is converted to single-
crystal silicon – meaning that the randomly associated crystallites of silicon in
polycrystalline silicon are converted to a large single crystal. Single-crystal silicon is
used to manufacture most Si-based microelectronic devices. Polycrystalline silicon can
[5]
be as much as 99.9999% pure. Ultra-pure poly is used in the semiconductor industry,
starting from poly rods that are two to three meters in length. In the microelectronics
industry (semiconductor industry), poly is used at both the macro and micro scales.
Single crystals are grown using the Czochralski, zone melting and Bridgman–
Stockbarger methods.

Components[edit]

Th
is
se
cti
on
do
es
no
t
cit
e
an
y
so
ur
ce
s.
Pl
ea
se
hel
p
im
pr
ov
e
thi
s
se
cti
on
by
ad
din
g
cit
ati
on
s
to
reli
abl
e
so
ur
ce
s.
Un
so
ur
ce
d
m
at
eri
al
m
ay
be
ch
all
en
ge
d
an
d
re
m
ov
ed
.
(J
an
ua
ry
20
14
)
(Le
arn
 ho
w
and
wh
en
to
re
mo
ve
this
me
ssa
ge)

A rod of semiconductor-grade polysilicon

At the component level, polysilicon has long been used as the conducting gate material
in MOSFET and CMOS processing technologies. For these technologies it is deposited
using low-pressure chemical-vapour deposition (LPCVD) reactors at high temperatures
and is usually heavily doped n-type or p-type.
More recently, intrinsic and doped polysilicon is being used in large-area electronics as
the active and/or doped layers in thin-film transistors. Although it can be deposited by
LPCVD, plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD), or solid-phase
crystallization of amorphous silicon in certain processing regimes, these processes still
require relatively high temperatures of at least 300 °C. These temperatures make
deposition of polysilicon possible for glass substrates but not for plastic substrates.

The deposition of polycrystalline silicon on plastic substrates is motivated by the desire

to be able to manufacture digital displays on flexible screens. Therefore, a relatively
new technique called laser crystallization has been devised to crystallize a precursor
amorphous silicon (a-Si) material on a plastic substrate without melting or damaging the
plastic. Short, high-intensity ultraviolet laser pulses are used to heat the deposited a-Si
material to above the melting point of silicon, without melting the entire substrate.

Polycrystalline silicon (used to produce silicon monocrystals by Czochralski process)

The molten silicon will then crystallize as it cools. By precisely controlling the
temperature gradients, researchers have been able to grow very large grains, of up to
hundreds of micrometers in size in the extreme case, although grain sizes of 10
nanometers to 1 micrometer are also common. In order to create devices on polysilicon
over large-areas, however, a crystal grain size smaller than the device feature size is
needed for homogeneity of the devices. Another method to produce poly-Si at low
temperatures is metal-induced crystallization where an amorphous-Si thin film can be
crystallized at temperatures as low as 150 °C if annealed while in contact of another
metal film such as aluminium, gold, or silver.

Polysilicon has many applications in VLSI manufacturing. One of its primary uses is as
gate electrode material for MOS devices. A polysilicon gate's electrical conductivity may
be increased by depositing a metal (such as tungsten) or a metal silicide (such as
tungsten silicide) over the gate. Polysilicon may also be employed as a resistor, a
conductor, or as an ohmic contact for shallow junctions, with the desired electrical
conductivity attained by doping the polysilicon material.

One major difference between polysilicon and a-Si is that the mobility of the charge
carriers of the polysilicon can be orders of magnitude larger and the material also
shows greater stability under electric field and light-induced stress. This allows more
complex, high-speed circuitry to be created on the glass substrate along with the a-Si
devices, which are still needed for their low-leakage characteristics. When polysilicon
and a-Si devices are used in the same process, this is called hybrid processing. A
complete polysilicon active layer process is also used in some cases where a small
pixel size is required, such as in projection displays.

Feedstock for PV industry[edit]

Main article: Crystalline silicon

Polycrystalline silicon is the key feedstock in the crystalline silicon based photovoltaic
industry and used for the production of conventional solar cells. For the first time, in
2006, over half of the world's supply of polysilicon was being used by PV
[6]
manufacturers. The solar industry was severely hindered by a shortage in supply of
polysilicon feedstock and was forced to idle about a quarter of its cell and module
[7]
manufacturing capacity in 2007. Only twelve factories were known to produce solar-
grade polysilicon in 2008; however, by 2013 the number increased to over 100
[8]
manufacturers. Monocrystalline silicon is higher priced and a more efficient
semiconductor than polycrystalline as it has undergone additional recrystallization via
the Czochralski method.

Deposition methods[edit]
Polysilicon deposition, or the process of depositing a layer of polycrystalline silicon on a

semiconductor wafer, is achieved by the chemical decomposition of silane (SiH4) at

high temperatures of 580 to 650 °C. This pyrolysis process releases hydrogen.

SiH
4(g) → Si(s) + 2 H
[9]
2(g) CVD at 500-800°C

Polysilicon layers can be deposited using 100% silane at a pressure of 25–130 Pa

(0.19–0.98 Torr) or with 20–30% silane (diluted in nitrogen) at the same total pressure.
Both of these processes can deposit polysilicon on 10–200 wafers per run, at a rate of
10–20 nm/min and with thickness uniformities of ±5%. Critical process variables for
polysilicon deposition include temperature, pressure, silane concentration, and dopant
concentration. Wafer spacing and load size have been shown to have only minor
effects on the deposition process. The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly
with temperature, since it follows Arrhenius behavior, that is deposition rate = A·exp(–

qEa/kT) where q is electron charge and k is the Boltzmann constant. The activation

energy (Ea) for polysilicon deposition is about 1.7 eV. Based on this equation, the rate
of polysilicon deposition increases as the deposition temperature increases. There will
be a minimum temperature, however, wherein the rate of deposition becomes faster
than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives at the surface. Beyond this temperature,
the deposition rate can no longer increase with temperature, since it is now being
hampered by lack of silane from which the polysilicon will be generated. Such a
reaction is then said to be "mass-transport-limited". When a polysilicon deposition
process becomes mass-transport-limited, the reaction rate becomes dependent
primarily on reactant concentration, reactor geometry, and gas flow.

When the rate at which polysilicon deposition occurs is slower than the rate at which
unreacted silane arrives, then it is said to be surface-reaction-limited. A deposition
process that is surface-reaction-limited is primarily dependent on reactant concentration
and reaction temperature. Deposition processes must be surface-reaction-limited
because they result in excellent thickness uniformity and step coverage. A plot of the
logarithm of the deposition rate against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature in the

surface-reaction-limited region results in a straight line whose slope is equal to –qE a/k.

At reduced pressure levels for VLSI manufacturing, polysilicon deposition rate below
575 °C is too slow to be practical. Above 650 °C, poor deposition uniformity and
excessive roughness will be encountered due to unwanted gas-phase reactions and
silane depletion. Pressure can be varied inside a low-pressure reactor either by
changing the pumping speed or changing the inlet gas flow into the reactor. If the inlet
gas is composed of both silane and nitrogen, the inlet gas flow, and hence the reactor
pressure, may be varied either by changing the nitrogen flow at constant silane flow, or
changing both the nitrogen and silane flow to change the total gas flow while keeping
the gas ratio constant. Recent investigations have shown that e-beam evaporation,
followed by SPC (if needed) can be a cost-effective and faster alternative for producing
[10]
solar-grade poly-Si thin films. Modules produced by such method are shown to have
[11]
a photovoltaic efficiency of ~6%.

Polysilicon doping, if needed, is also done during the deposition pro

|V|min/max

are the minimum andContents hide

 (Top)
History
Composition
Operation

Toggle Operation subsection

Circuit symbols
Applications

Toggle Applications subsection

Construction

Toggle Construction subsection

Scaling

Toggle Scaling subsection

Other types

Toggle Other types subsection

See also
References
External links

MOSFET
45 languages

Article
Talk
 Read
Edit
View history

Tools

Appearance hide

Text

Small
Standard
Large

Width

Standard
Wide

Color (beta)

Automatic
Light
Dark
Report an issue with dark mode

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET)

 Two power MOSFETs in D2PAK surface-mount packages. Operating as switches, each of these
components can sustain a blocking voltage of 120 V in the off state, and can conduct a conti-
nuous current of 30 A in the on state, dissipating up to about 100 W and controlling a load of
over 2000 W. A matchstick is pictured for scale.

In electronics, the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET,

MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a type of field-effect transistor (FET), most commonly
fabricated by the controlled oxidation of silicon. It has an insulated gate, the voltage of
which determines the conductivity of the device. This ability to change conductivity with
the amount of applied voltage can be used for amplifying or switching electronic signals.
The term metal–insulator–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MISFET) is almost
synonymous with MOSFET. Another near-synonym is insulated-gate field-effect
transistor (IGFET).

The basic principle of the field-effect transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar
[1]
Lilienfeld in 1925.

The main advantage of a MOSFET is that it requires almost no input current to control
the load current, when compared to bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). In an
enhancement mode MOSFET, voltage applied to the gate terminal increases the
conductivity of the device. In depletion mode transistors, voltage applied at the gate
[2]
reduces the conductivity.
The "metal" in the name MOSFET is sometimes a misnomer, because the gate material
can be a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Similarly, "oxide" in the name can
also be a misnomer, as different dielectric materials are used with the aim of obtaining
strong channels with smaller applied voltages.

The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in digital circuits, as billions may be
included in a memory chip or microprocessor. Since MOSFETs can be made with either
p-type or n-type semiconductors, complementary pairs of MOS transistors can be used
to make switching circuits with very low power consumption, in the form of CMOS logic.

A cross-section through an nMOSFET when the gate voltage VGS is below the threshold for
making a conductive channel; there is little or no conduction between the terminals drain and
source; the switch is off. When the gate is more positive, it attracts electrons, inducing an n-type
conductive channel in the substrate below the oxide (yellow), which allows electrons to flow
between the n-doped terminals; the switch is on.

Simulation of formation of inversion channel (electron density) and attainment of threshold vol-
tage (IV) in a nanowire MOSFET. Note: Threshold voltage for this device lies around 0.45 V.
History[edit]
The basic principle of this kind of transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld
[1]
in 1925.

The structure resembling the MOS transistor was proposed by Bell scientists William
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, during their investigation that led
to discovery of the transistor effect. The structure failed to show the anticipated effects,
due to the problem of surface state: traps on the semiconductor surface that hold
electrons immobile. In 1955 Carl Frosch and L. Derick accidentally grew a layer of
silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer. Further research showed that silicon dioxide could
prevent dopants from diffusing into the silicon wafer. Building on this work Mohamed M.
Atalla showed that silicon dioxide is very effective in solving the problem of one
[3]
important class of surface states.

Following this research, Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng demonstrated in the 1960s
[4]
a device that had the structure of a modern MOS transistor. The principles behind the
device were the same as the ones that were tried by Bardeen, Shockley and Brattain in
their unsuccessful attempt to build a surface field-effect device.

The device was about 100 times slower than contemporary bipolar transistors and was
initially seen as inferior. Nevertheless, Kahng pointed out several advantages of the
[5]
device, notably ease of fabrication and its application in integrated circuits.

Composition[edit]
 Photomicrograph of two metal-gate MOSFETs in a test pattern. Probe pads for two gates and
three source/drain nodes are labeled.

Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon. Some chip manufacturers, most notably
IBM and Intel, use an alloy of silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels.
[citation needed]
Many semiconductors with better electrical properties than silicon, such as
gallium arsenide, do not form good semiconductor-to-insulator interfaces, and thus are
not suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues on creating insulators with acceptable
electrical characteristics on other semiconductor materials.

To overcome the increase in power consumption due to gate current leakage, a high-κ
dielectric is used instead of silicon dioxide for the gate insulator, while polysilicon is
[6]
replaced by metal gates (e.g. Intel, 2009).

The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer, traditionally of silicon
dioxide and later of silicon oxynitride. Some companies use a high-κ dielectric and
metal gate combination in the 45 nanometer node.

When a voltage is applied between the gate and the source, the electric field generated
penetrates through the oxide and creates an inversion layer or channel at the
semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion layer provides a channel through
which current can pass between source and drain terminals. Varying the voltage
between the gate and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and thereby controls
the current flow between drain and source. This is known as enhancement mode.
Operation[edit]

Metal–oxide–semiconductor structure on p-type silicon

Metal–oxide–semiconductor structure[edit]

The traditional metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained by growing a

layer of silicon dioxide (SiO
2) on top of a silicon substrate, commonly by thermal oxidation and depositing a layer of
metal or polycrystalline silicon (the latter is commonly used). As silicon dioxide is a
dielectric material, its structure is equivalent to a planar capacitor, with one of the
electrodes replaced by a semiconductor.

When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of

charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with NA the

density of acceptors, p the density of holes; p = NA in neutral bulk), a positive voltage,

VG, from gate to body (see figure) creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively
charged holes away from the gate-insulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a

carrier-free region of immobile, negatively charged acceptor ions (see doping). If VG is

high enough, a high concentration of negative charge carriers forms in an inversion
layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the semiconductor and the
insulator.
Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in the
inversion layer is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is called the

threshold voltage. When the voltage between transistor gate and source (VG) exceeds

the threshold voltage (Vth), the difference is known as overdrive voltage.

This structure with p-type body is the basis of the n-type MOSFET, which requires the
addition of n-type source and drain regions.

MOS capacitors and band diagrams[edit]

This section does not cite any sources.

Please help improve this section by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed.
(January 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this
message)

The MOS capacitor structure is the heart of the MOSFET. Consider a MOS capacitor
where the silicon base is of p-type. If a positive voltage is applied at the gate, holes
which are at the surface of the p-type substrate will be repelled by the electric field
generated by the voltage applied. At first, the holes will simply be repelled and what will
remain on the surface will be immobile (negative) atoms of the acceptor type, which
creates a depletion region on the surface. A hole is created by an acceptor atom, e.g.,
boron, which has one less electron than a silicon atom. Holes are not actually repelled,
being non-entities; electrons are attracted by the positive field, and fill these holes. This
creates a depletion region where no charge carriers exist because the electron is now
fixed onto the atom and immobile.

As the voltage at the gate increases, there will be a point at which the surface above
the depletion region will be converted from p-type into n-type, as electrons from the bulk
area will start to get attracted by the larger electric field. This is known as inversion. The
threshold voltage at which this conversion happens is one of the most important
parameters in a MOSFET.

In the case of a p-type MOSFET, bulk inversion happens when the intrinsic energy level
at the surface becomes smaller than the Fermi level at the surface. This can be seen on
a band diagram. The Fermi level defines the type of semiconductor in discussion. If the
Fermi level is equal to the Intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of intrinsic, or pure type.
If the Fermi level lies closer to the conduction band (valence band) then the
semiconductor type will be of n-type (p-type).

[clarify]
When the gate voltage is increased in a positive sense (for the given example),
this will shift the intrinsic energy level band so that it will curve downwards towards the
valence band. If the Fermi level lies closer to the valence band (for p-type), there will be
a point when the Intrinsic level will start to cross the Fermi level and when the voltage
reaches the threshold voltage, the intrinsic level does cross the Fermi level, and that is
what is known as inversion. At that point, the surface of the semiconductor is inverted
from p-type into n-type.

If the Fermi level lies above the intrinsic level, the semiconductor is of n-type, therefore
at inversion, when the intrinsic level reaches and crosses the Fermi level (which lies
closer to the valence band), the semiconductor type changes at the surface as dictated
by the relative positions of the Fermi and Intrinsic energy levels.

Structure and channel formation[edit]

See also: Field effect (semiconductor)

Channel formation in nMOS MOSFET shown as band diagram: Top panels: An applied gate
voltage bends bands, depleting holes from surface (left). The charge inducing the bending is
balanced by a layer of negative acceptor-ion charge (right). Bottom panel: A larger applied
voltage further depletes holes but conduction band lowers enough in energy to populate a
conducting channel.

C–V profile for a bulk MOSFET with different oxide thickness. The leftmost part of the curve
corresponds to accumulation. The valley in the middle corresponds to depletion. The curve on
the right corresponds to inversion.
A MOSFET is based on the modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance
between a body electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated
from all other device regions by a gate dielectric layer. If dielectrics other than an oxide
are employed, the device may be referred to as a metal-insulator-semiconductor FET
(MISFET). Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET includes two additional
terminals (source and drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are
separated by the body region. These regions can be either p or n type, but they must
both be of the same type, and of opposite type to the body region. The source and drain
(unlike the body) are highly doped as signified by a "+" sign after the type of doping.

If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are n+ regions
and the body is a p region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the
source and drain are p+ regions and the body is a n region. The source is so named
because it is the source of the charge carriers (electrons for n-channel, holes for p-
channel) that flow through the channel; similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers
leave the channel.

The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position of the
Fermi level relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges.

See also: Depletion region

With sufficient gate voltage, the valence band edge is driven far from the Fermi level,
and holes from the body are driven away from the gate.

At larger gate bias still, near the semiconductor surface the conduction band edge is
brought close to the Fermi level, populating the surface with electrons in an inversion
layer or n-channel at the interface between the p region and the oxide. This conducting
channel extends between the source and the drain, and current is conducted through it
when a voltage is applied between the two electrodes. Increasing the voltage on the
gate leads to a higher electron density in the inversion layer and therefore increases the
current flow between the source and drain. For gate voltages below the threshold value,
the channel is lightly populated, and only a very small subthreshold leakage current can
flow between the source and the drain.
When a negative gate-source voltage (positive source-gate) is applied, it creates a p-
channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel case, but with
opposite polarities of charges and voltages. When a voltage less negative than the
threshold value (a negative voltage for the p-channel) is applied between gate and
source, the channel disappears and only a very small subthreshold current can flow
between the source and the drain. The device may comprise a silicon on insulator
device in which a buried oxide is formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the
channel region between the gate dielectric and the buried oxide region is very thin, the
channel is referred to as an ultrathin channel region with the source and drain regions
formed on either side in or above the thin semiconductor layer. Other semiconductor
materials may be employed. When the source and drain regions are formed above the
channel in whole or in part, they are referred to as raised source/drain regions.

Parameter nMOSFET pMOSFET

Source/drain n-type p-type

type

Channel type n-type p-type

(MOS
capacitor)

G Polysilico n+ p+
n
 t
Metal φm ~ Si φm ~ Si
conduction valence band
band

Well type p-type n-type

Threshold Positive Negative

voltage, Vth (enhanc (enhanc

ement) ement)
Negative Positive
(depleti (depleti
on) on)

Band-bending Downwards Upwards

Inversion layer Electrons Holes

carriers

Substrate type p-type n-type

as earlier asserted. Along the line, the above expression for

|Vnet(x)|2

is seen to oscillate sinusoidally between

|Vmin|2

and

|Vmax|2

with a period of

2π

2k

. This is half of the guided wavelength λ =

2π

for the frequency f . That

[7][8]
following NSSL's research. In Canada, Environment Canada constructed the King
[9]
City station, with a 5 cm research Doppler radar, by 1985; McGill University
dopplerized its radar (J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory) in 1993. This led to a complete
[10]
Canadian Doppler network between 1998 and 2004. France and other European
countries had switched to Doppler networks by the early 2000s. Meanwhile, rapid
advances in computer technology led to algorithms to detect signs of severe weather,
and many applications for media outlets and researchers.
After 2000, research on dual polarization technology moved into operational use,
increasing the amount of information available on precipitation type (e.g. rain vs. snow).
"Dual polarization" means that microwave radiation which is polarized both horizontally
and vertically (with respect to the ground) is emitted. Wide-scale deployment was done
by the end of the decade or the beginning of the next in some countries such as the
[11]
United States, France, and Canada. In April 2013, all United States National Weather
[12]
Service NEXRADs were completely dual-polarized.

Since 2003, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has been
experimenting with phased-array radar as a replacement for conventional parabolic
antenna to provide more time resolution in atmospheric sounding. This could be
significant with severe thunderstorms, as their evolution can be better evaluated with
more timely data.

Also in 2003, the National Science Foundation established the Engineering Research

Center for Collaborative Adaptive Sensi Schottky

diode
37 languages

Article
Talk
Read

EditField-effect
transistor
47 languages
Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history
Tools
 Appearance hide

Text
Small
Standard
Large
Width
Standard
Wide
Color (beta)
Automatic
Light
Dark
Report an issue with dark mode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"FET" redirects here. For other uses, see FET (disambiguation).

Cross-sectional view of a field-effect transistor, showing source, gate and drain terminals

The field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor that uses an electric field to
control the flow of current in a semiconductor. It comes in two types: junction FET
(JFET) and metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET). FETs have three terminals:
source, gate, and drain. FETs control the flow of current by the application of a voltage
to the gate, which in turn alters the conductivity between the drain and source.

FETs are also known as unipolar transistors since they involve single-carrier-type
operation. That is, FETs use either electrons (n-channel) or holes (p-channel) as charge
carriers in their operation, but not both. Many different types of field effect transistors
exist. Field effect transistors generally display very high input impedance at low
frequencies. The most widely used field-effect transistor is the MOSFET (metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor).

History[edit]
Further information: History of the transistor

Julius Edgar Lilienfeld, who proposed the concept of a field-effect transistor in 1925.

The concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) was first patented by the Austro-Hungarian
[1]
born physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925 and by Oskar Heil in 1934, but they were
unable to build a working practical semiconducting device based on the concept. The
transistor effect was later observed and explained by John Bardeen and Walter Houser
Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs in 1947, shortly after the 17-
year patent expired. Shockley initially attempted to build a working FET by trying to
modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to
problems with the surface states, the dangling bond, and the germanium and copper
compound materials. In the course of trying to understand the mysterious reasons
behind their failure to build a working FET, it led to Bardeen and Brattain instead
inventing the point-contact transistor in 1947, which was followed by Shockley's bipolar
[2][3]
junction transistor in 1948.

The first FET device to be successfully built was the junction field-effect transistor
[2] [4]
(JFET). A JFET was first patented by Heinrich Welker in 1945. The static induction
transistor (SIT), a type of JFET with a short channel, was invented by Japanese
engineers Jun-ichi Nishizawa and Y. Watanabe in 1950. Following Shockley's
theoretical treatment on the JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was built by
[5]
George C. Dacey and Ian M. Ross in 1953. However, the JFET still had issues
[6]
affecting junction transistors in general. Junction transistors were relatively bulky
devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited
them to a number of specialised applications. The insulated-gate field-effect transistor
(IGFET) was theorized as a potential alternative to junction transistors, but researchers
were unable to build working IGFETs, largely due to the troublesome surface state
[6]
barrier that prevented the external electric field from penetrating into the material. By
the mid-1950s, researchers had largely given up on the FET concept, and instead
[7]
focused on bipolar junction transistor (BJT) technology.

The foundations of MOSFET technology were laid down by the work of William
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain. Shockley independently envisioned the
FET concept in 1945, but he was unable to build a working device. The next year
Bardeen explained his failure in terms of surface states. Bardeen applied the theory of
surface states on semiconductors (previous work on surface states was done by
Shockley in 1939 and Igor Tamm in 1932) and realized that the external field was
blocked at the surface because of extra electrons which are drawn to the semiconductor
surface. Electrons become trapped in those localized states forming an inversion layer.
Bardeen's hypothesis marked the birth of surface physics. Bardeen then decided to
make use of an inversion layer instead of the very thin layer of semiconductor which
Shockley had envisioned in his FET designs. Based on his theory, in 1948 Bardeen
patented the progenitor of MOSFET, an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an inversion
layer. The inversion layer confines the flow of minority carriers, increasing modulation
and conductivity, although its electron transport depends on the gate's insulator or
quality of oxide if used as an insulator, deposited above the inversion layer. Bardeen's
patent as well as the concept of an inversion layer forms the basis of CMOS technology
today. In 1976 Shockley described Bardeen's surface state hypothesis "as one of the
[8]
most significant research ideas in the semiconductor program".

After Bardeen's surface state theory the trio tried to overcome the effect of surface
states. In late 1947, Robert Gibney and Brattain suggested the use of electrolyte placed
between metal and semiconductor to overcome the effects of surface states. Their FET
device worked, but amplification was poor. Bardeen went further and suggested to
rather focus on the conductivity of the inversion layer. Further experiments led them to
replace electrolyte with a solid oxide layer in the hope of getting better results. Their
goal was to penetrate the oxide layer and get to the inversion layer. However, Bardeen
suggested they switch from silicon to germanium and in the process their oxide got
inadvertently washed off. They stumbled upon a completely different transistor, the
point-contact transistor. Lillian Hoddeson argues that "had Brattain and Bardeen been
working with silicon instead of germanium they would have stumbled across a
[8][9][10][11][12]
successful field effect transistor".

By the end of the first half of the 1950s, following theoretical and experimental work of
Bardeen, Brattain, Kingston, Morrison and others, it became more clear that there were
two types of surface states. Fast surface states were found to be associated with the
bulk and a semiconductor/oxide interface. Slow surface states were found to be
associated with the oxide layer because of adsorption of atoms, molecules and ions by
the oxide from the ambient. The latter were found to be much more numerous and to
have much longer relaxation times. At the time Philo Farnsworth and others came up
with various methods of producing atomically clean semiconductor surfaces.

In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derrick accidentally covered the surface of silicon
wafer with a layer of silicon dioxide. They showed that oxide layer prevented certain
dopants into the silicon wafer, while allowing for others, thus discovering the passivating
effect of oxidation on the semiconductor surface. Their further work demonstrated how
to etch small openings in the oxide layer to diffuse dopants into selected areas of the
silicon wafer. In 1957, they published a research paper and patented their technique
summarizing their work. The technique they developed is known as oxide diffusion
masking, which would later be used in the fabrication of MOSFET devices. At Bell Labs,
the importance of Frosch's technique was immediately realized. Results of their work
circulated around Bell Labs in the form of BTL memos before being published in 1957.
At Shockley Semiconductor, Shockley had circulated the preprint of their article in
[6][13][14]
December 1956 to all his senior staff, including Jean Hoerni.

In 1955, Ian Munro Ross filed a patent for a FeFET or MFSFET. Its structure was like
that of a modern inversion channel MOSFET, but ferroelectric material was used as a
dielectric/insulator instead of oxide. He envisioned it as a form of memory, years before
the floating gate MOSFET. In February 1957, John Wallmark filed a patent for FET in
which germanium monoxide was used as a gate dielectric, but he didn't pursue the idea.
In his other patent filed the same year he described a double gate FET. In March 1957,
in his laboratory notebook, Ernesto Labate, a research scientist at Bell Labs, conceived
of a device similar to the later proposed MOSFET, although Labate's device didn't
[15][16][17][18]
explicitly use silicon dioxide as an insulator.

Metal-oxide-semiconductor FET (MOSFET)[edit]

Main article: MOSFET

Mohamed Atalla (left) and Dawon Kahng (right) invented the MOSFET (MOS field-effect
transistor) in 1959.
A breakthrough in FET research came with the work of Egyptian engineer Mohamed
[3]
Atalla in the late 1950s. In 1958 he presented experimental work which showed that
growing thin silicon oxide on clean silicon surface leads to neutralization of surface
states. This is known as surface passivation, a method that became critical to the
semiconductor industry as it made mass-production of silicon integrated circuits
[19][20]
possible.

The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) was then invented by

[21][22]
Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959. The MOSFET largely superseded
[2]
both the bipolar transistor and the JFET, and had a profound effect on digital
[23][22] [24]
electronic development. With its high scalability, and much lower power
[25]
consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors, the MOSFET made
[26]
it possible to build high-density integrated circuits. The MOSFET is also capable of
[27]
handling higher power than the JFET. The MOSFET was the first truly compact
[6]
transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses. The
[20]
MOSFET thus became the most common type of transistor in computers, electronics,
[28]
and communications technology (such as smartphones). The US Patent and
Trademark Office calls it a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture
[28]
around the world".

CMOS (complementary MOS), a semiconductor device fabrication process for

MOSFETs, was developed by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild
[29][30]
Semiconductor in 1963. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET was made by
[31]
Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967. A double-gate MOSFET was first
demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa
[32][33]
and Yutaka Hayashi. FinFET (fin field-effect transistor), a type of 3D non-planar
multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team at
[34][35]
Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989.

Basic information