Annex Two: Title page

Master of Arts Thesis

Euroculture

University of Uppsala

University of Strasbourg

Month and Year when submitted: August 2023

Title of Master Thesis: Nature's Ink: Ecocritical Explorations in Swedish and Japanese
Literature

Submitted by:
First name and Surname of student: Emma Pirretti

Student number first university: 19960219–T828

Student number second university: 22125147
Contact details (telephone/email)
[email protected]

Supervised by:

Name of supervisor first university: Ernils Larsson

Name of supervisor second university: Thomas Mohnike

Place, date

Uppsala, 01/08/2023

Signature

1
Acknowledgements

I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisors, Ernils and Thomas, for their invaluable
guidance throughout this thesis.

I am also deeply grateful to Annelou and Hanna, my thesis companions at Uppsala, who
provided unwavering moral support. Our late-night library sessions created a bond of shared
suffering and support, making the thesis-writing process much more enjoyable. I would like to
acknowledge their editing assistance and the brainstorming sessions that helped me overcome
the challenges encountered during my research.

Lastly, I express my profound thanks to my family for their unwavering support and
understanding. Their financial assistance proved crucial at times, allowing me to embark on
this academic journey instead of entering the labour market. Their patience in nurturing my
curiosity and encouraging my participation in this program means the world to me.

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Annex Three: Declaration sheet

MA Programme Euroculture
Declaration

I, Emma Pirretti, hereby declare that this thesis, entitled “Nature's Ink: Ecocritical
Explorations in Swedish and Japanese Literature”, submitted as partial
requirement for the MA Programme Euroculture, is my own original work and
expressed in my own words. Any use made within this text of works of other
authors in any form (e.g., ideas, figures, texts, tables, etc.) are properly
acknowledged in the text as well as in the bibliography.

I declare that the written (printed and bound) and the electronic copy of the
submitted MA thesis are identical.

I hereby also acknowledge that I was informed about the regulations pertaining to
the assessment of the MA thesis Euroculture and about the general completion
rules for the Master of Arts Programme Euroculture.

In case the research process involved participants (especially participants from

vulnerable communities and populations), please ensure that the following boxes
can be ticked before submitting the thesis, or tick the third box, if not applicable
to your project:

I declare that I have obtained the required permission from the relevant ethics
committees of the two universities supervising my thesis concerning my research
proposal in order to proceed with proposed research involving participants;

I declare that I have obtained informed consent from these participants and
that the consent forms are stored lawfully and in accordance with the rules of the
two universities supervising my thesis.

■ The two items above do not apply to this project.

Signed Emma Pirretti

Date 01\08\2023

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Abstract and keywords

Ecocriticism is a field that examines the relationship between literature and the physical
environment. As an emerging discipline, it is crucial to expand its contribution to reinforce the
existing literature. A writer's creation of a literary world reflects their life and relationship to
the outside world. In this context, the thesis provides an alternative perspective to prior studies
that emphasize nature as a character within the narrative of literary works. The central research
question guiding this investigation is: "What representations of nature do we find in The
Christmas Oratorio and in Lake of Heaven? What is the human perception of and connection
to nature in these books?" Employing qualitative content analysis, the study interprets and
analyses excerpts from the chosen novels. The findings reveal that nature plays a significant
role in the narrative of both works, exhibiting agency and profound interconnection with other
characters. In The Christmas Oratorio, nature assumes the role of a character, intricately
entwined with human experiences and emotions. Conversely, in Lake of Heaven, nature is
imbued with a more spiritual essence, symbolizing the soul and closely linked to human
perceptions and experiences. This thesis endeavours to address research gaps by exploring the
intricate interplay between humans and nature, as depicted in the selected literary works.
Readers can better comprehend the writers' consciousness in the relationship to nature by
understanding how they depict this interaction.

Keywords: Ecocriticism; Göran Tunström; Ishimure Michiko; Japanese Literature; Swedish

Literature.

Words: 22.375

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Table of contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.1Previous Research ................................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Purpose statement and research question .......................................................................... 9
1.3 Methodology and Theory.................................................................................................... 10
1.4 Structure of the Thesis ....................................................................................................... 11
2. Definitions and Concepts ...................................................................................................... 13
3. Material and Method ............................................................................................................. 15
3.1 Method ................................................................................................................................ 15
3.2 Materials ............................................................................................................................. 16
4. Literature Review .................................................................................................................. 19
4.1 Literature on The Christmas Oratorio................................................................................. 19
4.2 Literature on Lake of Heaven ............................................................................................. 21
4.3 Ecocriticism ........................................................................................................................ 23
4.4 Ecocriticism in Swedish Literature ..................................................................................... 25
4.5 Ecocriticism in Japanese Literature ................................................................................... 27
4.6Sweden and Religion .......................................................................................................... 31
4.7Japan and Religion .............................................................................................................. 35
5. Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................... 38
5.1 Ecocriticism ........................................................................................................................ 39
6. The Narrative of Nature in Swedish Literature: Ecocritical Analysis in The Christmas Oratorio
43
6.1 Summary of The Christmas Oratorio ................................................................................. 43
6.2 Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 44
7. The Narrative of Nature in Japanese Literature: Ecocritical Analysis in Lake of Heaven ........ 48
7.1 Summary of Lake of Heaven .............................................................................................. 49
7.2 Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 50
8. Comparison between Swedish and Japanese Literature's Narratives of Nature ................. 56
9. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 59
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 63

5
 1. Introduction

His grandfather had been right; the reverberations of the vehicles all about were
pounding and rocking the axis of the earth. And that was just from the cars alone. And
as a result, the world was left trembling and dashed about. It seemed that in whichever
direction he turned there was no way to escape the tremors of the land. He realized
that what his grandfather, in his struggling thoughts, had called the "enemy" had been
the overwhelming force that was steadily engulfing people everywhere. No doubt his
grandfather's thinking had been right about that. Just how many cars, he wondered,
were there running about the city now?1

Amidst the enchanting worlds of Swedish and Japanese literature lies a profound
exploration of the intricate bond between humans and nature. Sweden's celebrated
commitment to sustainability and Japan's historical reverence for the environment conjure
images of environmental harmony. Yet, beneath these idyllic portrayals, both nations confront
the complex realities of the Anthropocene era. In this thesis, we embark on a journey through
two carefully chosen novels, The Christmas Oratorio and Lake of Heaven, to delve into the
nuanced representations of nature and its profound connection to humanity within their
captivating narratives. These literary works offer a unique perspective on environmental
consciousness, urging us to reflect on the importance of our natural world. With this thesis I
try to uncover the voices of nature and human interactions that echo through the pages,
inviting readers to contemplate the evolving relationship between society and the environment
in the context of Sweden and Japan.

1.1 Previous Research

In the specific contexts of Sweden and Japan, where environmental issues and their cultural
implications are of utmost importance, the application of ecocritical analysis becomes
particularly relevant.
Sweden has earned a distinguished reputation for its unwavering commitment to
sustainability, exemplified by a longstanding tradition of environmental consciousness and a
strong focus on preserving its natural landscapes. It is visible, as Thomas Hillmo and Ulrik

1
Michiko Ishimure, Lake of Heaven: An Original Translation of the Japanese Novel, (Lanham: Lexington Book,
2008), 352–357, Kindle.

6
Lohm stress, through the environmental preservation history of Sweden. 2 In the context of
Sweden's affiliation with the Protestant tradition, also Thomas Dunlap and Michael Northcott
assert that the country exhibits a more pronounced environmental tradition, particularly
concerning the safeguarding of natural landscapes. 3 According to Northcott, Protestantism's
changing nature has shown to be environmentally friendly since it places a strong emphasis on
individual emotions and religious experience. Furthermore, Anna Albrektson et al. contend
that the significance of nature in Sweden extends beyond individual perspectives and assumes
a central role in shaping the collective identity of the nation. 4 Additionally, as argued by
Henning et. al, when viewed through the lens of Anthropocene narratives from regions beyond
Scandinavia, Sweden is often portrayed as an exceptional, almost utopian realm untouched by
the environmental calamities caused by human activities. Henning et al. also argue that this
portrayal is reflective of cultural imaginations that may overlook the harsh realities of our
ongoing environmental catastrophe. Specifically, global warming and its consequences are
rapidly accelerating in extreme northern and southern regions of the planet, rendering them
highly unstable.5
Despite Sweden's positive environmental image, its unique geographical location exposes it
to challenges associated with mining and drilling practices, along with global air and water
pollution issues.6 These environmental difficulties underscore the fact that no region, regardless
of its reputation for sustainability, is entirely exempt from the far-reaching impacts of
anthropogenic climate change. It is crucial to critically evaluate Sweden's environmental
accomplishments while acknowledging the global context of environmental challenges.
Anthropocene narratives should not overlook the genuine issues faced by Scandinavian
countries but rather recognize the complexities and interconnections of environmental problems
that demand collective and global solutions.
Similar to Sweden, Japanese culture is often associated with a profound connection to nature.
Rooted in a tradition of reverence for the natural world, Japan is commonly perceived in

2
Thomas Hillmo, and Ulrik Lohm, “Nature’s Ombudsmen: The Evolution of Environmental Representation in
Sweden.” Environment and History 3, no. 1 (February 1997): 21–24. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20723028.
3
Thomas Dunlap, Faith in Nature: Environmentalism as Religious Quest (Seattle: University of Washington
Press, 2005), 167; Michael S. Northcott, “Reformed Protestantism and the Origins of Modern Environmentalism.”
Philosophia Reformata 83, no. 1 (May 2018). https://www.jstor.org/stable/26548054.
4
Anna Albrektson, Mikael Ahlund, Sara Ekström, Johanna Ethnersson Pontara, Elisabeth Mansén, Vera Sundin,
Meike Wagner, and Erik Wallrup, “Cool Nature: Utopian Landscapes in Sweden 1780–1840.” 1700-tal: Nordic
Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 19 (December 2022): 103. https://doi.org/10.7557/4.6575.
5
Reinhard Hennig, Peter Degerman, and Anna-Karin Jonasson, Nordic narratives of Nature and the environment:
Ecocritical approaches to Northern European Literatures and Cultures, (Lanham, Maryland: The Rowman &
Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc., 2018), 33–34.
6
Reinhard Hennig et al, Nordic narratives of Nature and the environment, 33–34.

7
Western discourse as a society deeply in tune with its environment, to the extent, Byron H.
Earhart argues, of being free of pollution.7 This notion is also articulated by Masao Watanabe
in the introductory section of the book titled The Japanese and the Western Science. It is
important to note that this perspective has gained agreement from numerous Western scholars,
while also finding resonance among some Japanese academics, who view it as a fundamental
aspect of their national ideologies:
A fundamental difference is evident between the traditional Japanese conception of
nature, in which nature is viewed through the eyes of a poet and where the aim is to
become one with nature, and the Western conception, in which nature is a creation
subordinate to the human level and is treated as an object of scientific research and an
instrument to be used.8

The prevailing idea, as advanced by Watanabe and embraced by various scholars,

underscores Japan's historical religious traditions and their influence on fostering a unique
relationship with the environment. This perception portrays Japan as a society where profound
respect for nature is deeply ingrained, and consequently, it is perceived to prioritize
environmental preservation and sustainability.
Aike Rots emphasizes the notion that certain Asian religions exhibit a distinct emphasis on
environmental sustainability, which stands in contrast to the anthropocentric tendencies often
observed in Western religions.9 This idea of Asian religions is also shared by other scholars
such as Lynn White,10 and Haruka Ueda.11 According to Rots, these Asian religious affiliations
demonstrate a robust ecological tradition due to their profound recognition of the
interconnectedness of all living entities. However, it is crucial to acknowledge that
characterizing Asian religions as inherently environmentally conscious may oversimplify the
complexities of historical contexts within these countries, including Japan.12
Nevertheless, it is essential to approach this perspective with academic scrutiny and
contextualize it within a broader understanding of Japan's environmental landscape. While the
notion of Japan's strong connection to nature has a valid basis in certain cultural and historical

7
Byron H. Earhart, “The Ideal of Nature in Japanese Religion and Its Possible Significance for Environmental
Concerns.” Contemporary Religions in Japan 11, no. 1/2 (1970): 1–26. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30233045.
8
Masao Watanabe, The Japanese and Western science, Translated by Otto Theodor Benfey (Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), 4.
9
Aike P. Rots, Shinto, Nature and ideology in contemporary Japan: Making sacred forests, (London, UK:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2017),49.
10
Lynn White, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis,” Science 155, no. 3767 (March 1967): 1205.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720120.
11
Haruka Ueda, "Japanese View of Nature: Discursive Tradition, Its Problems and Implications for Food
Studies", Sustainability 14, no. 13 (July 2022): 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14138057
12
Rots, Shinto, Nature and ideology in contemporary Japan, 49–51.

8
practices, it is equally crucial to acknowledge that modernization and industrialization have
introduced environmental challenges to the country, including pollution issues.

1.2 Purpose statement and research question

The importance of the environment as a key component of human civilisation is
emphasised in every major canonical work. As a result, a realisation of the surroundings may
also, lead to a range of alternative viewpoints. These environmental literary works highlight
human nature's interconnection and connectivity. The more ecocritical literature that is made
available, the more man will learn to interact with nature in ways that are compatible with the
current environmental catastrophe. All the major canonical works on Ecocriticism, such as
Garrard and Buell, have shown that this "nature-culture" climatic information must be
communicated, transferred, or brought to life through literature. 13
The contribution of this thesis is to reinforce the existing literature. One of the aims is to
provide an alternative perspective to the existing studies that emphasize nature as its character
in the narrative of literary works. To reach its aim, the thesis will try to answer the following
research question:
What representations of nature do we find in “The Christmas Oratorio” and in “Lake of
Heaven”? What is the human perception of and connection to nature in these books?
The following supporting questions are included in order to address the primary questions:
Which natural elements are most prominent and how do they affect the overall setting and
themes of the works? What aspects of city life and country life are portrayed differently in these
two novels?
With this paper, I aim to bring more perspectives to the subject. The methods used in this
research were designed in the ecocritical tradition. Ecocriticism can be defined as the study of
the relationship between literature and the physical environment taking specifically as its
subjects the interconnection between nature and culture.14 Hence, the normative hermeneutic
discipline of ecocriticism aims to analyse texts in terms of how they depict the interaction
between humans and nature. The paper attempts an ecocritical analysis of selected work by
Göran Tunström and Ishimure Michiko. This thesis seeks to fill research gaps by exploring the
aspect of human-nature interaction and interconnection as it is presented in the chosen literary

13
Buell Lawrence, “Ecocriticism: Some Emerging Trends,” Qui Parle 19, no. 2 (2011): 107.
https://doi.org/10.5250/quiparle.19.2.0087; Greg Garrard, Ecocriticism (London: Routledge, 2012), 178–179.
14
Cheryll Glotfelty, and Harold Fromm, The ecocriticism reader: Landmarks in literary ecology (Athens, Georgia:
The University of Georgia Press, 1996), XVIII–XIX.

9
works. Considering how these authors depict the interaction between humans and the natural
world might help readers gain a greater understanding of the ecological consciousness that these
authors have included in their writing.

1.3 Methodology and Theory

Both Sweden and Japan have faced unique environmental challenges and have fostered
literary traditions that reflect their distinctive cultural attitudes towards the natural world.
Through a close analysis of two selected novels, one from Sweden and one from Japan, this
thesis seeks to explore how these works engage with ecological themes, shape environmental
narratives, and depict human interactions with the natural world. By employing ecocritical
methodologies, including textual analysis, cultural contextualization, and theoretical
frameworks, this research aims to uncover how these novels reflect and respond to
environmental concerns, ethical dilemmas, and the evolving relationship between society and
nature. Through an ecocritical reading of two novels, it also aims to broaden the area of
ecocriticism and increase our comprehension of environmental discourses in Sweden and
Japan. This thesis is a reflection on how people view society via literature, not an attempt to
promote ecological consciousness through ecocritical reading.
To ensure a robust foundation for this research, a systematic approach was undertaken.
Firstly, the primary texts were comprehensively read multiple times, enabling the identification
of units of analysis relevant to the portrayal of nature in relation to humans and religion.
Relevant excerpts were then carefully selected from the novels to exemplify and support the
identified themes. Subsequently, a qualitative content analysis was employed, following Hsiu-
Fang Hsieh and Sarah E. Shannon's definition15, to subjectively interpret the text data through
a systematic classification process, coding, and identifying prevalent themes and patterns.
To conduct the analysis, the research process followed several steps. First, the data was read
and coded to identify the role of nature concerning humans, religion, and other pertinent themes.
Subsequently, relationships within the excerpted texts were discerned and interpreted to provide
deeper insights into each context. The findings were then discussed and analysed, drawing
tentative conclusions using a qualitative descriptive method.

15
Hsiu-Fang Hsieh, and Sarah E. Shannon, “Three approaches to qualitative content analysis,” Qualitative Health
Research 15, no 9 (November 2005), 1277. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687.

10
 By examining these literary works through an ecocritical lens, this thesis aims to shed light
on the intricate relationship between nature, humanity, and religion as portrayed by Ishimure
Michiko and Göran Tunström. The exploration of shared themes and contrasting elements
between these two novels will contribute to a deeper understanding of the roles of nature and
its resilience in the face of human actions, urging us to contemplate the significance of
preserving our environment and its invaluable resources.
The primary materials of this thesis are two literary works: Lake of Heaven by Ishimure
Michiko and The Christmas Oratorio by Göran Tunström. Both books share a temporal setting
in the 1970s and 1980s and explore themes such as Youth in nature, Nostalgia, Family,
Connection to surroundings, and the contrast between urban and countryside life. Ishimure
Michiko's works, particularly Lake of Heaven, addresses the resilience of nature against human-
induced changes and raises questions about the future of rural areas in Japan. Göran Tunström's
stories instead often revolve around characters overcoming grief and exploring complex
relationships between men and women. Both books serve as a foundation for the research
conducted in this study, shedding light on significant environmental and societal themes within
their respective cultures.

1.4 Structure of the Thesis

As I finalise this introductory Chapter, I provide a summary of this thesis structure. The
Second Chapter defines important concepts used throughout the thesis such as Ecocriticism and
Anthropocene. I go into further depth about the subject and methodology in Chapter Three.
Specifically, how I plan to conduct the ecocritical analysis of the two books using qualitative
content analysis. The ecocritical analyses of the selected literature are presented later in the
chapter and explain the procedure and sources used in the following thesis. After that, in
Chapter Four, I provide a summary of earlier research on the material I've selected to analyse,
as well as a critical examination of ecocriticism in Sweden and Japan together with a review of
related literature. The theoretical framework of the thesis is presented in chapter Five. The terms
used to define nature will be described in this phase, along with a more in-depth explanation of
ecocriticism and how to apply it to literary analysis. Chapter Six and Chapter Seven,
demonstrate the relationship between nature and human characters in the story by analysing
book excerpts. Additionally, it demonstrates how essential nature is to the story and that it has
its characteristics. A comparison is portrayed in chapter Eight, which examines the similarities
and differences between the two narratives comes after the two analyses. In the final chapter, I

11
explain the significance of the study and discuss potential future analyses that might be carried
out by other researchers.

12
 2. Definitions and Concepts

This section aims to offer clear definitions and concepts integral to this thesis. These
definitions are crucial for understanding the previous studies incorporated in the thesis and for
comprehending the underlying theories.
The first concept is The Anthropocene. The term "Anthropocene," which has gained
popularity in several publications and conferences, refers to a fundamental shift in how people
interact with the environment on a worldwide scale. 16 According to Crutzen, the Anthropocene
is the result of the new geological era, a time when environmental impacts caused by the people
have gotten so severe that they outweigh natural changes and require their name. He suggested
starting it in 1850, the year the global industrial revolution started got going. The fundamental
change in how people and the environment interact during the Anthropocene epoch is
represented in their terms and paper.17
The second term is Ecocriticism. As per the definition by Cheryll Glotfelty, Ecocriticism is
the study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment.18 Ecocriticism, a
burgeoning field within literary studies, offers a unique lens through which to examine the
intricate relationship between literature and the environment. This interdisciplinary approach
explores how literary works engage with environmental concerns, addressing ecological, social,
and cultural dimensions of environmental issues. By analysing the representation of nature,
human-nature relationships, and environmental ethics in literature, ecocriticism sheds light on
the intricate connections between culture, society, and the natural world. Ecocriticism as such
is quite a new field which is expanding. In the mid-eighties, as scholars19 started undertaking
collaborative projects, the field of environmental literary studies was planted. Then in the
nineties, it grew. Ecocriticism emerged as a response to environmental concerns. As these
concerns for the environment and literary disciplines expanded, also a collection of scholars
interested in the topic started to be published. By setting ecocriticism apart from other critical
theories, it may be further characterized. In general, literary theory explores the connections

16
Ursula K Heise. “Comparative Ecocriticism in the Anthropocene.” Komparatistik (August 2017): 19–30.
https://doi.org/urn:nbn:de:hebis:30:3-436510.20.
17
Paul J Crutzen, “The ‘Anthropocene,’ “Earth System Science in the Anthropocene (2006): 13–18.
https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-26590-2_3.
18
Glotfelty, and Fromm, The ecocriticism reader, XVII.
19
Frederick O. Waage, Teaching environmental literature: Materials, methods, resources, Modern Language
Association of America, 1985 and Alicia Nitecki "Literature and the Environment: References", The American
Nature Writing Newsletter 3.I (Spring 1991).

13
between authors, texts, and the outside world. The concept of "the world" is broadened by
ecocriticism to encompass the entire ecosphere.20
Ecocritics, academics who question the role and representation of nature in literature, have
started engaging with the concept of Anthropocene fairly recently. Nevertheless, recent
academic publications, however, show that two opposing theoretical forces that mirror the
Anthropocene discussions have supported the development of ecocriticism into a fully
established comparatist study subject.
The concepts of Ecocriticism and Anthropocene are integral to studies that explore the
dynamic relationship between nature and humans. These terms have been previously defined
to provide the reader with a comprehensive grasp of the field. Additionally, a critical
overview of past scholarly works is presented to further elucidate these concepts.

20
Glotfelty, and Fromm, The ecocriticism reader, XVII–XX.

14
 3. Material and Method

The next chapter is divided into two sections: Method and Material. In the first part, I will
explain the methodology used in this thesis and how I chose to analyse the two selected novels.
The second part will provide an overview of the main material used for analysis in this study,
which includes Göran Tunström's books, The Christmas Oratorio, and Ishimure Michiko's
book, Lake of Heaven.

3.1 Method
To acquire the requisite data to support this study, the approach outlined by Ann Dobie and
Cheryll Glotfelty in their methodology was employed. Following their guidelines, the following
steps were undertaken in the research process21:

1. Comprehensively read the text many times.

2. Identify the units of analysis within the text.
3. Select relevant excerpts from these paragraphs or other units of analysis that
demonstrate the portrayal of nature in relation to humans or religion.

To be able to analyse the collected data, I decided to use qualitative content analysis. Content
analysis is considered by Hsiu-Fang Hsieh, and Sarah E. Shannon as a flexible method for
analysing text data and interpretive analyses are part of content analysis. 22 Additionally,
qualitative content analysis is used by researchers to analyse text data. The aim of content
analysis as defined by Hsieh, is to provide knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon
under study. This paper uses the qualitative content analysis method per the definition of Hsieh,
which states that qualitative content analysis is defined as a research method for the subjective
interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding
and identifying themes or patterns.23
The data are presented by presenting excerpts taken from the two novels which indicate this
role of nature in themes coded. These are followed by an interpretation and analysis of each

21
See Ann B. Dobie, Theory into practice: An introduction to literary criticism (Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage
Learning, 2012), 238–249; Cheryll Glotfelty, and Harold Fromm, The ecocriticism reader: Landmarks in literary
ecology (Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 1996), XXII–XXIV.
22
Hsieh and Shannon, “Three approaches to qualitative content analysis,” 1277.
23
Hsieh, and Shannon, “Three approaches to qualitative content analysis,” 1278.

15
excerpt. The research process will be as follows: when reading the primary sources for the first
time, I will take note of any non-human subjects mentioned, as well as any interactions between
non-human and human characters, as well as the structure of each book. As the next step, a
qualitative analysis would be used to categorise information in the literature, select examples
from the books, and reorganise the data to reach a conclusion based on a qualitative description.
The qualitative analysis would also be used to determine whether
nature plays a special role in the chosen literature and analysis processes. The similarities
and differences between the two novels are compared and contrasted. A general overview of
ecocriticism and religious history in Sweden and Japan will be provided. The materials were
chosen based on their use of an ecocritical framework in their research, their emphasis on
religion or ecocriticism especially in the two countries indicated above, as well as the fact that
they have been addressed in other studies several times.
The steps taken more specifically for the analysis are the following: To conduct the literary
analysis, I first familiarized myself with existing research on the two books and noted down the
themes previously identified by the authors. Using this information, I created a coding
framework to guide my analysis. The framework included key categories that I would look for
while reading the two novels. Next, I read the two books and identified the key categories,
including their role concerning humans, religion, and other themes. I added new categories as
I discovered them in connection to nature. These categories covered themes, characters,
symbols, and plot events. After coding the data, I examined the relationships between the
extracted text fragments to interpret their meanings. This helped me understand how nature
interacted with various elements in the stories. Finally, I discussed the results and drew tentative
conclusions based on the findings from the analysis. I used a qualitative descriptive method to
analyse the data and present my interpretations.

3.2 Materials
The present study focuses on two primary sources: Lake of Heaven written by Ishimure
Michiko, a Japanese writer, and translated by Bruce Allen, and The Christmas Oratorio written
by Göran Tunström, a Swedish author, and translated by Paul Hoover. These selected texts
serve as the foundation for the research undertaken in this study. The rationale behind choosing
these particular books for comparison lies in their temporal setting, which centres around the
1970s and 1980s, as well as the convergence of shared themes they explore.

16
 Apart from their prominent natural component, both literary works delve into various
thematic elements. These themes hold significance within the context of the study and include
Youth in nature, Nostalgia, Family, Connection to their surroundings, and the difference
between living in the countryside in the city and vice versa.
As mentioned above, the Swedish book chosen for the ecocritical analysis was written by
Göran Tunström. The book chosen for the analysis is called The Christmas Oratorio.24 His
work is distinguished by the early passing of his father and the mobility of his characters
because of his upbringing in Sunne as the son of a clergyman. He often focuses his stories on
people overcoming grief or recovering a lost happy existence and the complexity of the
relationship between men and women. He won many Swedish and Scandinavian literary
awards.25
The author of the Japanese book chosen for the ecocritical analysis, as stated, is Ishimure
Michiko. She won numerous literary awards both internationally and in Japan. She has been
one of the first in Japan to introduce a work that exposed the incident of Minamata Disease in
the 1950s. The Minamata disease is a poisonous disease of mainly the nervous system. It is
established that the disease is a result of inorganic mercury poisoning which damages kidneys
and the nervous systems.26 The disease is named after a little village in southern Japan. In 1956,
the first case was reported there. Fish and shellfish that have been severely polluted with toxic
chemicals and consumed in big quantities have been linked to the disease.27
Her literary work, along with her social activism, aimed to recognise and respond to the
social and environmental problems of Japan. She is not however just an environmental writer.28
She worked also in other genres and styles such as poetry, and non-fiction essays. Ishimure's
work has steadily gained attention on a global scale in recent years, receiving positive reviews.
She is indeed recognized outside of Japan; in fact, she received international literature prizes.
Also, she is famous among many scholars of environmental literature. For Example, her work

24
The Swedish original title of the book is Juloratoriet.
25
Saxon, Wolfgang. "Goran Tunstrom, 62, of Sweden; Wrote Novels, Plays and Poetry," The New York Times
1923-, (February 2000), http://ezproxy.its.uu.se/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/historical-
newspapers/goran-tunstrom-62-sweden-wrote-novels-plays/docview/91764591/se-2.
26
“Minamata Disease the History and Measures - Chapter 3.” Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan,
2001, Accessed 07 June 2023,
https://www.env.go.jp/en/chemi/hs/minamata2002/ch3.html#:~:text=Minamata%20Disease%20is%20a%20pois
oning,organs%20other%20than%20nervous%20system.
27
Noriyuki Hachiya, “The History and the Present of Minamata Disease: Entering the Second Half a Century,”
JMAJ 49, no. 03 (March 2006): 112.
28
Karen Thornber, and Bruce Allen, “Ishimure Michiko and Global Ecocriticism,” The Asia-Pacific Journal:
Japan Focus (July 2016): 1, https://apjjf.org/2016/13/Thornber.html.

17
is regularly cited at environmental literature conferences in the U.S. and East Asia. 29
Unfortunately, not all of the work is known since, except for Lake of Heaven, Sea of Suffering
and other short pieces, have been translated. Reading Ishimure's writing as world literature or
analysing how it crosses its points of origin and how it connects to situations across the world,
may be very beneficial since it deals intimately with issues that go beyond those of its original
culture. The nonhuman parts that are resilient in the face of blizzards, typhoons, and shifting
tectonic plates are frequently highlighted in narratives. These nonhuman parts also often
recover from damage caused by humans. A common narrative in a lot of literature is to contrast
the relative resistance of nature with the temporary nature of humans. Many texts that establish
this opposition refer to or even emphasise nonhuman persistence in the face of human
environmental change. Moreover, during the story, the future is often questioned. Nevertheless,
the narrative highlights the resistance of both the people and the natural world. But the novel
also explores the ability of the ecosystem to resist human manipulation. One of the many
questions of the plot is how long the rural areas of Japan will, mostly the parts closest to the
city, be able to resist these large-scale human projects. The novel indeed states that the mountain
regions are in a dangerous position. Ishimure, in her novel, suggests that environments won't
be able to resist in eternity, and not in the way that can sustain human existence.30
In the subsequent chapter, an in-depth analysis of the two novels will be presented, focusing
on their respective themes in relation to nature. The examination will explore the portrayal and
treatment of the themes described previously within each book. Subsequently, a comparative
analysis of the two novels will be conducted, scrutinizing their thematic elements pertaining to
nature, and drawing meaningful insights from their literary representations.

29
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 4.
30
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 14.

18
 4. Literature Review

This section provides a comprehensive review of pertinent prior studies related to the thesis.
Firstly, it will critically examine previous research conducted on The Christmas Oratorio,
followed by an exploration of the existing studies concerning the book Lake of Heaven.
Subsequently, the chapter will explain the diverse approaches undertaken in ecocritical studies
in both Sweden and Japan. Towards the conclusion of this chapter, a critical overview will be
presented, focusing on the nature-cultural relationship between Sweden and Japan in the context
of religion of relevant previous scholarly works addressing this topic.

4.1 Literature on The Christmas Oratorio

Tunström’s book and writing have been analysed in academic literature or in critical reviews.
For example, Mark Mitchell, a literature critic writing for the newspaper “New York Times”,
describes Tunström's writing of The Christmas Oratorio as chaotic and difficult to accept. 31 In
his article, he manages to overview the main themes of the story. He very exhaustively identifies
the trope of the book as describing and exploring a family's attempt to alleviate the grief of the
accidental death of the mother. The story covers several generations and comes to an end with
a performance of Bach's Christmas Oratorio. Mitchell also refers to Tunström in the novel as
trying to pursue order in a universe that he represents as absurd and arbitrary. However,
according to him, the vision shown by Tunström in the book could have been given at the same
time dark comic treatment.32 In his article, Mitchell fails to explain and identify, in explaining
the plot and theme of the novel, the role that the city and the time had on the writer.
On another note, D'Heurle’s article focuses on Tunström’s themes. 33 Many of Tunström's
well-known themes, such as the father-son connection, love of music, love of books, the power
of language, and the significance of communication, are also present in the narrative of The
Christmas Oratorio. As with others of Tunström’s work, there has been often emphasised the
fundamental importance of telling one's narrative. 34

31
Mark Mitchell, “The Christmas Oratorio,” New York Times, (September 1995): 14,
http://ezproxy.its.uu.se/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/magazines/christmas-
oratorio/docview/217273957/se-2.
32
Mitchell, “The Christmas Oratorio,” 14.
33
Adma D’Heurle, “Shimmer by Göran Tunström,” World Literature Today 71, no. 1 (Winter 1997): 174–75.
https://doi.org/10.2307/40152701.
34
D’Heurle, “Shimmer by Göran Tunström,” 174–75.

19
 The book The Christmas Oratorio by Göran Tunström has received limited scholarly
attention, particularly regarding the role of the natural element within the novel. One notable
study on this work is conducted by Anita Varga, who presents a narrative-oriented investigation
in her thesis. Her primary objective, as stated in her arguments, is to analyse the interplay
between the novel’s form and its thematic elements.35 By undertaking this examination, Varga
aims to demonstrate how The Christmas Oratorio is meticulously crafted as a literary
masterpiece. In her thesis, Varga draws upon hermeneutical, structuralist, and
phenomenological theories as the theoretical and methodological foundations for her analysis.
Notably, these frameworks have proven instrumental in shaping the methodology employed in
this thesis, which will be clarified in a subsequent section dedicated to the methodological
approach. Varga’s research is characterized by a classification of the narrative into five distinct
thematic categories: magical fantasy, idolizing, allegorical, religious and metatextual. 36
However, for the current thesis, the focus lies on delving into the chapters that explore the
themes of religion and metatextuality in The Christmas Oratorio.
Varga, as also Mitchell argues, identifies the description of the “Grief Theme” present in the
novel The Christmas Oratorio.37 The grief themes are narrated as a concrete and realistic course
of events. The Christmas Oratorio describes the grieving process in a psychologically realistic
way; on the allegorical, figurative level it is described as journeying down into death. Again,
Varga argues that the Christmas Oratorio is more or less openly in dialogue with several other
texts and relates to them in different ways. This is because it has shifted between the narrative
levels and also has a complex time structure. There are many opposites in the novel that are
very well argued in Varga’s thesis. However, in line with the need of this study, I would like to
focus on the third set of oppositions, light and darkness. On the one hand, Solveig is associated
with light, and in a Christian context, light is historically associated with the divine, namely
with God and Christ. In contrast, Aron's grieving process, for instance, is depicted in the dark,
at night, much as he is tortured by light throughout his trip to New Zealand. Sidner, on the other
hand, travels in the other direction, returning to the light as morning approaches.
There are many connections and texts involved in the narrative. Many of these texts are used
to depict the modern times of the novel's pattern present in older literature, myths, or legends.

35
Anita Varga, Såsom i en spegel: En studie i Göran Tunströms roman Juloratoriet, (Norma Bokförlag: Sweden
2002),13.
36
Varga, Såsom i en spegel, 232–233.
37
Varga, Såsom i en spegel, 20.

20
This argument is very in line with this study because the many uses of religious intertextuality38
present older literature used to depict religious images.39 Also in line with this study is the
description of the mystical side of the novel. Varga’s thesis refers to "the discourse of
mysticism" as the second religious discourse that Tunström employs throughout the book to
provide concreteness to Aron's grief process. Finally, a very important point that Varga raises
is the very present notion of life in art, which return in several places in the novel.
Despite offering several insights and descriptions of the beautiful image and the
interconnectedness of the different religious imaginaries, Varga’s critique falls short of
describing the relationship the protagonists have with the natural aspect of the story.40 Notably,
other scholars have overlooked this aspect; however, its significance remains relevant. As
previously stated, environmental issues hold considerable importance. Examining the role of
nature within the narrative can offer a valuable contribution to the field of ecocriticism, both in
terms of a comparative approach and a more comprehensive understanding of the subject
matter. My thesis seeks to address this gap in that regard.

4.2 Literature on Lake of Heaven

Karen Thornber, author of the article “Ishimure Michiko” 2016, places the work of Ishimure
inside a global literature context, while also challenging the reader in considering to broaden
the conception of the notion of "world literature". 41 Expanding conceptual horizons will
undoubtedly be a challenge for environmental critics in the future as they attempt to better
comprehend how various societies have dealt with environmental issues and the connections
between local and global phenomena.42 However, she is not only an activist, in fact, Lake of
Heaven, is regarded as an impressive poetic depiction of the beauty of the Japanese land and
the cultural ways of life, which is written from the perspective of the people leaving in the rural
areas of Japan. Ishimure's style of writing is an attempt to renew culture by also reviving the
sensibility of the world of sounds and music.

38
Defined by Gérard Genette as “a relationship of copresence between two texts or among several texts: that is to
say, eidetically and typically as the actual presence of one text within another”; Gérard Genette, Palimpsests:
Literature in the second degree, Translated by Channa Newman and Claude Doubinsky (Lincoln, NE: University
of Nebraska Press, 1997), 1–2.
39
Varga, Såsom i en spegel, 179–180.
40
Varga, Såsom i en spegel, 135–136.
41
Karen Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” Asia Pacific Journal 14, no. 6 (July 2016): 2.
42
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 5.

21
 The book chosen is Lake of Heaven. It explores more clearly the topic of environmental
damage.43 Toyosato argues that Lake of Heaven is a contribution to cross-cultural studies as the
reader relates to their ecological self and their ecological sensibility, or the use of cultural
traditions in particular historical moments. 44 Additionally, according to the article, Lake of
Heaven is described as a tale of the rebirth of souls and of the voice that is lost in contemporary
Japan. This tale highlights and brings together two worlds.
The novel certainly criticises the air and sound pollution covering Japan's urban
environment, drawing the urban environment way worse than the rural areas.45 The central story
in the novel by Ishimure emphasizes the high cost that humans had to pay for the inundation of
the fictional town of Amazoko. As a result, for many of the people in the story, the memories
of the village are an obsession and a constant motive of grief.46
There is a big contrast during the story between the rural area of Amazoko and the city of
Tokyo. All of Japan is involved in the story when addressing the environmental damages and
risks. Many descriptions of the story indicate that environmental devastation is hardly confined
to a few selected spaces. There are many mental shifts, from disliking how humans are
reshaping the mountainside to appreciating how they complement millions of years of
nonhuman uprisings for further environmental manipulation on the part of humans.47According
to Thornber, the book Lake of Heaven, stresses the parallels between the pre- and post-
construction landscapes while also underlining Japan's cities and its mountain regions.
According to Gary Snider, in the preface of the book, Lake of Heaven can be considered a
mythopoetic representation of the ancient lore of Japan and the spirit world.48 In a way, it shifted
more towards the feeling of a myth-drama than a novel. The narrative is transformed into a
metaphor for the wider world, a world where our old cultures and all of our old villages are
becoming buried, sunken, and lost under the rising waters of the dams of industrialization and
globalisation.49 Lake of Heaven is a story of a village in the mountain and its displaced people
who have to deal with the struggles of recovering and renewing their local traditions, stories,

43
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 6.
44
Mayumi Toyosato, “Lake of Heaven: An Original Translation of the Japanese Novel by Ishimure Michiko,”
Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 18, no. 2 (Spring 2011): 482.
https://doi.org/10.1093/isle/isr026.
45
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 12.
46
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 13.
47
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 12–13.
48
Gary Snider, “Preface” in Ishimure, Michiko, and Bruce Allen, Lake of heaven: An original translation of the
Japanese novel, (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2008).
49
Michiko Ishimure, and Bruce Allen, “Secret Song,” World Literature Today 82, no. 4 (July 2008): 32.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20621292.

22
and dreams in the face of modernisation. The style is mythopoetic, with attention to sounds,
nature, and dreams.50
Because of the minimal amount of work that has been translated, Ishimure has a marginal
position. Nevertheless, the consequences of her work are global.51 This thesis holds significance
due to the scarcity of scholarly work available in English on Ishimure Michiko and her literary
masterpiece, Lake of Heaven. As a result, it aims to contribute to the field of ecocriticism by
shedding light on this understudied subject. Ishimure Michiko's work has not received sufficient
attention from English-speaking scholars, and her novel, Lake of Heaven, remains relatively
unexplored within the context of ecocritical analysis. Therefore, this research seeks to address
this gap in the existing literature and provide a comprehensive examination of Ishimure
Michiko's themes related to nature and their implications in Lake of Heaven. By doing so, the
thesis aspires to enrich the discourse on ecocriticism and contribute to a more profound
understanding of the role of nature as portrayed in the novel.

4.3 Ecocriticism
People discover tools for coping with the current time and for developing reactions to
potential futures exactly in the study of narrative representation. Narrative imagination helps
people to become more considerate citizens of the world. 52 Audiences can broaden their
understanding of the world's surroundings and how human behaviours affect them by entering
a variety of "environmental imaginations and experiences." Additionally, it enables one to
reconsider local settings and behaviours through comparison or contrast.53 People’s relationship
with a world that is becoming more and more threatened may be assessed with greater care and
critical thinking when we pay attention to representations of the non-human environment.
People can also learn from fictional or non-fictional pasts and present as we think about the
future. A better understanding of both big and small dimensions is possible when people pay
attention to the non-human world in the same way that they do to the people around them.
According to Glotfelty, ecocriticism is a type of literary and cultural criticism that pays
particular attention to environmental issues and ecological relations in texts and discourses. As
mentioned, Cheryl Glotfelty defined ecocriticism as "the study of the link between literature
and the physical environment" in her 1996 book "Ecocriticism Reader," a "earth-centred"

50
Ishimure, and Allen, “Secret Song,” 31.
51
Thornber, “Ishimure Michiko,” 19.
52
Seger, “Futures,”135.
53
Seger, “Futures,” 133–138.

23
approach with a political foundation similar to feminist and Marxist criticism. It looks at the
various ways that historical traditions have interpreted the complex interactions between human
civilizations and their various environments.54
In his overview of ecocriticism, Greg Garrard presents a fresh perspective. He defines
ecocriticism as "the study of the relationship of the human and the non-human, throughout
human history and entailing critical analysis of the term "human" itself, still largely but not
exclusively through "literature, film, and other forms of narrative expression." Both strategies
aim to challenge the anthropocentrism that the humanities often accept. Underline the critical
sense-making role of narrative texts, which provide us with skills for the future by often using
imagined experiences and allowing us to grasp past histories.55
"Ecocriticism in Japan" and "Nordic Narratives of Nature and the Environment" were the
most valuable sources of theories for this study. The first is an anthology of ecocritical studies.
Various ecocritical studies on various Japanese works of art, including literature and film, are
introduced with a general overview of ecocriticism in Japan. I chose this source because it offers
information on how to conduct an ecocritical study on Japanese literature as well as general
information about ecocriticism in Japan.
The second offers an introduction to Swedish ecocritical history. It emphasises how crucial
the natural narrative is for conveying the cultural bond that the Nordic nations have with
nature. This source was chosen because it deconstructs the stereotypical view of Nordic
countries as ecotopias.
The absence of ecocritical research on ecofeminists 56 or ecocritical writers, in particular, is
one drawback of "Ecocriticism in Japan." While "Nordic Narratives of Nature and the
Environment" generalizes to the Nordic nations as a whole, it is not Sweden-specific. To
respond to the research question, Lake of Heaven, and The Christmas Oratorio (Juloratoriet)
will be subjected to an ecocritical analysis. The majority of the study's material is taken from
secondary sources of Japanese and Swedish literature. To undertake an ecocritical analysis, the
literature study incorporates ecocritical anthologies like Ecocriticism in Sweden and
Ecocriticism in Japan. To learn more about earlier works on the subject, a critical examination
of the two selected books will also be looked at in the late chapters. Ishimure Michiko and
Global Ecocriticism 2016 by Karen Thornber is one example. As mentioned before, the analysis

54
Seger, “Futures,” 133–138.
55
Seger, “Futures,” 133–138.
56
Ecofeminism as defined by Glotfelty as “a theoretical discourse whose theme is the link between the oppression
of women and the domination of nature.” In Glotfelty and Fromm, The Ecocriticism Reader, XXIV.

24
of the theme of human-nature interaction and interaction as it is depicted in the selected literary
works aims to fill the research gap that this thesis identifies. Readers could better appreciate the
ecological consciousness that these authors have included in their work by considering how
they describe the connection between humans and the natural world.

4.4 Ecocriticism in Swedish Literature

Ecocritical approaches just recently began to be used in Scandinavian studies. However,
there has been an increase in ecocritical scholarship within Scandinavian studies to go along
with the current boom in Nordic literature and art that in many ways links to environmental and
climatic problems. Only a few edited books with a focus on Nordic literature and cultures from
an ecocritical viewpoint have been released thus far in English.57
Early modern times saw a start growing in interest in the history and ecology of the Nordic
area. Modernization of agriculture, industrialization, urbanization, and immigration to North
America were prominent features of the nineteenth century in the Nordic nations, particularly
in its second half. In addition to reflecting these substantial societal changes, a lot of the
literature and art from this era also present counter-images by idealizing traditional rural life.
The national romanticism that dominated that century attempted to create national identities
tied to specific Nordic landscapes; this trend is evident, for instance, in the majority of the
Nordic nations' national anthems, which were written during this period. 58 The twentieth
century saw an increase in anthropogenic environmental change. During the twentieth century,
anthropogenic environmental change increased. Environmental themes started to occur in
literature, both fiction and nonfiction, more and more regularly in the second half of the
twentieth century, notably starting about 1970. Nordic literature and art have had a true
explosion in recent years when it comes to addressing environmental issues in one way or
another. 59 There is a difference between environmental awareness and the behaviour of the
population in the Nordic nations. The observed behaviour reflects Sweden's advanced
industrialization of iron and the associated challenges arising from the emergence of Green
Industries for the local indigenous population in Lapland. Nonetheless, Henning et al.'s study

57
Reinhard Hennig, Peter Degerman, and Anna-Karin Jonasson, Nordic narratives of Nature and the environment:
Ecocritical approaches to Northern European Literatures and Cultures, (Lanham, Maryland: The Rowman &
Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc., 2018), 8.
58
Hennig et al, Nordic Narrative, 7.
59
Hennig et al, Nordic Narrative, 5–8.

25
demonstrates that Nordic people exhibit a substantial level of environmental awareness.60 It
is important to challenge critically this relation and the truth underlying the image of the Nordic
nations as green.61
The main study which contributes to this thesis is the collection mentioned before, “Nordic
Narrative es of Nature and The Environment: Ecocritical Approaches to Northern European
Literature and Cultures”, edited by Reinhard Hennig, Anna-Karin Jonasson, and Peter
Degerman. This collection of works is introduced as the first English language anthology that
presents ecocritical research in northern European literature and cultures. The editors of this
collection of studies suggest in the introduction the need for ecocritical studies of culture and
language-related diversification and more comparative approaches within the environmental
humanities in general and in ecocriticism in particular. This collection is spread out all over the
Nordic countries, so it does not have a Swedish focus, however, it is a valuable addition to the
ecocritical studies of ecocritical work in English for Swedish literary and cultural work.
Moreover, the focus of the collection is on modern literature and culture. 62
An important contribution to understanding ecocritical work in Sweden is the essay titled
"Cool Nature: Utopian Landscapes in Sweden 1780–1840," authored by Anna Albrektson, et
al. 63 This essay forms part of a comprehensive collection of articles composed by an
interdisciplinary group of researchers, which delves into the historical period of 1780–1840 in
Sweden. The primary objective of this work is to contextualize the representation of nature and
focus on how nature was negotiated in Swedish portrayals during this specific era. Additionally,
it explores the ways in which these portrayals are infused with utopian possibilities, particularly
within the early Anthropocene context.64 While the essay primarily concentrates on the early
period of 1780–1840, it offers valuable insights into the evolution of certain representations of
nature in Sweden and the emergence of specific practices that subsequently became ingrained
in the Swedish cultural approach to nature. This ecocritical examination of diverse fields within
the Swedish tradition makes the essay a valuable resource for comprehending the development
of ecocritical perspectives in Sweden. Albretkson et al., for instance, make the case that The

60
Richard Orange, “‘Green Industry Wants to Take Our Land’: The Arctic Paradox.” The Guardian, April 21,
2022, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/21/green-industry-wants-to-take-our-land-the-new-battle-
for-the-arctic.
61
Hennig et al, Nordic Narrative, 3–4.
62
Hennig et al, Nordic Narrative, 3–11
63
Anna Albrektson, Mikael Ahlund, Sara Ekström, Johanna Ethnersson Pontara, Elisabeth Mansén, Vera Sundin,
Meike Wagner, and Erik Wallrup, “Cool Nature: Utopian Landscapes in Sweden 1780–1840.” 1700-tal: Nordic
Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 19 (December 2022): 94–116. https://doi.org/10.7557/4.6575.
64
Albrektson et al, “Cool Nature: Utopian Landscapes in Sweden 1780–1840.”, 98–101.

26
Royal Academy of Art provided several evidence of how landscapes and other non-human
animals have evolved into crucial tools for expressing, resolving, and discovering new
connections between the human experience and the natural world. In particular, attempts to use
nature as a symbol of a harmonious society or as a tool to create a new national feeling of
community during the period corresponded with depictions of Swedish nature in art. 65 One
notable aspect that I find valuable, yet remains unclear in this essay, pertains to the author's
precise definition of nature. The inclusion of Spas practices in Sweden as part of the cultural
relationship developed towards nature raises the need for a distinct and explicit definition of
nature.66 Such clarity would enhance the comprehension of what falls under the category of
culture-nature tradition in the context of this study. Nevertheless, this article offers a critical
understanding of Sweden's significant interaction to nature as well as how the practice of
admiring landscapes came to be.
In conclusion, the chapter provides an overview of the emergence and growth of ecocritical
approaches in Scandinavian studies. The exploration of early modern times and the subsequent
societal changes in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries showcases the evolving perceptions
and representations of nature in Nordic cultures. The chapter emphasizes the distinction
between environmental awareness and actual behaviours in the Nordic nations, highlighting the
need for critical examination of the "green" image often associated with the region.
Overall, this chapter sets the stage for further examination of ecocritical perspectives in both
Nordic and Japanese literature, providing a solid foundation for the comparative analysis to
follow. Building on the comparative approach established in this chapter, the subsequent
section will explore into the evolution of ecocriticism in Japanese literature. By examining both
the similarities and contrasts between Scandinavian and Japanese literary traditions, a
comprehensive understanding of the cultural perception of nature and its representation in
literature will be achieved.

4.5 Ecocriticism in Japanese Literature

Deep interaction with nature in literary works is sometimes mentioned as evidence of
Japanese culture's "passion for nature." 67As part of Japanese cultures, celebrations of "nature"

65
Albrektson et al, “Cool Nature: Utopian Landscapes in Sweden 1780–1840,”102.
66
Albrektson et al, “Cool Nature: Utopian Landscapes in Sweden 1780–1840,” 106.
67
Karen L. Thornber,“Japanese Literature and the Environment: From the Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves to
Fukushima,” About Japan: A Teacher’s Resource , accessed April 20, 2023,
https://aboutjapan.japansociety.org/content.cfm/japanese-literature-and-the-
environment#sthash.tr0RmZOL.dpbs.

27
and tender depictions of relatively harmonious human coexistence with the nonhuman have
always been related to Japanese literature.68 Dreamers, travellers, and recluses regard nature as
a haven from civilization. However, many works in Japanese literature show considerably more
complicated relationships between people and their environment than has typically been
thought when read from an ecologically conscious viewpoint, concerned with the greater
environmental consequences of human/nonhuman interactions. Given the magnitude of human
effect on the environment of the archipelago over millennia, this is not surprising. Despite never
being absent, clear concern with environmental destruction may be found in Japanese literature.
Although the majority of the early environmental writing in Japan is concerned with
pollution, the 1970s saw the publication of numerous important creative works with a
conservationist theme. Japanese literature has long shed light on many parts of Japan's natural
heritage that are harder to reach through documented sources or even first-hand knowledge.
Literature’s style, substance and the space it gives readers to think about global crisis, evoke
the empathy required to understand the need for changing attitudes and behaviours vis-à-vis the
nonhuman.69
Japanese literature, like many other literatures from throughout the world, more subtly than
other discourses discusses, reminisces, cautions, praises, and criticizes various aspects of
human-nonhuman relations. Creative works offer different viewpoints on the real world and the
actual and ideal behaviours of human societies concerning their settings, but they also
frequently require and at times merciless multivalent discourses. More importantly, they aid
readers in better comprehending their various locations within various ecosystems, from local
to global. 70 At the beginning of ecocriticism literature, most ecocriticism and ecocriticism
works were focused on the U.S. and Britain. 71
The absence of climate change as a major issue in the current essay collection, in contrast to
Japanese ecocriticism, testifies to a distinct and more limited aesthetic or narrative challenge
for the cultural comparatist, argues Ursula Heise. 72 The question of whether and how this

68
See for example: Watanabe, Masao. The Japanese and Western science. Translated by Otto Theodor Benfey
(Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); and Watsuji Tetsuro ideas of climate and
culture.
69
Karen L. Thornber,“Japanese Literature and the Environment: From the Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves to
Fukushima,” About Japan: A Teacher’s Resource , accessed April 20, 2023,
https://aboutjapan.japansociety.org/content.cfm/japanese-literature-and-the-
environment#sthash.tr0RmZOL.dpbs.
70
Thornber, “Japanese Literature and the Environment”.
71
Ursula K Heise, “Foreword to Ecocriticism in Japan,” In Ecocriticism in Japan, ed. Hisaaki Wake, Keijirō Suga,
and Masami Yūki, (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2018), VII.
72
Heise, “Foreword to Ecocriticism in Japan,” VIII.

28
concern is reflected in literature, cinema, and art is raised by the fact that climate change has
been a significant political and legal concern in Japan.
A unique starting point for research into how narrative traditions and templates of a
particular culture accommodate or resist crises like deforestation, soil erosion, air pollution,
species extinction, and toxic waste is the presence or absence of topics or genres in
environmental literature, film, and art in Japan. A detailed understanding of such cultural
specifics is urgently needed as ecocriticism attempts to contribute to the examination of what
stories and pictures best convey environmental issues throughout the world.73
Many voices are demonstrating intellectual scepticism about the notion of harmony with
nature in Japan. In her ecocritical examinations of East Asian literature, for instance, Karen
Thornber highlights what she terms ‘ecoamiguity’, the contradictory interaction between
humans and their nonhuman surroundings, in East Asia. Thornier finds a contradiction in East
Asian aesthetic representations of “harmonious human-nonhuman relationships” in that they
are not reflecting empirical and thereby fail to address “eco-degradation”.74
A study that is central to this thesis regarding Ecocriticism in Japan is certainly Masami's
introduction to the Collection of essays in the book called “Ecocriticism in Japan”. Masami's
study is central to this thesis because it aims to delineate a wide spectrum of ecocriticism in
Japan and discusses and analyses environmental representations of Japanese literature, culture,
and art from ecocritical approaches.75 Masami, in his introduction to Ecocriticism in Japan,
presents an overview of discussions on the controversial notion of harmony in the study of
Japanese literary environmentalism. He also explores an emerging theoretical framework
within which to define Japanese ecocriticism. Masami's theoretical framework was indeed
useful for the thesis as a means of a model for how to construct it.
Masami distinguishes between "Japanese ecocriticism" and "Ecocriticism in Japan" in her
essay, with the former referring to any ecocritical practices in Japan and of Japanese literature
outside of the country while the latter involves some distinctly Japanese characteristics or
inclinations in such practices.76

73
Heise, “Foreword to Ecocriticism in Japan,” VIII–IX. See also: Yuan Pan, "Human–Nature Relationships in
East Asian Animated Films" Societies 10, no. 2 (April 2020). https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10020035; Kazuaki
Odani. “In Search of a New Representation of Nature in Post-War Japanese Literature.” In Mushroom Clouds:
Ecocritical Approaches to Militarization and the Environment in East Asia (New York, NY: Routledge, 2021).
74
Thornber, Karen, Ecoambiguity: Environmental Crises and East Asian Literatures, (Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 2012), 4.
75
Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,” 2.
76
Yuki Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,” In Ecocriticism in Japan, ed. Hisaaki
Wake, Keijirō Suga, and Masami Yūki, (Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2018), 1–2.

29
 Masami contends that the creation of a story about a Japanese affinity for nature makes this
fabrication problematic.77 He discusses how the latter has formed a certain attitude or frame of
mind that is distinctive to Japanese culture. For example, Nakazawa, emphasizes the distinction
between human isolation from nature and human reciprocity with nature. The conflict between
a cultural appreciation of harmony and current environmental trends may be more complicated
than it initially appears if a notion of harmony with nature is not necessarily understood as
ecological in an environmentalist sense.78
The idea of harmony with nature is often referred to as characteristically Japanese in two
largely different ways. Some scholars and intellectuals perceived harmony between humans
and non-human nature as an ecologically sound alternative vision, whereas others see the notion
of living in harmony with nature as culturally constructed and purely ideological with little
ecological significance. 79 Thanks to Masami's work I was possible to understand the false
ideology and the contradiction within the ecocriticism works in Japanese literature. As he points
out that Japan has been often perceived by both Japanese and foreigners as a country with an
especially intimate relationship with nature. Masami argues, giving some scholarly examples,
how the Japanese attitude toward harmony with nature has been questioned from an
environmental perspective. In fact, in not the concept of harmony that is an issue but the myth
per se.80 Masami shows that not only harmony with nature is a Western perception, but also
Japanese people see themselves and their culture as connected and harmonious with nature.81
Additionally, this conflicted perspective is illustrated by Kazuaki Odani's work, "In Search
of a New Representation of Nature in Post-war Japanese Literature," explores how post-war
Japanese writers sought to establish a new aesthetic framework based on their experiences of
war, in contrast to the deeply rooted pre-war literary traditions in Japanese society.82 This work
holds significant value as it highlights the constructed aesthetic of the Japanese landscape,
which played a crucial role in the sociocultural transformations brought about by modernization
discourse. These transformations led to a detachment from traditional beliefs about nature,
prompting the Japanese government and intellectuals to utilize nature landscapes as a means to
construct a national identity. Odani's work is particularly valuable in shedding light on the

77
Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,” 6.
78
Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,” 3–6.
79
Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,” 2.
80
Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,” 6.
81
Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,”8.
82
Kazuaki Odani. “In Search of a New Representation of Nature in Post-War Japanese Literature.” In Mushroom
Clouds: Ecocritical Approaches to Militarization and the Environment in East Asia (New York, NY: Routledge,
2021), 179–192.

30
struggles faced by certain post-war writers who attempted to dismantle this aesthetic
framework. Despite these efforts, some aspects of the natural aesthetic beliefs persisted, and
certain natural symbols, such as Mount Fuji, gained admiration not only within Japan but also
beyond its borders. This study provides valuable insights into the development of aesthetic
ideals amid the aftermath of post-war disasters, such as Nagasaki, demonstrating how certain
aesthetic values endured both domestically and internationally. Overall, Odani's research
significantly contributes to our understanding of the intricate relationship between literature,
nature, and cultural identity in post-war Japan, offering valuable perspectives on the persistence
and evolution of aesthetic ideals in the face of historical challenges and transformations.
Japanese ecocriticism, which is undoubtedly the result of the transnational shift in
ecocriticism, has been and will continue to be defined by comparative methods. Comparative
transnational ecocriticism should provide a critical framework for examining not just the
interactions, disagreements, or negotiations between various national literary productions but
also the many cultures, traditions, and values that are inextricably bound by national
boundaries.83

4.6 Sweden and Religion

Religion's significance in environmental thought and activism is often overlooked. Scholars
like Evan Berry, Donald Worster, and Lynn White Jr. have highlighted the historical connection
between religious beliefs and environmentalism. 84 Viewing religious teachings through an
ecocritical lens reveals how certain paradigms may have contributed to exploitative views of
nature. Integrating religious perspectives into the environmental discourse can provide valuable
insights and foster a more sustainable approach to nature preservation.
According to Evan Berry, in his work “Devoted to Nature: The Religious Roots of American
Environmentalism”, the conceptual roots of environmentalism as a movement that we know
today comes from religious belief and practices. The environmental achievements of
environmentalism of the mid-century have had their origins in different social factors. Berry
argues that there is a connection between the environmental sentiments for nature and the

83
Masami, “On Harmony with Nature: Toward Japanese Ecocriticism,” 10.
84
Evan Berry, Devoted to Nature: The Religious Roots of American Environmentalism (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2015); Donald Worster, The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological
Imagination (Cary: Oxford University Press, 1993.); Lynn White, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic
Crisis,” Science 155, no. 3767 (March 1967), http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720120.

31
religious discourse that has been left out historically. 85 Much modern scholarship tends to
conceptualise environmentalism from a political and economic frame. Berry Evans argues that
a crucial role has been played by religious ideas, and practices in creating the American
environmental movement.86
The book The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination is
a study by Donald Worster. The author argues that as nature became more appreciated, the
influence of religion started to diminish.87Also Lynn White agrees with this argument, stating
that environmental concern was a concept independent of religion he criticised the Judeo-
Christian tradition as having antienvironmental legality. 88 This mixture generated practices
which manifested in the devotion to nature. From this many outdoor recreations such as hiking
and camping took more form because they were all activities that celebrated the spiritual
benefits and marked an important identity for many. This secularised culture came to supersede
not only Judeo-Christianity but almost all the other traditional religious and ethical systems of
the world, not entirely enough to make them secondary, marginal influences. Growing
secularism put religious feelings on the defensive, subverting and distorting them into many
strange new forms.89
Consequently, the new materialistic worldview that was secular, progressive, and rational
spread across Europe and battled the declining influence of the Church and the feudal system,
and ultimately gained the hearts and minds of the era's most influential thinkers.90 Berry argues
that the preservation of wilderness indeed was pursued mainly to preserve the redemptive nature
experience.91 Moreover, protestant congregations had a big involvement in the creation of the
scouting movement and proto-environmentalist ceremonies.92
The work “The Ecological complaint against Christianity” is a study by James Nash.
According to Nash, Christianity has been subjected to an ecological complaint. This means the
specific Christian doctrine of creation disenchants the natural world.93 This happens because

85
Evan Berry, Devoted to Nature: The Religious Roots of American Environmentalism (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 2015), 2.
86
Berry, Devoted to Nature, 3.
87
Donald Worster, The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination (Cary: Oxford
University Press, 1993.), 210–212.
88
Lynn White, “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis,” Science 155, no. 3767 (March 1967): 1205.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/1720120.
89
Worster, The Wealth of Nature, 210.
90
Worster, The Wealth of Nature, 212.
91
Berry, Devoted to Nature, 61.
92
Berry, Devoted to Nature, 82.
93
James Nash, “The Ecological complaint against Christianity,” in Loving Nature: Ecological integrity and
Christian responsibility, ed. James Nash et al (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1991), 68–69.

32
placing God as Creator far from the world causes the creature in this world to become available
to be instrumentalised by humans.
White's essay became a milestone for scholars in the relationship between religious history
and environmental attitudes. White’s work is cited in almost every academic work in this thesis
that focuses on the connection between religion and nature. For example, in Rots’ work.94
According to Lynn White Jr., religion was central to the origin of the environmental crisis. He
also was one of the first to argue that religion played a central role in it and that religion could
also be the solution to the environmental crisis. For example, always according to White,
Franciscan and Zen Buddhism attitudes could play a role in diminishing this disenchantment of
nature which has been promoted by Latin Christianity.
Responding to White’s arguments in his work “A Christian view of the West”, Francis
Schaeffer argues that, in agreement with White, a person's core belief shapes their actions
towards the environment.95 However, he also stated that the bible presents extreme weather
events as prophecies. Schaeffer differs from White in his arguments because he argued that
ecological destruction is not influenced by Christian teaching but more signs of the collapse of
belief. Schaeffer says that the doctrine of creation was undermined by the Enlightenment.96
The first people protesting in modern times on the destruction of nature because of industrial
development and pollution originated among the British romantics, with writers such as
Coleridge and Wordsworth. For example, Wordsworth, Rusking and Carlyle were founder
members of the Thirlmere Defence Association, one of the first environmental protest
campaigns in history, born to go against the dam construction in Manchester. Even if it is
considered more because of romantic ideas than Protestantism, there is indeed a protestant
heritage to the birth of the romantic movement. It is a fact that individuals and regions with a
protestant religious background are pioneers in environmental campaigns and in trying to create
national parks and conservation areas for rare species. Thomas R. Dunlap notes that the
religious meaning of environmentalism in Western countries is a heritage of Protestantism.97
As argued by Dunlap, nature in its original form has the power to counterbalance human

94
Aike P. Rots, Shinto, Nature and ideology in contemporary Japan: Making sacred forests, (London, UK:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2017).
95
Francis A Schaeffer, “Pollution and the Death of Man,” In A Christian View of the West, (Crossway Books,
1982): 6–7.
96
Schaeffer, Francis A, “The God Who Is There,” In the Complete Works of Francis A. Schaeffer: A Christian
Worldview (Crossway Books, 1985): 45–51.
97
Thomas Dunlap, Faith in Nature: Environmentalism as Religious Quest (Seattle: University of Washington
Press, 2005), 167.

33
disorder. This is also because the wilderness is the least humanly influenced of landscapes and
the most evocative activities of God, which is also acknowledged by Calvin.
In the work of Northcott, “Reformed Protestantism and the Origins of Modern
Environmentalism, he investigates the reasons why individuals and regions from a protestant
religious background set aside national parks and species conservation and pioneered
environmental campaigns compared to other backgrounds. To do so he analyses various
scholarly works such as the aforementioned Dunlap and Berry, and outlines features of
Protestant culture which help to explain the historic association between Protestant cultures and
the origins of environmentalism. The most important to stress for this thesis are the one that
underlines a direct correlation to being immersed in nature. First, the influence of biblical
images of nature as a romantic source and modern appreciation of nature in literature. Second,
protestant pietism emphasised individual spirituality. Third, the protestant is suspicious of
hierarchy and the promotion of democratic government. Four, Protestant advocacy of laws
promulgated by the state as secular counterpart to the spiritual laws and governance of the
church, and as protection of citizens from tyranny.98Northcott argues that the important and real
influence that religion has had on the rise of environmental protests has been severely under-
studied and underplayed by historians. Northcott argues that Protestantism proves to be friendly
towards the environment because of the changing nature of religious experience and its focus
towards emotions regarding the individual part of the protestant culture. The work ethic and the
rise of devotion for ordinary people led to a new emphasis on personal experience and spiritual
formation of the self. This also caused a new concept of recreational activity such as walking
and hiking to redeem oneself. 99 As argued by Northcott, this is the protestant background
culture which provided the cultural origin of the romantic movement in England and Germany.
It gave origin to the action of looking at nature as a moral source for redemption and spiritual
guidance. 100 Northcott concludes by arguing that it was Protestantism's promotion of
democracy, and its conception of creation as closer to God, nature, where the rise of modern
movements to protect the natural environment from industrial development and pollution.101
Because of the protestant history of Sweden, I argue it applies to the concept of nature
developed in the other protestants countries as claimed by Northcott. The evolution of culture

98
Northcott, “Reformed Protestantism and the Origins of Modern Environmentalism,” 23.
99
Northcott, “Reformed Protestantism and the Origins of Modern Environmentalism,” 25.
100
Northcott, “Reformed Protestantism and the Origins of Modern Environmentalism,” 26.
101
Northcott, “Reformed Protestantism and the Origins of Modern Environmentalism,” 31.

34
and religion brought forth by Protestantism, not the language used, is what gave rise to how
people approach nature.

4.7 Japan and Religion

The book “Shinto, Nature and Ideology in Contemporary Japan” is a study by Aike P. Rots
which investigates Shinto sacred shrine forests and the environmentalist paradigms. 102 Rots
draw from different theoretical approaches and disciplines to examine the reconfigurations of
Shinto in modern times as a tradition which worships nature. During his argument, Rots
critically discusses the possibility of Shinto as a potential environmental saviour. He has mixed
opinions and arguments about this possibility in his book. Rots show that in the end, Shinto’s
environmentalist paradigms are a modern fabrication with nationalist agenda and economic
purposes. Rots with his paper present a new case study on the changes of the Shinto tradition.
The interdisciplinary take that Rots follow is certainly a strong point of this book. Even if his
subject of study is placed in modern times, Rots makes a point in historically placing all his
case studies and subjects. “Chapters 2 and 3 are theoretical and historical treatments of Shintō
and the concept of nature. Building upon previous waves of scholarship, Rots reminds his
readers that “Shintō remains a contested concept.”103 The most relevant chapter for my analysis
is Chapter 3. It begins by presenting Lynn White’s argument from “The historical roots of Ours
Ecological Crisis” (1967) According to White, the underlying cause of environmental
degradation is the Judeo-Christian promotion of man’s dominion of nature. However White
believed that the Eastern view of man and nature as harmonious could help overcome the
ecological challenges of his day. Rots intervene in White argument by arguing that the ideas of
Asians religions relate to nature in fundamentally different ways from Abrahamic religions,
making them more environmentally sustainable, this concept ignores the ambiguity of the term
‘nature’.104 Rots’ discussion of nature is not extensively argued. Rots argues that ‘nature’ is a
historically contingent category, one that carries various meanings across time and place.
However, what Rots means as a category in the context it is positioned is not clear to a reader.
The article “Japanese View of Nature: Discursive Tradition, its Problem and Implications
for food studies” by Haruka Ueda has been a valuable contribution to this thesis. This article
focuses on food, but it is valuable for my paper because it researches the Japanese view of

102
Aike P. Rots, Shinto, Nature and ideology in contemporary Japan: Making sacred forests, (London, UK:
Bloomsbury Academic, 2017), 19.
103
Rots, Shinto, Nature and ideology in contemporary Japan, 26.
104
Rots, Shinto, Nature and ideology in contemporary Japan,48–51.

35
nature and gives an overview of the changes in nature's meaning in Japan. Furthermore, Ueda
discusses the major discursive traditions of the Japanese natural view. He also summarises three
main spiritual streams of Japan, Ancient thought or Animism, Buddhism, and Neo-
Confucianism. He stresses the problematics of the Japanese view of Nature. As the author
argues, one of the limitations of this study is indeed the lack of comparative discourse of other
Asian countries.105 Ueda in his work analyses various literature regarding the Japanese view of
nature and also overviews three traditions of such views. These traditions are Ancient Thoughts,
Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism which are discussed in his article.
Ueda discusses how some academics have investigated non-Western natural viewpoints.
For instance, Philippe Descola proposed four methods for identifying relationships between
humans and nature in his studies. According to Ueda, per Descola's studies, Japan falls under
the animism category. However, what is in line with this thesis is that Ueda argues that one of
the reasons it attracted so much the Western idealization of human nature of Japan is the non-
dualistic philosophy that links humans and nature. One reason for this is that Japan has a
distinctive philosophy of coexistence between people and nature, which attracted many
Western intellectuals. 106 The first group of academics to adopt an environmental stance argued
for the exclusivity of Japanese environmental characteristics. They claimed that these traits
were what gave Japanese people the mindset to coexist with nature rather than try to subdue it.
Ueda concludes his article by stressing the fundamental issue with the Japanese perspective on
nature. He shows in his article that ideological discourses and historical facts are being mixed
up, which is also part of the issue. This argument refers to the notion that the very existence of
cultural artefacts, like poetry (haiku), that reinforce the concept of "nature-loving Japanese,"
whether historical or ideological, inspires modern Japanese to cherish the natural environment.
Since the 1990s, the notion that people must adapt to nature has also taken popularity in Japan.
This belief predominated over the notion that people must adapt to nature. 107
Religion may enhance an ecocritical literary analysis because it impacts people's perceptions
of nature and affects how they interact with it as a cultural and spiritual framework. Since nature
is frequently portrayed as sacred in the chosen novel, understanding the cultural value of nature
within the story may be deepened by looking at how nature is portrayed in relation to religious
symbolism. Readers can therefore get greater insights into the complicated interaction between

105
Ueda, "Japanese View of Nature: Discursive Tradition," 2.
106
Haruka Ueda, "Japanese View of Nature: Discursive Tradition, Its Problems and Implications for Food
Studies", Sustainability 14, no. 13 (July 2022): 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14138057
107
Ueda, "Japanese View of Nature: Discursive Tradition," 7.

36
culture, humans, and nature as shown in the narrative by considering the role of religion in an
ecocritical approach.
Therefore, the gap that this literature will fill in my thesis is to investigate how nature is
portrayed in the narrative of a Japanese book as well as how it relates to religion and culture in
the novel. By filling up these gaps, the thesis may provide a thorough ecocritical study that
deepens our knowledge of the cultural and religious aspects of how people see nature in Japan.
To achieve this, the next chapter will discuss the area of ecocriticism in more detail as well
as the vocabulary used for nature, a key notion in the subject.

37
 5. Theoretical Framework

This section will present an overview of the theoretical framework of this thesis. First, in
this section, it will be attempted to define the terminology used for nature because it is a core
concept in discussing ecocriticism. Following this, the discussion will move to address
ecocriticism in detail. This section ends with an explanation of the different analogues patterns
and explains which one is used in this thesis.
As I am analysing the role that nature has in the narrative of the novels, and because of the
interest in also how it is described, I deem it crucial to attempt in defining the term nature.
Garrard and many other scholars define nature as an opposing culture.108 This definition can be
problematic for other theories such as ecofeminism because of the binary opposition between
culture and nature and the way it is considered from this field as an obsolete concept. 109
McFague, as one exponent of ecofeminism, defines nature as to be known as a subject and not
as an object.110
There are three distinct definitions of nature, according to Raymond Williams and Timothy
Clark.111 Raymond argues that the first characteristic is the essential quality and character of
something. The second is the inherent force which directs either the world or human beings.
Third, the material world itself is taken as including or not including human beings. 112
Timothy Clark argues that the definition of nature includes humans it is the total of “the
structures, substances, and causal powers that are the universe”. The second for Clark is nature
defined as everything that humans have not created, and in this definition, nature has been seen
as the opposite of culture.113 The anthropocentrism present in modern times places humans in
a position above every other entity but also associates nature as an untouched and sacred thing.

108
Greg Garrard, Ecocriticism (London: Routledge, 2012), 178–181; Cheryll Glotfelty, and Harold Fromm, The
ecocriticism reader: Landmarks in literary ecology (Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 1996);
Lawrence Buell, “Ecocriticism: Some Emerging Trends,” Qui Parle 19, no. 2 (2011): 88.
https://doi.org/10.5250/quiparle.19.2.0087.
109
Greg Garrard, Ecocriticism (London: Routledge, 2012), 24.
110
Sallie McFague, Super, natural Christians: how we should love nature, (London: SCM Press LTD, 1997), 1–2
and 107–111.
111
See Raymond Williams, Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society (London, Great Britain: Fontana,
1983), 219; and Timothy Clark, The cambridge introduction to literature and the environment (Cambridge, United
Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 6–7.
112
Raymond Williams, Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society (London, Great Britain: Fontana, 1983),
219.
113
Timothy Clark, The cambridge introduction to literature and the environment (Cambridge, United Kingdom:
Cambridge University Press, 2011), 5–6.

38
114 This is one of the most common definitions of nature according to Clark. However, it could
be problematic. The last definition of nature given by Clark is nature as the defining character
of something as the nature of ‘nature’.115 Both Clark and Williams have some similarities in
their definition. However, William includes humans as part of nature while Clark divides the
two.
The notion of nature as it applies to this thesis is somewhat more similar to Clark's definition.
The text refers to nature as a non-human subject and excludes humans from its consideration
as a subject. This is because a separation, even if not definite, is required to analyse the narrative
and the function of nature in opposition to the character. In the context of this thesis, the term
"nature" pertains to elements of the non-human world, encompassing entities and phenomena
not attributable to human creation and falling under the category of non-human.

5.1 Ecocriticism
I've chosen to use ecocriticism as my primary framework in this essay since it is the most
fitting. It is the most appropriate framework for this thesis because it aims to examine the
relationship in the literature of nature. Considering that the thesis aims to investigate the role of
nature in the narrative of two novels, ecocriticism as a framework aligns with the thesis
objectives.
The theoretical framework that this study adopts is an ecocritical theory because this theory
focuses on the relationship between human culture and the natural world. The current study
draws on key concepts from ecocriticism, including the idea of nature as a subject and the
human-nature relation. Ecocriticism as a field is in constant evolution and many scholars keep
exploring new ways to examine the relationship between literature and the environment. 116
Ecocriticism is a field of literary analysis that focuses on the portrayal of nature and the
environment in literature.
The field of literature and cultural studies first saw the emergence of ecocriticism as an
academic trend through the latter twentieth century. Ecocriticism addresses these issues in ways
that emphasize the contribution of non-human forces to physical activities and the ongoing
interaction between "culture" and "nature." The ability to take seriously the environmental

114
Clark, The cambridge introduction to literature and the environment, 6.
115
Clark, The cambridge introduction to literature and the environment, 6.
116
See, Greta Gaard, “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism”, Interdisciplinary
Studies in Literature and Environment 17.4 (Autumn 2010); and Robisch, S. K. “The Woodshed: A Response to
‘Ecocriticism and Ecophobia.’” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 16, no. 4 (2009).
http://www.jstor.org/stable/44733489;

39
imagination at play in literature and the creation of the world has always been a strength of
ecocritical analysis. This entails reading a text in the context of its sociohistorical setting and
also examining the larger material world that it describes. By doing so, a more complete context
is created that emphasizes the interaction between human meditation on the non-human world
and how this world shapes literary forms.117
William Rueckert is the one who coined the term ecocriticism in his 1978 article "Literature
and Ecology: An Experiment in Ecocriticism." 118 It is a critical approach that examines the
relationship between literature and the natural world. According to Glotfelty, ecocriticism as a
recent critical perspective, deals with the study of the relationship between literature and the
physical environment.119 Johnson’s definition in her contribution is that ecocriticism emerged
as a field of literary study that addresses how humans relate to non-human nature or the
environment in literature.120
Garrard defines ecocriticism as ‘the study of the relationship between human and the non-
human’.121 Bate who is a prominent ecocritic from Britain argues that the poetry of Romantic
writers reflected the intimate relationship that they had with nature. Specifically, Bate argues
that humans have become disconnected from nature and writers have the responsibility to
underline the connection between humans and their natural surroundings.122
Starting from Rueckert’s essay of 1978, ecocriticism got recognition as a new way of
explaining nature and its function. Thanks to Glotfelty, there has been more attention to the
importance of ecocritical works. Glotfelty stated that it does not matter the name it has been
given to it, there is a common motivation in almost all the ecocritical work. This motivation is
that we reached the time of environmental limits when the consequences of human action are
damage to the basic support system of the planet.123
The basis of ecocriticism is the requirement to investigate how people and the natural world
interact in literature. The aim is to create awareness of the dependence that humans have on the

117
Christopher Schliephake, “Profile Ecocriticism and Ancient Environments,” The Classical Review 72, no. 2
(October 2022): 393–96, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009840X22000786.
118
Loretta Johnson, “Greening the Library: The Fundamentals and Future of Ecocriticism,” Choice, (December
2009), 7, https://www.asle.org/wp-content/uploads/ASLE_Primer_GreeningLibrary.pdf.
119
Glotfelty and Fromm, The ecocriticism reader, XX.
120
Johnson, “Greening the Library,” 7.
121
Garrard, Ecocriticism, 5.
122
Laurence Coupe, The Green Studies Reader: From romanticism to ecocriticism (London, Great Britain:
Routledge, 2010), 260-261.
123
Glotfelty, and Fromm, The ecocriticism reader, XX.

40
sustainability of the environment. According to Glotfelty, the rising of this consciousness is the
most important role in ecocriticism.124
In Ann Dobie's work, ‘Theory into Practice: an introduction to literary criticism’, she draws
attention to Glotfelty’s three analogous patterns that ecocritics have found useful in their
engagement. 125 The first is the analysis of how nature is represented in literature. Hence the
raising of awareness people regarding the natural world. The second pattern also attempts in
rediscovering and reconsidering the genre of nature writing to make it more visible. The third
pattern instead deals with the investigation of ecocritical issues and questions in history,
philosophy, and science. Considering this paper’s question, the first pattern was the one
followed because it deals with the way nature is represented in the text. With this, she means
examining how nature is depicted in literature and raising public awareness of attitudes toward
the natural world. This is done by drawing upon asking a wide range of questions about topics,
which this thesis is about the relationship between nature and culture inside the chosen
literature.126
Mishra argues that the loss of human relationship to nature is due to human’s anthropocentric
attitude. According to him, the anthropocentric human nature positions them at the top.
Additionally, as humans are the only literary being, they consider themselves superior to
everything else.127 The supporter of Ecocriticism J. Stan Rowe, argues that our understanding
of the environment should be based on an understanding of how interdependent all living things
and ecological systems are. Moreover, he believes that humans need to move away from the
current anthropocentric view and embrace instead an ecocentric perspective of the world where
all living things are valued inherently as worthy of living. Rowe stresses the importance of
understanding natural cycles and its process. He argues that by recognizing the interconnection
present between all living things, we would develop a more sustainable relationship with the
natural world where the diversity of life is valued and protected.128 This stance is valuable in
the analysis of literature in the way characters react to the natural elements and the connection
to the world outside of the novels.

124
Glotfelty, and Fromm, The ecocriticism reader, XX.
125
Ann B. Dobie, Theory into practice: An introduction to literary criticism (Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage
Learning, 2012), 242-247.
126
See Dobie, Theory into practice, 242–243; And Glotfelty, and Fromm, The ecocriticism reader, XXVII–
XXXII.
127
Sandip Kumar Mishra, “Ecocriticism: A Study of Environmental Issues in Literature,” BRICS Journal of
Educational Research 6, no. 4, 169.
128
Stan Rowe, “Ecocentrism: The responsive Chord,” The Trumpeter 11, no 2 (April 1994),
https://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/index.php/trumpet/article/view/330.

41
 In ecocriticism, there is one key concept, and it is the idea of “nature writing”. This idea
means that some literature portrays nature as an independent entity with meaning. According
to Glotfelty and Fromm, as we conceive nature writing, it does not assume a separation between
human culture and non-human nature.129 It rather recognizes that all life forms are connected
and that environmental sustainability is indeed important. This thesis's research goal is in line
with the fundamental idea that nature plays a unique role and has unique significance in literary
works.
In conclusion, ecocriticism serves as the theoretical foundation for analysing the two novels.
As previously mentioned, it is a method used to investigate how nature is represented to
comprehend how the relationship between humans and nature is portrayed in texts or other
forms of media. To put the framework above into practice, I will analyse the two works from
an ecocritical point of view to respond to my research question, searching for how nature is
addressed as a topic and how it interacts with the story's characters. It will also be used to
examine how the characters behave and how they view the natural world. Overall, using
ecocriticism as the analytical framework for the two books will assist reveal the role of nature
in the story and bring up how the authors see and relate to the natural world.

129
Glotfelty, and Fromm, The ecocriticism reader, 18.

42
 6. The Narrative of Nature in Swedish Literature: Ecocritical Analysis in
The Christmas Oratorio

The forthcoming chapter will critically examine the portrayal of nature as a character with
various themes addressed in the preceding chapters. As discussed earlier, these themes entail
Youth, Nostalgia, Family, the interplay between humans and their surroundings, and the
contrasting experiences of life in rural areas versus urban settings. The role of nature as a
character will be analysed through the lens of these thematic elements to gain a comprehensive
understanding of its significance and implications within the context of the literary works under
study.
Looking at the past decade we can see how Sweden has been at the centre of many
environmental movements and also environmental research. 130 However, as mentioned
previously in the thesis, Sweden is not a perfectly utopian green country. Sweden is the eleventh
country to produce Iron according to “GlobalData”131, which is not a very environmentally
friendly production. Additionally, as demonstrated by the Sami community's protest in the
northern part of Sweden, the rise of green industries does not coincide with the preservation of
the remaining natural landscapes.132 In this matter, there is indeed a gap that needs to be bridged
regarding cultural perception and environmental reality.

6.1 Summary of The Christmas Oratorio

The Christmas Oratorio (Juloratoriet), written by Göran Tunström, is the first novel I look
at in this thesis in terms of how nature plays a part in the narrative. The story opens with Victor
Nordensson returning to Sunne, the Swedish village where he was born, after a long absence in
order to conduct the town orchestra performing Bach's The Christmas Oratorio. The narrative
then undergoes a temporal shift, delving into the past to unveil the tale of the Nordensson
family, commencing with the passing of Solveig and subsequently exploring Aron's formative
years and the dynamics of their familial bond after being compelled to relocate to Sunne
following the untimely demise of their mother. The story follows Aron, Sidner, and ultimately

130
Swedish Institute, “Sweden and Sustainability,” sweden.se, June 30, 2023,
https://sweden.se/climate/sustainability/sweden-and-sustainability.
131
GlobalData. “Iron Ore Production in Sweden and Major Projects.” Mining Technology, June 28, 2023.
https://www.mining-technology.com/data-insights/iron-ore-in-
sweden/#:~:text=According%20to%20GlobalData%2C%20Sweden%20is,6%25%20between%202022%20and
%202026.
132
Orange, “‘Green Industry Wants to Take Our Land’”.

43
Victor Nordensson and spans three generations. The story unravelled in the book is grounded
in Tunström's personal experience of profound grief and overwhelming anguish. This narrative
traverses from Sweden to New Zealand in pursuit of the affection and love they have lost, and
the life from which grief has severed them.133

6.2 Analysis
Nature is indeed not an infrequent presence in Göran Tunström Work. Throughout the novel,
nature surrounding Sunne and in the countryside takes on a prominent role, influencing the
character’s emotions and decisions. In his article, Mitchell contends that the description and
investigation of a family's attempt to cope with loss are fundamental. Indeed, at first glance, the
focus might appear to be on the tragedies befalling the Nordennson family, to which the reader
concentrates. However, a closer examination reveals the significant role of nature in dialogues
and interactions with the characters. From being a passive character, merely reflecting the
family’s situation, to actively influencing scenes and communicating with human characters,
nature’s presence is pervasive.
Indeed, The Christmas Oratorio is not widely known for its depiction of nature, and neither
is Göran Tunström considered a nature-writing author. Nevertheless, even if not expressed
directly as saying that humans destroyed nature, some environmental concerns can be found in
his writing. For example, the constant comparison between life in the city and life in the
countryside. One specific scene is when in conversation with Sidner, Mrs Winther says:
“I’ve never felt at home here in Wellington. […] It was in Taihape I was at home. In
the country. Just to wash here in town! As easy as it is with the new machines. But it
doesn’t get clean. Too many cars and too much soot.”134

It is also implied in another scene involving Aron, Sidney's father with the following words:
“(…) The gold chain, which had cost the forest so many trees and the workers so many bent
backs, was the only thing about him that shone.”135
A definite contrast has been drawn, as can be seen in the excerpt. Even though the city offers
limitless opportunities and is more progressive than the town she left behind, the characters find
it unsettling because no matter how hard she tries, she can never make it clean. This shows a
dramatic illustration of the rise of ever-greater modernisation.

133
Fulvio Ferrari, “L’Oratorio Di Natale - Göran Tunström,” (Iperborea, 1996),
https://iperborea.com/titolo/61/loratorio-di-natale.
134
Göran Tunström, the Christmas oratorio, Translated by Paul Hoover, (Godine, 1995), 279.
135
Tunström, The Christmas oratorio, 102.

44
 Looking at The Christmas Oratorio it is also evident that the author has made seasons as
active characters in the narrative by focusing on their impact on the other characters' emotions
rather than leaving it in the background as passive characters. Season, in particular, emerges as
a powerful and progressive force in the narrative. Tunström masterfully weaves the changing
seasons with the character’s life stages, drawing attention to the impact of nature’s cycles on
their experiences. The beauty of blossoming flowers and warm late springs contrasts with the
gloom and starkness of grief during autumn. Nature’s agency is evident as it brings either light
or darkness into people’s lives, shaping their emotions and memories. There are many instances
when seasons and their elements are on display, for example: “Snow fell in heavy flakes on his
shoulders and cap.” 136 More specifically, the story depicts the seasons as a force that is
powerful and progressive. In the changing of the season, we also have on display the
development of the characters in different stages of their life. By doing so, Tunström raises the
reader’s awareness of the complexity and importance of the natural world and the way it is a
two-way communication between humans and non-humans. Both Mitchell and Varga contend
that the narrative exhibits a certain degree of chaos. Additionally, Mitchell asserts that
Tunström's efforts to establish a semblance of order in a universe he portrays as absurd and
capricious. Consequently, the emphasis on the seasons serves as a means to restore a sense of
order within the narrative.
In this book, the reader is constantly transported in the changing of the seasons which is also
accompanied by the journey and process that the Nordenssons’ family is subjected to. He
recognizes the authority that it has on the events with the cycles of blooming and harvesting,
maturation and decline. It affects all living things, as it affects the characters' decisions, but it
also leaves the readers to observe and appreciate its beauty as it is noticeable in the following
passage:

It is Sunday morning and autumn is making a last blazing attempt to remember its
summer. In the nursing home's garden old people and lunatics walk about in the light,
chained by their own nerves' short links, listening to the murmur from apple trees and
birch and to that which behind it all creates that murmur.137

Therefore, autumn is the focal point, while other natural aspects only appear afterwards. As
it is stated that the trees produce noise surrounding the nursing home, they are also depicted
here as components that may talk.

136
Tunström, The Christmas oratorio, 38.
137
Tunström, The Christmas oratorio, 77.

45
 Tunström gives the seasons agency. In other words, he observes that fulfils a task or serves
a purpose by using its power. One of these functions is to bring either light or darkness into
people’s life. Already at the beginning of the book, it is notable in the decision to leave the
countryside of the Nordensson family. After Solveig died is when autumn arrives and with it a
constant gloom. The constant rain paradoxically also brings silence to their world which was
filled with music: “(…) And all the music from your place! It's going to be quiet around here
now. Boy, is it raining!”138 However, the memories in Aron’s mind have a different season. It
was springtime when they could kiss in the sunshine, so when the light was present in their life,
and he was remembering Solveig alive.
The most important characteristic of nature in this book is that it is a changing character who
influences its surrounding by bringing light, darkness, or a sense of nostalgia sparking
memories in the story.

Afterwards, they lay on their stomachs in the autumn grass and spat on ants.
Rowanberries glowed above them, the air was clear and high and not yet cold. They
tried to hit the ants with their saliva, to bury them in the white scum. The ants struggled
awhile, but their movements were slow, and they curled up; then it was time to lift them
out to see them come alive again.139

It does not remain static but progressively moves from the happiness of youth and playing
surrounded by fruit trees and the warmth of late spring to the plain and grey feeling of grief.
The reader will mostly recognize the sounds of the wind or a piano as bringing either beauty
and happiness or the gloom and plain and grey lens of the city or the war, despite the visual of
blossoming flowers and beautiful moments of youth playing in the forest. Such songs can
convey either a mournful feeling, a melancholy aura intensified by the snow, or a different
sentiment of healing and enlightenment. Nevertheless, it always has a double aspect, there is
beauty in it but also sadness:

The tree is pretty in the spring when the tender leaves make the light play on the
cobblestones in the courtyard. It's nice in the winter when snow covers its limbs and the
whole courtyard is white and smooth as a baby's blanket.140

An ecocritical look at Göran Tunström’s Juloratoriet shows it to be part of nature writing

and positioning seasons as a force able to either influence one’s emotions and healing process.

138
Tunström, The Christmas oratorio, 25.
139
Tunström, The Christmas oratorio, 64.
140
Tunström, The Christmas oratorio, 138.

46
Moreover, it gives perspective on the beauty of nature in the cycle of birth, growth, and death.
All seasons are depicted in the narrative, and all also mirror the human emotions and journey
process from youth to adult and from grief to healing. This nature and the seasons also mirror
the cycle of human life.
Furthermore, nature intertwines with religious elements throughout the novel, starting with
the title The Christmas Oratorio, a reference to Bach’s work. Bach recognizes the religious
connotations of the gospel narration in the evangelist's voice in the context of the Passion story
by utilizing Oratorio.141
In The Christmas Oratorio by Tunström is extremely important the use of figural interpretation.
Figural interpretation is a literary interpretation technique in which a circumstance that is stated
in one segment of a broader biblical story is regarded as implying a divine dispensation in the
text.142 The use of figural interpretation and intertextuality, drawing parallels to important texts
such as Dante’s Divina Commedia, adds a layer of meaning to the narrative.
According to Anita Varga, along with figural interpretation, there is an important use of
mythology in the narrative where it also intersects with the intertextuality of important texts
such as Dante’s Divina Commedia.143 One strong resemblance is in the journey that both Aron
and Sidner, father, and son, undertake to go to New Zealand. Again, according to Varga, the
journey per se is a parallel story which recalls mostly the journey of Odysseus and a parallel
with the beginning of the Divina Commedia. Since the characters in the novel frequently
mention the Divina Commedia, the parallels between the two are visible. However, other than
this intertextuality, it is noticeable how the role of light, and the scorching sun present almost
throughout the entire journey recalls the landscape and the feeling of a desert. Desert is a symbol
which is recalled often in the Bible. The sun and light in this section play a crucial role in
simulating and conjuring up the lengthy journey across the desert described in the Bible. The
journey of Aron and Sidner to New Zealand mirrors biblical themes, recalling the Bible with
its long desert journey description. Additionally, the idyllic countryside once considered the
mother paradise, aligns with the biblical notion of the Garden of Heaven.
The role of nature to recall other biblical element is also present in the opposition of desert
and paradise. In fact, before the death of Solveig, the family was in an idyllic state and it is

141
Daniel R. Melamed, “Multi-Day Passions and J. S. Bach's Christmas Oratorio,” Eighteenth-Century Music 11,
no. 2 (2014): 215, doi:10.1017/S1478570614000050.
142
Erich Auerbach, and Paolo Valesio, Scenes from the drama of European literature, Vol. 9.
(Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 31–34.
143
Varga, Såsom i en spegel, 118.

47
mentioned that the countryside where they lived was the mother’s paradise, as to recall also the
biblical natural element of the Garden of Heaven.
In conclusion, this ecocritical analysis of The Christmas Oratorio highlights nature’s
multifaceted role in the narrative. By focusing on nature as a character and exploring its
connection to the themes mentioned above such as youth, nostalgia, family, and the contrast
between urban and rural life, we gain a deeper appreciation of the complexities and significance
of the natural world in the novel. Nature’s agency in shaping emotions and its interactions with
human characters contributes to the profound themes and intertextual elements, enriching the
overall reading experience. As emphasized in the preceding literature review by D'Heurle and
Varga, the narrative encompasses various themes, including the bond between father and son,
the love of music, and the experience of grief. Notably, these themes are not isolated but rather
intricately interconnected with nature within the narrative, reinforcing and enhancing one
another. Furthermore, the religious element intertwined with cultural characteristics in the
narrative in connection to nature is particularly noteworthy. This is evident not only in Varga's
depiction of light and darkness symbolically linked to Solveig and Sidner and their association
with Christianity but also in the instances where the characters find comfort in the presence of
nature.

7. The Narrative of Nature in Japanese Literature: Ecocritical Analysis in

Lake of Heaven

In the following chapter, I analyse the role of nature in the narrative of the book Lake of
Heaven written by the Japanese author Ishimure Michiko. The book per se aims to raise one
main question, which is how to restore what has been lost in the process of modernization. The
author, Ishimure Michiko, has been categorized as a nature-writer, this is because many of her
books try to raise awareness on the topic of nature and the environment. As in the previous
analysis, also in this chapter the themes of youth, nostalgia, family, connection to their
surroundings, and the difference between living in the countryside in the city and vice versa
will be touched upon in correlation to Lake of Heaven.

When they started letting the water in, just about the time it began flooding Sosuke's
clover fields, incredible numbers of caterpillars and crickets rose from the ground,
bubbling up all over the place. Everyone gasped when they saw it.144

144
Michiko, Lake of Heaven ,1341-1343.

48
This section elucidates the depiction of a village inundation caused by flooding. The village in
question, referred to as Amazoko in the book, draws inspiration from an authentic Japanese
village that underwent flooding due to the construction of a dam. The narrative's portrayal of
this event bears a resemblance to the real-life occurrence and reflects the impact of human
interventions on natural landscapes, thereby raising pertinent environmental and socio-cultural
implications for analysis. The little town of Amazoko, which was devastated by the dam's
construction and is located in the rural mountain region of Kyushu, is then the subject of the
novel Lake of Heaven.
Japan has traditions with environmental disasters and has on its land a big metropolis which
does not help in the environmental aspect. 145 Tokyo, the capital of Japan, is the world's biggest
metropolis. Additionally, as a result of it, trash management in the capital is the most difficult.
Due to the substantial volume of waste generated by contemporary Japanese society, waste
management is widely acknowledged as one of Japan's most significant environmental
challenges, as supported by national statistics and scholarly discussions, including assessments
by academics like Peter Kirby.146 Originally, all the waste produced in the past has been burned.
However, this practice causes many problems as it produced an extensive quantity of air
pollution. 147 In the end, it is challenging to distinguish the idealized view of nature from
Japanese religion and cultural reality due to the vast amount of tradition present in the nation.

7.1 Summary of Lake of Heaven

The central narrative of the story centres on the strenuous actions of the villagers to preserve
their local traditions and cultural heritage amidst the swift process of urbanization and
modernization. Through a skilful interweaving of myths, dreams, and legends, the story
traverses through various family lineages and characters. Notably, the characters of Masahiko,
the nephew of one of the villagers, who returns to convey his grandfather's ashes, and Ohina,

145
Earhart, “The Ideal of Nature in Japanese Religion”, 5–7.
146
See: Brett Smith, “Japan: Environmental Issues, Policies and Clean Technology,” AZoCleantech.com, June
16, 2015. https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=539; Peter Wynn Kirby “Introduction: Japan’s
Waste Shadow.” In Troubled Natures: Waste, Environment, Japan, 1–5. University of Hawai’i Press, 2011.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wqhtv.4.
147
Brett Smith, “Japan: Environmental Issues, Policies and Clean Technology,” AZoCleantech.com, June 16,
2015. https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=539.

49
together with her family, receive primary focus in the narrative, despite the existence of
numerous other characters and their respective roles in the unfolding of the events.148

7.2 Analysis
Because Michiko is known as a nature-writer, the role of nature in this narrative is
predominant and can be seen clearly by the reader at first glance. The characters, who are from
the countryside, spend virtually their whole lives surrounded by nature. The nephew who comes
back instead to his grandfather's village, spent his life growing up in the city and did not get a
lot in contact with nature other than from his grandfather’s memories and tales. In the story,
there is an obvious cause-and-effect link between nature and human characters. Multiple times
it is implied that it is because of humans’ greed and other emotions that nature decayed and
with it the soul of the “world”.
The book makes a clear distinction between the city and the countryside life. Constant
comparisons are made both by the characters who rarely left the village and by the one character
who for the first time is staying outside of the city. Thornber, as mentioned in the literature
review, highlights Ishimure's tendency to emphasize parallels between the landscapes before
and after construction, with a particular emphasis on Japan's mountainous regions. This
distinction serves to emphasize the spiritual affinity of an individual with nature, accentuating
their profound connection to the natural environment. That is why, the city is considered a place
where people do not have a soul or are losing their souls altogether. A place too far from nature
which has lost or is losing all its spiritual connection. While the city, on the one hand, is filled
with unpleasant sounds like the "screeching of brakes and the jarring noises of the opening and
slamming of shutters," the countryside, on the other hand, together with the mountains, is a
place filled with pleasant song.149 According to Carolan, Masahiko through this closeness to
nature, finds that his music begins to hear its authentic voice. 150 Probably this is because before,
living in the city, his music did not have any souls and could find its own voice only once filled
with spiritual meaning. In this aspect, we see the arch of the character of Masahiko. He arrives
at the village when he felt that he could not produce “good music”. In fact, “every time he tried
that route it seemed it didn't lead to good music. It seemed that the sound he was all searching

148
Bruce Allen, “Lake of Heaven, Dams, and Japan's Transformation”, The Asia Pacific Journal 4, no. 2 (February
2006).
149
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 333-334.
150
Carolan, T. "Lake of Heaven: An Original Translation of the Japanese Novel." Choice 46, no. 9 (05, 2009):
1692, http://ezproxy.its.uu.se/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/trade-journals/lake-heaven-original-
translation-japanese-novel/docview/225672596/se-2 (accessed July 19, 2023).

50
for would have to come from some other place”. This place, at the end of the narrative, ends to
be the music that comes from nature. 151
The connection between Masahiko and his grandfather makes him welcome by the villagers,
however, his complete obliviousness to the world of nature makes him someone who is lost and
hence is without his soul. Multiple times it is noticed his detachment to the mountain: “You
mean you've forgotten? Well, that goes to show how the city has stolen your soul. And now
you've even forgotten the way home."152 Nevertheless, he manages to integrate because of his
affinity for music, even if yet to be considered good, and his resemblance to his grandfather.
The element of water in Lake of Heaven takes on a multifaceted role, acting as both a
physical and symbolic connector between the past and the present. When the village of
Amazoko is flooded due to the dam’s construction the water becomes a medium from which
Masahiko and the villagers can access their memories and gaze upon their submerged homeland
once more. The lake, formed from the village’s destruction, represents a liminal space that blurs
the boundaries between what was lost and what remains. This duality is exemplified by the fact
that while the water concealed the village from the world’s view and erased its location from
maps, it simultaneously serves as a conduit between generations. Masahiko’s memories of his
grandfather and the stories shared by the surviving villagers intertwine with their yearning for
the past and their spiritual connection to nature, as explained by this passage: “Her singing was
supported ported by some overwhelming sense of yearning.” 153 In this context, the lake
becomes a reservoir of collective memory, preserving the essence of the village and its people
even as it drowns beneath the surface. As the villagers sing, their voices harmonize with the
wind rustling through the trees, turning nature itself into an instrument of remembrance. The
overwhelming sense of yearning present in their melodies echoes the loss of their homeland
and their souls, stolen away by the ever-expanding cities. Through this poignant interplay of
water, music, and memories, Ishimure Michiko reinforces the importance of preserving nature
and culture amid the encroaching tide of modernity.
The relationship between family and nature also plays a significant part in the narrative.
Nature not only ties Michiko and his grandfather together but also the entire community. All of
them are connected by several symbols, which evoke memories in those who pass by. One is
the cherry tree which is submerged and at the bottom of the lake, the other symbol is the old
bridge. Even if it is a man-made bridge, which is not completely visible anymore, the natural

151
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 2265-2266.
152
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 510-511.
153
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 801.

51
element is omnipresent. In every description of the old village, trees and vines are never far,
even from a constructed man-made artefact:

Grandfather had often spoken of it. Over the old Moonshadow, a shadow Bridge
made of vines had passed one-legged people, one-eyed people, and people who looked
like they were from good old families but had fallen along the wayside.154

The old bridge symbolizes the connection between the past and the present as it is almost
the only structure left of the old village. It is not completely visible from the top of the dam
however is the closest symbol they have of the submerged village that the people can see as
what remains from the past. Moreover, it contributes to the characters' understanding of nature
as it was also a representation of the bridge the soul of the dead would walk to the afterlife. And
as pointed out many times before, people in connection to nature only did not lose their souls.
Moreover, the bridge itself was the epicentre of nature as the vines and the trees were all around
it. Along with the bridge itself, the vines and trees serve as a connection between the family
who also perished since so many residents died when the village was submerged. Also, it
connects the people who died during the narrative, the dead followed Masahiko's arrival.
Furthermore, Masahiko and his grandfather's relationship highlights the importance of
family and memory regarding a connection to nature. Of course, Masahiko has never visited
the village and will never be able to see it in its original form. However, it is based on the tales
his grandpa had told him, as well as the descriptions made by both the grandfather and the
surviving villagers.
Throughout the narrative, death assumes a prominent presence, underscoring the
significance of religion and rituals as vital components of the cultural fabric in the book Lake
of Heaven. These religious and ceremonial practices serve as a bridge that connects the human
and non-human elements within the story. The trees often denoted as "sacred" or referred to as
the "trees of the Gods," play a pivotal role in this interconnection. The struggle of the characters
to maintain their traditions can be seen in the fact that they could not pass along these traditions
to the younger generations. Due to labour shortages or because they did not find rural life
interesting, practically all of the young people in the novel had to relocate to the city.
The preparation and observance of traditional rituals, alongside the transmission of
knowledge concerning herbs and medicinal remedies through successive generations, become
instrumental in sustaining life while forging links between the past, present, and the natural

154
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 545-546.

52
world. This integration of cultural practices facilitates a profound bond between nature and its
people. Ultimately, those individuals who draw upon the wisdom of their ancestors, as
exemplified in the case of Ohina and her daughter, exhibit an inherent harmony with nature.
Their adherence to ancestral knowledge enables them to be most in tune with the natural world,
fostering a profound and symbiotic relationship with their surroundings: “(…) Ohina had been
taught the methods of preparing such traditional medicines and remedies by Oai-sama, and even
today she earned a living from making them.155”
According to Shoko Yoneyamo, there was a notable phenomenon in Japan referred to as the
"Ishimuro Michiko Phenomenon." This phenomenon can be interpreted as an indication of
Japanese society's yearning for "spiritual medicine" as a response to the impact of modernity.
Yoneyamo argues that Ishimure Michiko's work served to highlight the interconnectedness of
human life with nature, depicting it as a continuous and inseparable continuum. Moreover,
Ishimure emphasized the interconnectedness of the life-world-nature and the concept of the
"soul," portraying them as interlinked entities.156
This continuum is explicitly shown by the inclusion in the ritual of all the entities, human
and non-human. Everyone is included in the prayers and the rites. The significance of the story's
connection to the spiritual world is in the way it demonstrates how all of nature, particularly the
mountains where the town formerly stood, and not just people, are connected to the Gods:

Memorial for the souls of the ten thousand beings. And when it said it was for the
souls of `beings,' that didn't mean just the humans. That stone marker on the hill was
dedicated to the souls of all beings-and not just the birds and insects either; it was also
for the souls of the things we can't see with our eyes. Our ancestors put it there out of
thanks for all the creatures and beings that helped protect their village.157

When it comes to rituals and traditions, they are always meant to connect people to nature.
That is why, as mentioned, they are crucial in the story. Moreover, in some of her works,
Ishimure uses specifically the term “Animism” to stress the connection of the spirit and
nature.158 Although in this novel she does not use the word Animism explicitly, it is noticeable
that her animistic ambience is present also in this novel, through her description of people and
nature together.

155
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 864-865.
156
Shoko Yoneyama, “Animism: A Grassroots Response to Socioenvironmental Crisis in Japan.” In New Worlds
from Below: Informal Life Politics and Grassroots Action in Twenty-First-Century Northeast Asia, edited by Tessa
Morris-Suzuki and Eun Jeong Soh, 9:112–119. ANU Press, 2017. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1pwtd47.10.
157
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 1345-1348.
158
Yoneyama, “Animism: A Grassroots Response to Socioenvironmental Crisis in Japan.”, 112–113.

53
 Nature is a character who interacts with and affects others. In addition to communicating
messages from the past to the present, it also issues warnings for the future. Nature in the Lake
of Heaven narrative may be portrayed as an elderly clairvoyant who conveys the villagers'
memories and sadness if nature were to be described as a human character in the story. It would
also be a tremendously spiritual being, capable of evolving despite the difficulties and
challenging path it had to take.
An ecocritical look at Ishimure Michiko's Lake of Heaven shows it to be a tribute to nature,
shouting at the importance of its preservation in facing the expansion of the cities and the
cement. Additionally, it emphasizes the value of knowledge passed down through the
generations in relation to understanding the significance of plants and water in addition to the
customs of interacting with them through different means. All the non-human elements in the
narrative are celebrated and given importance as much as the human characters and are
valorised in their beauty. According to Thornber, Ishimure, through the writing of the novel,
shows that in the end, she believes the new roads built around the village will eventually be part
of the land as volcanoes, shifting land masses and so on.159 I do not see this in Masahiko’s
description of the novel. Indeed, she does not completely disregard the changes that the world
is facing. However, she does not seem to accept the necessity to overthrow the man reshaping
and destroying their connection to the environment and justify their manipulation, as the
Anthropocene age that we entered. It is also noticeable how the novel addresses the concept of
anthropocentrism and in consequence the natural world with the many stances of comparison
between the urban area and the countryside. It is also implied throughout the novel that one of
the many reasons for the sickness and drove to madness of Masahiko’s grandfather, other than
war, was life in the city. His grandfather could not stand the sound pollution present in the city
and always would see cars as his enemies. More than that, grandfather and grandson had so
many difficulties communicating. This was given also by the cars always going around and
stopping their conversation.
In conclusion, nature is praised and valued throughout the whole novel so that the reader
may comprehend its significance to the story. The persimmon is both sweet and sour when the
seasons change, serving as a metaphor for nature's cycle. At the story's conclusion, longing, and
melancholy rule, with the lake and its water, for one last time, serving as a bridge between the
past and the present. Furthermore, as noted by Thornber and Toyosato, Ishimure's writing
prominently employs cultural traditions and historical events. Thornber specifically argues that

159
Thornber and Bruce, “Ishimure Michiko,” 15.

54
Ishimure adeptly portrays the beauty of Japanese landscapes and the interconnectedness with
cultural ways of life, particularly concerning natural elements. As discussed in the preceding
literature review chapter, Ishimure's writing serves to challenge readers to broaden their
conceptual horizons and grasp environmental issues from a local perspective, as opposed to
solely considering them as global phenomena. I consider that the analysis stresses, even more,
this aspect of the written and her narrative.

55
 8. Comparison between Swedish and Japanese Literature's Narratives of
Nature

The previous chapters delved more deeply into the role of nature in the two books The
Christmas Oratorio and Lake of Heaven through the analysis of excerpts from the books. While
both books focus have a strong role of nature in their narrative, they approach their characters
and story from different perspectives.
The initial analysis centres on the novel The Christmas Oratorio by Göran Tunström, with
a particular focus on the role of nature and its impact on the characters' emotions. The author
deliberately permeates nature with agency, effectively presenting it as a character that exercises
influence on the unfolding events within the narrative. In this analysis, ecocriticism serves as a
lens to explore how nature assumes a literary and emotional function in the story, rather than
being employed as a means for environmental advocacy.
In The Christmas Oratorio, the portrayal of nature as a character with agency becomes
evident as it shapes the emotional journey of the characters, guiding them through phases of
youth, happiness, loss, and eventual recovery, mirroring the seasonal changes. The countryside
setting serves as a serene and natural backdrop, creating a striking contrast between urban and
rural environments through the use of nature as a defining element in the narrative. The author
uses nature to highlight its value, beauty, and capacity for reciprocal communication with
humans. Throughout the story, nature is presented as a dynamic and significant character. The
changing seasons play a significant role in reflecting the emotions and experiences of the
characters. Tunström uses nature as a means to convey the characters' journey from youth to
adulthood and from grief to healing. The seasonal transitions, such as the blooming of flowers
in spring or the snowfall in winter, parallel the characters' emotional states and provide a
backdrop for their experiences. By personifying nature and giving it agency, the author
emphasizes the interconnectedness between the natural world and human emotions.
Furthermore, the comparison between the city and the countryside in Juloratoriet highlights the
role of nature as a contrasting element. The countryside is depicted as an idyllic setting
connected to nature, where characters experience a sense of belonging and harmony. In contrast,
the city is portrayed as a place which will never be clean and disconnected from nature.
Turning to Lake of Heaven by Ishimure Michiko, the analysis reveals a strong emphasis on
the spiritual and cultural connection between humans and nature. The story explores the impact
of modernization and urbanization on the natural environment and the loss of this connection.

56
Nature is portrayed as a character with agency, influencing the emotions and experiences of the
characters. Traditional rituals and knowledge of plants and water serve as means of preserving
this connection and resisting the negative effects of modernization. The book focuses on the
relationship between humans and nature in the face of modernization and urbanization. Nature
is again portrayed as a character, with agency and importance to the story, but this analysis
emphasizes the preservation of nature as a means of mitigating the damage caused by
modernization. The ecocritical perspective in this case is used as a means of advocating for
environmentalism and the preservation of natural spaces as the same writer is a strong supporter
of environmentalist ideas. In Lake of Heaven, nature is also portrayed as a character with
agency, but its importance is emphasized differently. The loss of nature, particularly in the face
of modernization and urbanization, is portrayed as a spiritual and cultural loss for people. The
dichotomy between the city and the countryside is also present in Lake of Heaven. The city is
portrayed as a place devoid of soul and disconnected from nature, while the countryside is
depicted as a realm where the spiritual and natural elements intertwine. Since losing this
connection to nature and its customs leads to a spiritual and cultural loss, the author emphasizes
the value of protecting them. This relationship is said to be preserved via traditional knowledge
of nature, such as plant identification and water conservation. Characters are shown to be linked
to their roots and nostalgic by nature, which serves as a source of memories and nostalgia. The
author uses nature to highlight how fragile it is and how crucial it is to protect it for future
generations.
By utilizing an ecocritical framework, the analyses explore the relationship between humans
and nature in these narratives and provide insights into the authors' intentions and societal
concerns. Both books demonstrate the power of nature as a character and its ability to evoke
emotions and convey meaning. They also underscore the importance to a different extent, of
preserving and appreciating the natural world. In both analyses, nature is portrayed as an
important presence that influences human emotions and experiences. However, the focus and
purpose of the analyses are different, with the first exploring the role of nature as a literary
device and the second emphasizing the importance of preserving nature in the face of human
destruction. The value of nature as a character and its emotional and spiritual connection to
people are generally emphasized by both views. Additionally, there is a clear relationship
between family and nature in both stories. In The Christmas Oratorio, nature plays an important
role in bringing a family together, whether it be when it is combined with music or when a
father and son spend time together in the forest admiring the scenery. In Lake of Heaven, the

57
character of Masahiko reaches out to his grandfather while also discovering his roots. In the
end, both analyses explore the emotional, spiritual, and environmental aspects of nature.
In summary, Juloratoriet and Lake of Heaven offer distinct but equally compelling
portrayals of nature in literature. The analyses reveal the role of nature as an active and
influential character, its impact on human emotions and experiences, and its significance in
reflecting societal and environmental issues. These insights deepen our understanding of the
complex relationship between humans and the natural world and highlight the need to value
and protect nature for the well-being of both individuals and society as a whole.

58
 9. Conclusion

In his childhood, Masahiko had thought of these tales of a far-off forgotten mountain
village as merely the fragments of memories of an old man who had been separated
from his hometown. In those days the only one who had been there to really listen to his
grandfather's stories was the big old gingko tree. Now he had come to realize that in
order to see into the world that had been hidden in his grandfather's mind it wasn't
necessary to resort to ideas from ethnology or recently fashionable ecological theories
about saving the earth. All that was needed was to share in the feelings of these elders
right here; these people who continued to return to Amazoko in their dreams.160

With today’s rise of interest in environmentalism and climate issues, we hear daily of ways to
prevent wastage of sort of how to fight climate change. Taking all the media to which, we are
subjected, it is difficult to deny that we indeed live in an Anthropocene epoch of climate change
and environmental degradation. Because of it, I believe it necessary to question the relation that
authors place with nature in their writing. This thesis sought to answer the research questions:
What representations of nature do we find in “The Christmas Oratorio” and in “Lake of
Heaven”? What is the human perception of and connection to nature in these books?
Following the sub-questions: Which natural elements are most prominent and how do they
affect the overall setting and themes of the works? What aspects of city life and country life are
portrayed differently in these two novels?
Based on the research questions, it has been found that in The Christmas Oratorio, Nature
is depicted as a character with a sense of agency, closely intertwined with human experiences
and emotions, often symbolized through various seasonal elements, as well as in the contrasting
themes of light and darkness, exemplified by the sun and rain. On the other hand, in Lake of
Heaven, nature is portrayed as a more spiritual entity, serving as a significant symbolization of
the soul, intricately connected to human perceptions and experiences in the book. In the end,
the representation of the literary world of one author is also a representation of someone's life
and connection to the outside world. As the quotation from the novel of Ishimure Michiko, it is
not necessary to go and look at “fashionable” ecological theories, but it could be useful to look
at what has been already passed down to us by other people.
This thesis has examined the representation of nature in two literary works, The Christmas
Oratorio by Göran Tunström and Lake of Heaven by Ishimure Michiko, using an ecocritical

160
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 3044-3048.

59
framework. The analyses have highlighted the significance of nature as a character and its
impact on the emotions and experiences of the human characters in both works.
The Christmas Oratorio portrays nature as a character with agency, emphasizing the
seasonal changes that reflect the emotional journey of the characters.
Apart from the instances cited in the preceding analysis, another manifestation of nature's
influence is evident in the relationship between Aron and Tessa. The emotions they experience
upon the start of their correspondence and exchanging letters are affiliated with the feelings of
springtime and blossoming. As an example, consider the following excerpt:
WHAT A FLAMING ARDOR grasped Aron when he read the letter that spring. It
had a tone which was many times higher than his own. He had not opened himself up
that much. He had not given her anything. He carried the letter with him everywhere he
went. He slept with it under his pillow. It was a flame lighting up his face.161

The author uses nature's beauty and influence to evoke emotions and emphasize its
importance in the characters' lives. Through this analysis, ecocriticism has been employed to
explore the literary and emotional function of nature in the narrative, beyond being a mere
means of environmental advocacy.
In Lake of Heaven, nature is again portrayed as a character, emphasizing the spiritual and
cultural connection between people and the natural world. The loss of nature, in the face of
modernization and urbanization, is portrayed as a significant spiritual and cultural loss.
Traditional knowledge of nature is highlighted as a means of preserving the connection between
people and the natural world. Through this analysis, ecocriticism has been used as a means of
advocating for environmentalism and the preservation of natural spaces.
Here is an example with the excerpt of part of the ceremony for the dead held by the three
characters: Ohina, Masahiko and Omomo:
"Well, it's getting dark. Shall we light the lanterns?" With the lanterns lit, the altar in
the thatched grass hut looked as if it contained implements for some sort of sorcery. The
women brought out their prayer beads and lit incense. There was a sound of pouring
liquor and the aroma filled his nose. "So let's offer a prayer. Here's an offering of shochu
as well." The shochu was poured into sake cups so small they looked as if they'd been
made for children playing house. After the prayers were finished she instructed him to
drink. "If you don't drink this you won't be able to greet the souls of the dead."162

Both analyses underscore the importance of nature in human experiences and emotions and
demonstrate the power of nature in literature to evoke emotions, convey meaning, and reflect

161
Tunström, The Christmas oratorio, 114.
162
Michiko, Lake of Heaven, 711–714.

60
societal and environmental concerns. The ecocritical framework employed in this thesis has
provided a deeper understanding of the relationship between humans and the natural world in
these literary works. By recognizing nature as a character and exploring its agency and
influence, the analyses shed light on the role of nature in storytelling and the significance of its
portrayal.
However, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of this study. One limitation is the
lack of an in-depth exploration of the socio-historical context of the two works, which may
have influenced the authors' perspectives on nature and environmental themes. Additionally,
this thesis focused on the works within their specific settings, potentially overlooking other
influential factors. Future research could consider a more comparative ecocritical approach,
exploring diverse literary traditions and cultural representations of nature to gain a deeper
understanding of its importance in literature.
In conclusion, this thesis contributes to the ongoing dialogue about our relationship with
nature and the environmental challenges we face. Through the lens of ecocriticism, we have
gained a greater appreciation for the significance of nature in human experiences and emotions,
and its importance in preserving for future generations. By understanding how nature influences
literature, we can better grasp its impact on our lives and strive for a more sustainable and
harmonious coexistence with the natural world.
It might be beneficial to conduct further research on the subject of nature's role. Prospective
research in ecocritical analysis may explore multiple avenues to advance our understanding of
the conception and representation of nature and the environment in literary works. There might
be more comparative ecocritical, intersectional perspective or environmental memory analysis,
for instance.163 Beyond the scope of this thesis, a comparative approach might explore other
literary traditions and cultural representations of nature and the environment.164 Researchers
can find similar themes, patterns, and responses to nature in many cultural contexts by
examining a wide variety of literary works. This comparative approach can help us gain a
deeper grasp of the overall importance of nature in literature. It would be also interesting to
explore, either in the books analysed in this thesis or in different works, an intersectional
perspective in ecocriticism. For example, looking at how gender, race, class, and other forms

163
See studies by Gaard Greta. “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism.”; Parker
C. Krieg, Emily Lethbridge, and Steven Hartman, “Mapping Environmental Memory Through Literature: A
Conversation with Emily Lethbridge and Steven Hartman,” In Situating Sustainability: A Handbook of Contexts
and Concepts, edited by C. Parker Krieg and Reetta Toivanen, 269–92. Helsinki University Press, 2021.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv26qjj7d.24.; Glotfelty Cheryll, and Fromm Harold. The ecocriticism reader.
164
Heise, “Comparative Ecocriticism in the Anthropocene”, 20.

61
of identity interact with environmental narratives and representations of nature. This approach
can shed light on how environmental justice issues are intertwined with broader social justice
concerns. Mostly at nature-writing such as Lake of Heaven. In terms of environmental memory,
this involves looking at the literary representations of events of trauma and environmental
degradation. We can gain a deeper knowledge of the emotional and psychological aspects of
the link between people and nature by examining the literary approaches used by authors to
communicate ecological grief, loss, and the effects of environmental catastrophes.
Future research in ecocriticism can contribute to a more diverse, inclusive, and thorough
understanding of the depiction and significance of nature in literature by tackling these topics.
This multidisciplinary approach may expand our understanding of environmental concerns,
stimulate constructive change for a more sustainable future, and enhance our appreciation of
the natural world.

62
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