Physics

Chapter one
Mechanics
Physical Quantity
Mechanics is the branch ! It is a physical property of a body, or substance, or of a phenomenon, that can be
quantified by measurement.
of science (physics)
concerned with the Measurement of a Physical Quantity
behaviour of physical ! It is done by assigning a value to a physical quantity by comparing it with a standard
value (calibrated value) of that physical quantity which is called unit.
bodies, when subjected
! To know the value (or magnitude) of a physical quantity we generally measure it in
to forces or
different system of units.
displacements, and the
Errors in Measurement
subsequent effects of
! The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is known as
the bodies on their error.
environment. There are mainly three types of error occurs in measurement.
– Absolute Error It is the difference of true value and measured value.
– Relative Error It is defined as the ratio of absolute error to mean value.
– Percentage Error It is defined as fractional error multiplied by 100.

System of Units
! Physical quantities are measured in four system of units as below.
– CGS (Centimetre, Gram, Second) – FPS (Foot, Pound, Second)
– MKS (Metre, Kilogram, Second) – SI system (International System of Units).

Fundamental Quantities
! The physical quantities which are independent to each other are called fundamental
quantities and their units are called fundamental units.
! The most accepted one is SI system which was adopted in 1971 by conference of
weights and measures held in Geneva.
! There are seven fundamental quantities in SI system

Fundamental Quantities in SI System

S.No. Fundamental quantity Fundamental unit Symbol
1. Length Metre m
2. Mass Kilogram kg
3. Time Second s
4. Electric current Ampere A
5. Temperature Kelvin K
6. Luminous intensity Candela cd
7. Amount of substance Mole mol
2 Magbook ~ General Science

! There are also two supplementary fundamental units in SI ! Area is related with square of length, some units of area
system. are
– Radian (rad) It is unit of plane angle. – 1 barn = 10−28 m 2
– Steradian (sr) It is unit of solid angle. – 1 acre = 4047 m 2
– 1 hectare = 104 m 2
Derived Quantities
! The physical quantities which are obtained with the help of ! Volume is related with cube of length, some units of
volume are
fundamental quantities are called derived quantities and their
10 millilitre (mL) = 1 centilitre (cL)
units are called derived units.
For example, Velocity, Force, Work, Density, Momentum etc = 0.018 pint (0.021 US pint)
are derived quantities. 100 centilitre (cL) = 1 litre (L) = 1.76 pint
10 litre (L) = 1decalitre (daL)
Some Important Derived Units
= 2. 2 gallon (2.63 US gallon)
Physical quantity Unit (SI) Symbol
1 cubic centimetre (cm 3 ) = 1 millilitre (mL)
Force newton N
1 barrel = 159 litre
Energy joule J
Speed metre/second ms −1 Unit of Mass
Angular velocity radian/second rad s −1 ! The SI unit of mass is kilogram. One kilogram is
Frequency hertz Hz defined as the mass of 5.0188 × 1025 atoms of
Moment of inertia kilogram metre square kg m 2 carbon−12.
Momentum kilogram metre/second kg ms −1 Other Units of Mass
Angular momentum kilogram metre square/second kg m 2 s −1 1
– 1 gram = kg = 10−3 kg
Pressure pascal Pa 1000
1
Power watt W – 1 milligram = g = 10−6 kg
Surface tension newton per metre Nm −1 1000
– 1 Atomic Mass Unit (amu) = 1.66 × 10−27 kg
Viscosity newton second per metre square Nsm −2
Thermal conductivity watt per metre Kelvin Wm −1 K −1 – 1 quintal = 100 kg
– 1 tonne or metric ton =1000 kg
Electric charge coulomb C
– 1 slug = 14.57 kg
Potential volt V
– 1 Chandra Sekhar Limit (CSL) = 1.4 times the mass of sun
Capacitance farad F = 2.8 × 1030 kg
Electrical resistance ohm Ω
Unit of Time
Inductance henry H
Magnetic flux weber Wb
! The SI unit of time is second. One second is defined
1
Luminous flux lumen lm as part of a mean solar day.
86400
Impulse newton second Ns
Other Units of Time
Unit of Length – 1 microsecond = 10 −6 s
! The SI unit of length is metre (m). One metre is the distance – 1 picosecond = 10−12 s
1 – 1 Lunar month = 295
. day
travelled by light in vacuum in of a second.
29, 97, 92, 458
– 1 nanosecond = 10−9 s
Some Other Units of Length – 1 shake = 10−8 s
! Light year The distance travelled by light in one year in
Important Prefixes to Units
vacuum.
peta (P) = 1015 exa (E) = 1018
1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m
giga (G) = 109 tera (T) = 1012
! Parsec (Parallactic Second) The distance at which an arc of
length equals to one astronomical unit subtends an angle of kilo (K) = 10 3
mega (M) = 106
one second at a point. deca (da) = 10 hecto (h) = 102
– 1 parsec = 3.085 × 1016 m – 1 micron or µm = 10−6 centi (c) = 10−2 deci (d) = 10−1
−6
– 1 AV = 1.49 × 10 m 11
– 1 angstrom or Å = 10 −10
m micro = 10 milli (m) = 10−3
– 1 nanometre or nm = 10−9 m – X-unit = 10−14 m pico (p) = 10 −12
nano (n) = 10−9
−15
– 1 Fermi = 10 m – 1 yard = 0.9144 m zatto (a) = 10−18 femto(f) = 10−15
Magbook ~ Mechanics 3

Scalar and Vector Quantities Distance and Displacement

On the basis of magnitudes and direction, physical quantities ! The length of the actual path travelled by an object during
are categorised as below motion in a given interval of time is called the distance
! Scalars Physical quantities which have only magnitude travelled by the object.
and no direction are called scalars quantities e.g., length, ! The change in position of the object along a particular
mass, time etc. direction in a given interval of time is called the
! Vectors Physical quantities which have both magnitude as displacement of the object.
well as direction are called vectors quantities e.g., force, ! Displacement can be positive, negative or zero but
displacement, impulse etc. distance cannot be negative.
– A vector obeys triangle law and parallelogram law of addition ! Distance is a scalar quantity and displacement is vector
of two vectors. Zero vector or null vector, unit vector, etc are quantity.
some special types of vectors.
! If an object travels equal distances in equal intervals of
time, then it is said to be in uniform motion.
Dimensions ! If an object travels unequal distances in equal intervals of
! The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to time, then it is said to be in non-uniform motion.
which the fundamental units are raised in order to obtain
the units of that quantity. Speed
! The fundamental quantities mass, length, time, ! The distance covered by a moving body in a unit time
temperature, luminous intensity, amount of substance and interval is called its speed.
current are respectively represented as M, L, T, θ, cd, N
Distance travelled
and A. Speed =
Time taken
! The dimension of the physical quantity shall be written in
the manner [Ma Lb Tc θd ] . ! The speed at an instant of time is known as instantaneous
where, a, b, c and d are exponents. speed.
! Some Important dimensional Formulae are ! An object is said to be moving with uniform speed if it
Displacement [L] covers equal distances in equal intervals of time.
– Velocity = = = [LT −1 ]
Time [T] ! An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or
– Density =
Mass
=
[M]
= [ML −3 ]
variable speed if it covers unequal distances in equal
Volume [L 3 ] intervals of time.
! Average speed of an object is the ratio of the total
Kinematics distance travelled to the total time taken to cover this
distance.
! The branch of Physics which deals with the study of
Total distance travelled
motion of material objects etc is called mechanics. Average speed =
Total time taken
Kinematics is a branch of mechanics which deals with the
study of motion of the objects without taking into account ! When a body travels equal distances with speeds v 1 and
the cause of their motion. v 2 , then average speed is the harmonic mean of the two
speeds.
Rest and Motion 2 1 1 2 v 1v 2
= + ⇒ v =
! An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its v v1 v 2 v1 + v 2
position with respect to its surroundings with time and
said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect ! When a body travels for equal times with speeds v 1 and v 2 ,
to its surroundings with time. then average speed is the arithmetic mean of the two
speeds.
! Basic types of motion are
v +v 2
– Rectilinear motion The motion in which particle moves along v = 1
a straight line, such as moving car on horizontal road, motion 2
under gravity etc. Velocity
– Angular motion The motion in which particle moves along a
! The time rate of change of displacement of a body is
curved track, such as particle going on a circle, projectile
motion, rotation of machine shaft etc. called its velocity.
– Rotational motion If a body rotates about a given axis, its Displacement
Velocity =
motion is called rotational motion, such as motion of a fan. Time
4 Magbook ~ General Science

! The velocity at an instant of time is known as Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion

instantaneous velocity.
(Along straight line)
! An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it
undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time. ! If a body started its motion with initial velocity u and attains
final velocity v in time interval t. The acceleration assumed to
! An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or variable
be uniform in motion is a and the distance travelled is s, then
velocity if it undergoes unequal displacements in equal
equations of motion
intervals of time.
v = u + at
! Average velocity of an object is the ratio of the total 1
displacement to the total time taken. s = ut + at 2
2
Total displacement v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Average velocity =
Total time taken ! If any body is falling freely under gravity, then a is replaced
by g in above equations.
Relative Velocity ! If an object is thrown vertically upward, then in above
Relative velocity of an object with respect to another object is equations of motion a is replaced by ( − g ).
the time rate of change of position of one object with respect ! Distance travelled by a body in a particular nth second is
to another object. If two objects A and B are moving with a
velocities v A and v B making an angle θ with each other, then given by sn = u + (2n − 1)
2
magnitude of relative velocity of A with respect to B is given by ! For a body with zero acceleration or constant speed, graph
between velocity and time will be a line parallel to time axis
vAB
–vB and for accelerating or decelerating body the graph will be
θ
0− a straight line inclined to time axis and velocity axis.
α 18 θ
! Graph between position (distance)-time for an accelerating or
vA
decelerating body is always a parabola whereas
v AB = v A − v B acceleration-time graph for uniformly accelerating body is a
line parallel to time axis.
| v AB | = v A2 + v 2B − 2 v A v B cos θ
! In case of uniform accelerated, the graph between position
If v AB makes an angle α with v A , then and velocity is always parabola.
v B sinθ In case of uniformly accelerated motion, the graph between
tan α = !
v A + v AB cos θ velocity and time is always a straight line.
If both objects are moving in same direction (i.e. θ = 0 °), then ! Slope of displacement-time graph gives velocity and slope
v AB = v A − v B of velocity-time graph gives acceleration.
If both objects are moving in opposite directions (i.e. θ = 180° ),
then Projectile Motion
v AB = v A + v B ! When a body is thrown from horizontal making an angle (θ )
except 90°, then its motion under gravity is a curved
parabolic path, called trajectory and its motion is called
Acceleration projectile motion.
y
! The time rate of change of velocity of a body is called its
acceleration. u u cos θ Trajectory
Change in velocity (parabolic)
Acceleration =
u sin θ

H
Time taken
θ u′
−2
! It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is ms . O u cos θ A
x
R
! Acceleration at an instant of time is known as
instantaneous acceleration. ! The horizontal component of velocity (u cos θ ) of projectile
is responsible for its horizontal motion and remains
! When the velocity of a body increases with time, then its
constant and vertical component of velocity (u sin θ ) is
acceleration is positive and if velocity decreases with
responsible for its vertical motion.
time, then its acceleration is negative called deceleration
or retardation. For examples
! If acceleration does not change with time, it is said to be – The motion of a bullet shot from the gun
constant acceleration. – The motion of a rocket after burn-out
– The motion of a bomb dropped from a aeroplane etc.
Magbook ~ Mechanics 5

Some terms related with the projectile motion are Angular Displacement and Velocity
! Time of flight (T ) It is the time taken by the projectile to ! The angle subtended at the centre
cover the journey from point of projections (O) to end point of a circle by a body moving along ∆S
( A ). the circumference of the circle is θ
2 u sin θ called angular displacement of the
O r
It is given by T =
g body. Its unit is radian (rad).
where, g is acceleration due to gravity.
Maximum Height (H) It is the maximum height attained by Length of the arc ∆s
Angular displacement (θ ) = =
!

the projectile during the journey from ‘‘O’’ to “A” as shown Radius of the circle r
in the diagram. ! The time rate of change of angular displacement is called
u 2 sin2 θ angular velocity. Its unit is rad s−1.
It is given by H =
2g Angular displacement ∆θ
Angular velocity (ω ) = =
! Range (R ) It is the distance between starting point (O ) and Time ∆t
final point ( A ). ! If time period of uniform circular motion is T, then average
u 2 sin 2θ angular velocity is given by
It is given by R=
g 2π ⎡ 1 ⎤
ω= = 2πf ⎢where, Frequency (f ) = ⎥
T ⎣ Time period (T ) ⎦
Properties of Projectile Motion
! Horizontal range is maximum when angle of projection is
! Linear velocity in circular motion is given by
45°. Horizontal range is same for angle of projections θ° Linear velocity = Angular velocity × radius
and ( 90 − θ )°. or v = ω × r
! The horizontal component of velocity remains unchanged
Centripetal Acceleration
during the projectile motion. At the highest point of
projectile motion, the direction of motion becomes
! During circular motion an acceleration acts on the body
horizontal as vertical component of velocity becomes zero towards the centre, called centripetal acceleration.
at that point. v2
! Centripetal acceleration (ac ) = = rω 2
! If we drop down a ball from a height and at the same time r
thrown another ball in a horizontal direction, then both the where, v = uniform speed of the body
balls would strike the earth simultaneously at different r = radius of circular path and
places. ω = angular velocity.
! The direction of centripetal acceleration is always towards
Circular Motion the centre of the circular path.
! The motion of an object along a circular path is called
circular motion. Force
v A v ! It is an external push or pull which can change or tries to
change the state of rest or of uniform motion. SI unit is
newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = 105 dyne.
! If sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero, then body
O is said to be in equilibrium.
! In nature, there are four basic types of forces
– Gravitational force – Electromagnetic force
v – Weak nuclear force – Strong nuclear force
v
! Among these forces, the strong nuclear force is strongest one.
! Circular motion with a constant speed is called uniform
circular motion. Centripetal Force
! The direction of motion at any point in circular motion is ! During circular motion a force always acts on the body
given by the tangent to the circle at that point. towards the centre of the circular path, called centripetal
! In uniform circular motion, the velocity and acceleration force.
both changes. mv 2
Centripetal force (F ) = = mrω 2
! In case of non-uniform circular motion, the speed r
changes from point to point on the circular track. where, m = mass of the body.
6 Magbook ~ General Science

Centrifugal Force Inertia of Rest

! In circular motion we experience that a force is acting on ! It is the property of a body by virtue of which it cannot
us in opposite to the direction of centripetal force called change its state of rest on its own.
centrifugal force. This is an apparent force or imaginary – When a bus or train at rest starts, to move suddenly, the
force and also called a pseudo force. passengers sitting in it jerk in backward direction due to their
inertia of rest.
Applications of centripetal and centrifugal forces – The dust particles come out from a carpet when it is beaten
! Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain required with a stick due to their inertia of rest.
centripetal force. To take a safe turn cyclist slower down – A passenger jumping out from a rapidly moving bus or train
his speed and moves on a path of larger radius, to balance is advised to jump in forward direction and run forward for a
short mile due to inertia of rest.
decreased value of friction due to bending.
! Roads are banked at turns to provide required centripetal Inertia of Motion
force for taking a turn. The component of normal reaction ! It is the property of a body by virtue of which it cannot
force provides required centripetal force. change its state of uniform motion on its own.
! For taking turn on a curved road, the frictional force is ! When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the
acting between the tyres of the vehicle and the road acts passengers sitting in it jerk in forward direction due to
as centripetal force. inertia of motion.
! If a car takes a turn with a speed greater than the safe
limit, then inner tyres leave the roads first in turning of car Momentum
because inner tyres were moving in smaller radius, hence
The momentum of a moving body is equal to the product of its
larger centrifugal force were acting on these tyres so more
mass and its velocity.
chances of skidding.
Its unit is kg - ms −1. It is a vector quantity and its direction is in
! If a bucket containing water is revolved fast in a vertical
the direction of velocity of the body.
plane, the water may not fall even when bucket is
Momentum = Mass × velocity
completely inverted because a centrifugal force equal or
greater than the weight of water pushes the water to the p=m×v
bottom of the bucket. Conservation of Linear Momentum
! For orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus, The linear momentum of a system of particles remains
electrostatic force of attraction is acting between the conserved if the external force acting on the system is
electrons and the nucleus as centripetal force. zero. Rocket propulsion and engine of jet aeroplane works on
principle of conservation of linear momentum. In rocket,
! Cream is separated from milk when it is rotated in a vessel
ejecting gas exerts a forward force which helps in accelerating
about the same axis. During rotation lighter particles of cream
the rocket upward.
experience a lesser force than the heavier particles of milk.
Therefore, lighter particles tend to adopt a path of smaller Conservation of Angular Momentum
radius and move towards the centre. The heavier particles If external torque on a system is zero, angular momentum will
tend to adopt a path of larger radius and move towards the remain conserve. It is known as principle of conservation of
circumference and hence cream is separated from milk. angular momentum.
! For revolution of the earth around the sun, gravitational force
of attraction between the earth and the sun acts as centripetal Newton’s Second Law
force. ! The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
! Torque or Moment of a Force It is the product of the force proportional to the force applied on it and change in
and the perpendicular distance of the force from the axis of momentum takes place in the direction of applied force.
rotation. It produces rotational effect. It is a vector quantity. ∆p m∆v
F = = = ma
∆t ∆t
Newton’s Laws where, m is mass of the body and is constant.
Newton’s First Law ! If the resultant force on a body is zero, the body is said
! A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in to be in equilibrium.
a straight line unless an external force acts on it. It is Newton’s Third Law
based on law of inertia.
! For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
! Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which it and both act on two different objects.
opposes any change in its state of rest or of uniform motion
! Rocket is propelled by the principle of Newton’s third law
in a straight line.
of motion.
Magbook ~ Mechanics 7

Rolling friction is lesser than sliding friction. Therefore, it

Impulse !
is easier to roll a body than to slide it.
! A large force which acts on a body for a very short interval ! It is easier to drive a bicycle when its tyres are fully
of time and produces a large change in its momentum is inflated because it decreases rolling friction.
called an impulsive force.
! Velocity of the point of contact of the wheel with respect
! The impulse of a force acting on a body is equal to the to the floor remains zero all the time while the centre of
product of the large force and small time interval for which the wheel moves forward in rolling motion.
it acts on a body.
! The limiting frictional force is independent of the area of
Impulse (I ) = Force × time contact but depends on the nature of the material of the
! Its unit is newton-second. surfaces in contact and their roughness or smoothness.
! Impulse of a force applied on a body is equal to the ! The ratio of limiting friction (F) to the normal reaction (R)
change in linear momentum of that body. is called coefficient of friction (µ ) between two surfaces.
Impulse = Force × time = Change in momentum F
Coefficient of friction (µ ) =
Change in momentum R
or Force =
Time ! The angle between the normal reaction (R) and the
– A fielder lowers its hand when catching a cricket ball because resultant of limiting friction (F) is called angle of friction
by lowering his hands, he increases the time of contact for (θ).
stopping the ball and therefore fielder has to apply lesser force
F
to stop the ball. The ball will also exert lesser force on the where, tan θ = = µ
hands of the fielder and the fielder will not get hurt. R
– Wagons of a train are provided with the buffers to increase the
time of impact during jerks and therefore, decreases the
Application of Friction
damage. The vehicles like scooter, car, bus, truck etc. are ! A ball bearing is a type of rolling-element that uses balls
provided with shockers. to maintain the separation between the bearing races as
shown in the diagram. The
Friction purpose of a ball bearing is to
Bearing
Races
! Friction is a force which opposes the relative motion of the reduce rotational friction and to
two bodies when one body actually moves or tries to move support loads (weight). It is
over the surface of another body. possible by using atleast two
races to contain the balls and
! The cause of friction is the strong atomic or molecular
transmit the loads through the
forces of attraction acting on the two surfaces at the point
balls. Balls
of actual contact.
! In most of the applications one race is stationary and the
Types of Friction other is attached to the rotating assembly (e.g. hub or
! Static friction The opposing force that comes into play shaft). As one of the bearing races rotates it causes the
when one body tends to move over the surface of another balls to rotate as well. Because the balls are rolling they
body but the actual motion has yet not started is called have a much lower coefficient of friction than if two flat
static friction. Static friction is a self-adjusting force and it surfaces were sliding against each other. Hence, ball
adjusts itself so that it becomes equal to the applied force. bearing also minimises the energy loss due to wear and
! Limiting friction The maximum static frictional force tear caused by friction.
which comes into play, when one body is just at the verge ! Friction is necessary for walking, to apply brakes in
of moving over the surface of the another body. vehicles, for holding nuts and bolts in a machinery etc.
Limiting friction (fs ) = µs R = µsmg ! Friction can be decreased by polishing the surfaces by
where, µs = coefficient of limiting friction. using lubricants or by using ball bearings.
! Kinetic friction The opposing force that comes into play ! Tyres are made of synthetic rubber because its coefficient
when one body actually moves over the surface of another of friction with road is larger and therefore, large force of
body, is called kinetic friction. friction acts on it, which stops sliding at turns.
Kinetic friction is of two types ! The tyres are threading which also increases the friction
– Sliding friction It comes into play when one body slides over between the tyres and the road.
the surface of the another body. ! When pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of friction on
– Rolling friction It comes into play when one body rolls over rear wheel is in forward direction and on front wheel is in
the surface of the another body. the backward direction.
8 Magbook ~ General Science

! If a coolie is carrying a load on his head and moving on a

Lever horizontal platform, then work done by force of gravity is
It is a simple machine in which a straight or inclined rod is made zero as displacement is perpendicular to the direction of
to turn or rotate at a point freely or independently. There are force of gravity.
three points related to lever namely load, effort and fulcrum.
Load The weight carried by the lever is called load. Energy
Effort To operate lever, the force applied externally is called ! Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work. It is a
effort. scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule.
Fulcrum The fixed point about which the rod of lever moves M Energy can be transformed into work and vice-versa with the
independently is called fulcrum. help of some mechanical device.
There are two types of Mechanical Energy, which are as
Work, Energy and Power follows

Kinetic Energy
Work ! The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is
! Work done by a constant force (F) is equal to the dot called its kinetic energy.
product of the force applied on a body and the
displacement (s) of the body. ! Kinetic energy of the body of mass m moving with velocity
1 p2
W = F ⋅ s = Fs cos θ v is given by K = mv 2 =
2 2m
where, θ is the angle between F and s.
where, p = mv = momentum of the body.
! Work is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is joule and CGS unit
is erg. 1 joule = 107 erg. Potential Energy
! Work done by a force is positive if angle between F and s ! The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its position
is acute angle and negative if angle θ is obtuse angle. or configuration is called its potential energy.
! Work done by a force is zero when ! Gravitational potential energy, U = mgh
– Body is not displaced actually, i.e. s = 0 where, m = mass of the body
– Body is displaced perpendicular to the direction of force i.e. g = acceleration due to gravity and
θ = 90°. h = height through which body is lifted.
Work done by a variable force Different Forms of Energy
! Work done by a force is equal to the area under the
Solar Energy
force-displacement graph, along with proper sign and is
! It is the emission of energy by the sun, used in solar
given by W = ∫ F ⋅ d s cooker, solar water heater, solar cell etc. Others are Fossil
energy, Wind energy, Hydroelectric energy, Nuclear
B Energy.

A Fossil Energy
! Fossil fuels are non-renewable sources of energy such as
Force

anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. Fossil

fuels contain coal, petroleum and natural gas.
D C Hydroelectric Energy
Displacement ! The production of electrical power through the use of the
! Work done by force = Area ABCDA gravitational force of falling or flowing water. In our
! If we throw a ball upward, work done against gravity is country, more than 23% of water is used in production of
given by, W = mgh hydroelectric power.
where, m = mass of the body, Nuclear Energy
g = acceleration due to gravity and ! It is found that when U235 nucleus break-up into lighter
h = height through which the ball is raised. nuclei on being bombardment by slow moving neutron, a
! The centripetal force acts on a body perpendicular to the large amount of energy released is called nuclear energy.
direction of motion. Therefore, work done by or against Nuclear reactors and nuclear bombs are the sources of
centripetal force in circular motion is zero. nuclear energy.
Magbook ~ Mechanics 9

! If after collision two colliding bodies gets sticked with each

Einstein’s Mass-Energy Relation other and moves with a common velocity, then collision is
◆
According to this relation, the mass can be transformed into said to be perfectly inelastic.
energy and vice-versa. ! In perfectly inelastic collision, the loss of kinetic energy during
◆
When ∆m mass is disappeared, then produced energy collision do not recover at all and two bodies stick together
after collision.
E = ∆mc 2
where, c = speed of light in vacuum.
Centre of Mass
! Every physical system of particles (body) is associated
Conservative and with a certain point whose motion is characterised by the
Non-conservative forces system as a whole, and when a system moves under an
external force, then this point moves in a similar way as a
! Conservative forces are non-dissipative forces like
single particle moves under the same external force.
gravitational force, electrostatic force etc.
This is called centre of mass of the system. For uniform
! For the conservative forces, work done during a round trip
rod and solid spherical body, it is at the geometrical
is always zero.
centre.
! Non-conservative forces are dissipative in nature like
frictional force, viscous force etc.
Moment of Inertia
Law of Conservation of Energy ! Moment of Inertia of a body with respect to axis of rotation
! Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, only one is the summation of product of the masses of its particles
type of energy can be transformed into other form of and square of respective distances from axis of rotation.
energy.
! Only for conservative forces, (total mechanical energy)
Definitions Related to Moment of Inertia
initially = (total mechanical energy) finally ! Radius of Gyration Radius of gyration is defined as the
distance of a point from axis of rotation at which the total
Power mass of the body is supposed to be concentrated, such
that its moment of inertia would be same.
! The rate of doing work by a body is called its power.
Work done W F. s I = MK 2
Power = ;P = = = F. v = Fv cosθ
Time taken t t ! Theorem of Parallel Axes Moment of inertia about any
where, θ is the angle between F and v. parallel axis will be sum of moment of inertia about centre
of mass and product of mass and square of distance
! It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is joule second − 1 or between the two axes.
watt. ! Theorem of Perpendicular Axes For a laminar body,
! Other units are kilowatt and horse power. moment of inertia about perpendicular axis will be the
1 kilowatt = 1000 W and 1 HP = 746 W sum of moments of inertia about two other mutually
perpendicular axes.
Collision
! Collision between two or more particles is the interaction Gravitation
for a very short interval of time in which they apply ! Each and every massive body attracts each other by virtue
relatively strong forces on each other. of their masses. This phenomenon is called gravitation.
! For a collision, physical contact of two bodies is not
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
necessary.
! The gravitational force acting between two point objects is
! A collision in which momentum of the system as well as
directly proportional to the product of their masses and
kinetic energy of the system remains conserved, is called an
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
elastic collision.
between them.
! In an elastic collision, all involved forces are conservative Gm1m2
forces. Gravitational force (F) =
r2
! A collision in which only momentum remains conserved
where, G is universal gravitational constant.
but kinetic energy of the system does not remain
Its value is 6.67 × 10−11 N -m 2 kg −2 .
conserved, is called an inelastic collision.
! Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative force.
10 Magbook ~ General Science

Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth Mass and Weight

! The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling ! The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it.
body due to the earth’s gravitational pull, is called It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is kg.
GM
acceleration due to gravity, g = 2 ! Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm balance.
R
where, M = mass of the earth , R = radius of the earth. ! Mass of a body does not change from place to place and
! The value of g changes slightly from place to place but remains constant.
its value near the earth’s surface is 9.8 ms −2 . ! The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted
! Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature. It is towards the centre of the earth. Weight of a body (w) = mg
1036 times smaller than electrostatic force and 1038 ! The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which the
times smaller than nuclear force. whole weight of the body appears to act.
! The centre of gravity of a body can be inside the material of
Factors Affecting Acceleration due to the body or outside it. For regularly shaped body, the centre
Gravity of gravity lies at its geometrical centre.
! Shape of Earth Earth is not completely spherical its ! It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is newton (N). It is
radius at equator is approximately 42 km greater than measured by a spring balance.
its radius at poles.
! Weight of a body is not constant, it changes from place to
! The value of g is maximum at poles and minimum at place.
equator. The difference in value of g at poles and at
equator is 3.4 cms−2 . Weight of a Body in a Lift
! Rotation of Earth about its Own Axis If ω is the angular ! When lift is at rest or in uniform motion The weight
velocity of rotation of earth about its own axis, then recorded in spring balance (i.e. apparent weight) is equal to
acceleration due to gravity at any place on the earth is the real weight of the body w = mg .
given by g ′ = g − Rω 2 cos2 λ ! When lift is accelerating upward The weight recorded in
where, λ = latitude of the place, R = radius of the earth. spring balance is greater than the real weight of the body
At poles, λ = 90° and at equator λ = 0° Therefore, there w ′ = m( g + a )
is no effect of rotation of the earth at poles and ! When lift is accelerating downward The weight recorded in
maximum at equator. spring balance is lesser than the real weight of the body.
w ′ = m( g − a ).
! Effect of Altitude The value of g at height h from the
earth’s surface is given by
! When lift is falling freely under gravity The apparent weight
of the body
g ⎛ 2 h⎞
g′ = ≈ g ⎜1 − ⎟ if h < < R w′ = m (g − g ) (Qa = g )
⎛ h⎞
2
⎝ R ⎠
⎜1 + ⎟ w′ = 0
⎝ R⎠
Therefore, body will experiences weightlessness.
Therefore, g decreases with altitude.
Weight of a Body at the Moon
! Effect of Depth The value of g at depth from the earth’s
! As mass and radius of moon is lesser than the earth, so the
⎛ h⎞
surface is given by g ′ = g ⎜1 − ⎟ force of gravity at the moon is also less than that of the
⎝ R⎠ g
earth. It’s value at the moon’s surface is .
Therefore, g decreases with depth and becomes zero at 6
centre of the earth.
Planets
Gravitational Field and Potential ! The heavenly bodies which revolve around the sun are
! Gravitational Field The space surrounding the material called planets.
body in which its gravitational force can be experienced. ! Our solar system contains eight planets (as Pluto has lost its
! Gravitational Potential It is the work done in carrying planet status, now it is considered as a dwarf planet). The
unit mass from infinity to a particular point in the field. order of the planets in the solar system with their increasing
! Gravitational Potential Energy It is the work done in distance from the sun is
assembling system of masses from infinity to its present 1. Mercury, 2. Venus, 3. Earth, 4. Mars,
configuration. 5. Jupiter, 6. Saturn, 7. Uranus, 8. Neptune.
Magbook ~ Mechanics 11

Weather monitoring which is predicted on the basis of

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary !
information about moisture present in air, atmospheric
Motion pressure etc, obtained through a polar satellite.
Kepler’s Three Laws are ! We are able to see a live telecast of cricket world cup
– All planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the match or other programme with the help of a
sun at its one focus. communication satellite which is a geostationary satellite.
– The areal speed of a planet around the sun is constant.
– The square of the time period (T ) of revolution of a planet Time Period of a Satellite
around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of the ! It is the time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution.
semi-major axis (a) of its elliptical orbit, i.e. T 2 ∝ a 3 . R
If satellite is near the earth’s surface, then T = 2 π ≈
g
Satellite 84.6 min
! A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is
called a satellite. Moon is a natural satellite of the earth.
The satellite may be artificial. Artificial satellites are of two
Escape Velocity
types The minimum velocity with which when an object is thrown
vertically upwards from the earth’s surface just crosses the
Geostationary Satellites earth’s gravitational field and never returns. Escape velocity (v e )
! It revolves around the earth in equatorial orbits which is 2 GM
also called Geostationary or Geosynchronous orbit at a = = 2gR
R
height of approximately 36000 km above the earth’s
Its value on earth’s surface is 11.2 km/s.
surface. The time period of these satellites is 24 hour
exactly equal to the time period of earth’s rotation about Escape velocity = 2 (orbital speed of a satellite when it is near
its own axis. the earth’s surface) v e = 2 v o
! These satellites appear stationary with respect to the Therefore, when orbital speed of a satellite is increased by 2
earth. These satellites are used for communication times (41%), then it will escape from its orbit.
purpose, and for weather forecasting, in studying the
upper region of the atmosphere, in mapping etc. M The response of plants to gravity is called geotropism.
Polar Satellites M Two types of effects are obtained in plants due to gravity.
! The roots of plants always grow downward.
! These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits ! The stems (or shoots) of plants always grow upward.
at a height of approximately 800 km. The time period of
– Variation in the length of day time and night time from season to
these satellites is approximately 84 min. season are due to revolution of the Earth on a tilled axis.
 Self Check
Build Your Confidence
1. Variations in the length of day time and night time from 2. Polar satellites are used for weather forecasting.
season to season are due to [IAS 2013] Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) the Earth’s rotation on its axis (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(b) the Earth’s revolution round the Sun in an elliptical manner (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) latitudinal position of the place
(d) revolution of the Earth on a tilled axis 7. Consider the following statements.
Statement I When a parachutist jumps from a height h
2. The known forces of nature can be divided into four metre, then graph relating displacement and time will be
classes, viz, gravity, electromagnetism, weak nuclear parabolic.
force and strong nuclear force. With reference to them,
which one of the following statements is not correct? Statement II When a particle falling under gravity graph
relating displacement and time will be straight line.
(a) Gravity is the strongest of the four [IAS 2013]
(b) Electromagnetism acts only on particles with an electric Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
charge (a) Only I (b) Only II
(c) Weak nuclear force causes, radioactivity (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(d) Strong nuclear force holds protons and neutrons inside 8. Consider the following statements.
the nucleus of an atom
Statement I If a gymnast standing on a rotating stool
3. Ball bearings are used in bicycles, cars, etc, because with his arms stretched suddenly lowers his arms. His
[IAS 2013]
angular velocity increases.
(a) the actual area of contact between the wheel and axle is
increased Statement II A geostationary satellite is at an
(b) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is approximate height of 10000 km.
increased Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
(c) the effective area of contact between the wheel and axle is (a) Only I (b) Only II
reduced (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
(d) None of the above
9. Consider the following statements. [IAS 2008]
4. Satellites used for telecommunication relay are kept in 1. A force is said to be conservative if the work done by the
a geostationary orbit. A satellite is said to be in such an force on a particle in a round trip is zero.
orbit when [IAS 2008] 2. A force is said to be non-conservative if work done by
1. the orbit is geosynchronous the force on a particle in a round trip is not zero.
2. the orbit is circular 3. The gravitational force and the electrostatic force are
3. the orbit lies in the place of the earth’s equator the examples of non-conservative forces.
4. the orbit is at an altitude of 22236 km 4. Viscous force and frictional force are the examples of
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? conservative forces.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(c) 2 and 4 (d) All of the above (a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 1 and 2
5. Consider the following statements in respect of a jet (c) 3 and 4
engine and a rocket [IAS 2008] (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1. A jet engine uses the surrounding air for its oxygen supply
and so is unsuitable for motion in space. 10. A metal ball and a rubber ball of the same mass are
2. A rocket carries its own supply of oxygen in the gas form dropped from the same height. After hitting the floor, the
and fuel. rubber ball rises higher than the metal ball, why?
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? [IAS 2008]
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) Momentum is not conserved when the metallic ball hits
(c) Both 1and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 the floor
6. Consider the following statements. [IAS 2008] (b) The rubber ball hits the floor with greater velocity
(c) Momentum is not conserved when rubber ball hits the
1. Geostationary satellites are used to reflect TV signals and
floor
telecast TV programmes from one part of the world to
(d) None of the above
another.
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d)
Chapter two
Properties of Matter
Plasticity
Matter ! The property of a body by virtue of
Matter is one of the ! Matter is considered as any thing which has which it does not regain its original
two basic components weight and occupy space. configuration after the removal of
! Matter consists of atoms and molecules. It exist deforming force, is called plasticity.
of the physical science
in three states: Solid, liquid and gas.
in which the another Strain
! In solid, molecules vibrate about fixed positions.
component is being The fractional change in
In liquid, molecules also vibrate but
!
!
energy. The simultaneously they move freely throughout the configuration i.e. length, volume and
material. In gas, the molecules are much farther shape, is called strain. Strain has no
distinguishing
apart than in solids and liquids and move at high unit.
properties of matter On the basis of change in
velocities.
are gravitation and configuration, strain is of three types
inertia. Any entity Interatomic Forces ∆l
– Longitudinal strain =
The electrostatic force of interaction acting l
exhibiting these !
∆V
between the two or more atoms is called – Volume strain =
properties are matter. V
interatomic forces. – Shearing strain = θ
Matter is also used as a
! The range of interatomic forces is equal to the
general term for the order of atomic size, i.e. 10−10 m.
Stress
substance that make ! The variation of potential energy U and
! The internal restoring force acting
interatomic force F with the separation r between per unit area of cross-section of a
up all observable
dU deformed body, is called stress.
physical objects two atoms is given by F = −
dr Stress is of two types
– Normal stress
! A force which changes the configuration of a
– Tangential stress
body, is called a deforming force.
Also tangential stress are of two types :
compressive and tensile stress
Solid ! The maximum deforming force

It is that, state of matter which has definite shape upto which a body retains its
and definite volume. In this state molecules are very property of elasticity is called the
closely packed i.e. interatomic or intermolecular limit of elasticity of the material
body.
space is minimum.

Properties of Solids Hooke’s Law

◆
Within the limit of elasticity the strain
Some important properties of solids are as follows
produced in a body is directly
Elasticity proportional to the stress applied to it.
! The property of a body by virtue of which it i.e. Strain ∝ Stress
regain its original configuration after the removal Stress
or = constant (E )
of deforming force, is called elasticity. Strain
! Quartz and phosphor bronze are almost perfectly where, constant E is called modulus of
elastic bodies. elasticity.
14 Magbook ~ General Science

Types of Modulus of Elasticity

Elastic Fatigue
The modulus of Elasticity is of following types
It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its
! Young’s modulus of elasticity
behaviour becomes less elastic under the action of repeated
Normal stress (F / A) FL MgL
Y = = = = alternating deforming force. Due to elastic fatigue, the
Longitudinal strain (l / L) Al pr 2l bridges becomes less elastic after a use of long time and
where, L = initial length of the wire therefore are declared unsafe.
l = change in length
r = radius of the wire
M = mass suspended to the wire Fluid
Steel is more elastic than rubber as YS > YR . ! A substance which begins to flow under an external
Normal stress force is called a fluid. Liquids and gases are fluids.
! Bulk modulus of elasticity, K or B =
Volumetric strain
p pV Fluid Density
= =−
−(∆V /V ) ∆V ! The ratio of mass to the volume of a body is called its
Tangential stress F / A F density (i.e. mass present in its unit volume). It is a
! Modulus of rigidity, n = = = scalar quantity having SI unit kg/m 3 .
Shearing strain (θ ) Aθ
Mass (m )
Density (d ) =
! The unit of modulus of elasticity is Nm −2 or pascal (Pa). Volume (V )
! The minimum stress required to break a wire is called ! The density of water is 1000 kg/m 3
breaking stress. – Relative density of a solid
! Breaking stress is fixed for a material but breaking force varies
Weight of the body in air
with change in area of cross-section of the wire. =
Weight of the same volume of water at 4° C
! The torque required to produce a given twist in a hollow
Weight of the body in air
cylinder is greater than that required to produce the same =
twist in a solid cylinder. Therefore, hollow shaft is stronger Loss in weight of the body in water
than a solid shaft. – Relative density of a liquid
! Girders are made I shaped for checking the buckling Density of liquid
(bending at middle). Springs are made of steel, not of copper =
Density of water at 4° C
as Young’s modulus of elasticity of steel is more than that of
copper. Loss in weight of a solid in liquid
=
Loss in weight of a solid in water
Elastic Limit
! The density of water is maximum at 4° C.
! It is the limit of stress and strain upto which a wire remains
elastic i.e. when the stretching force is removed, the wire ! Hydrometer It is an instrument used to measure
acquires its natural length. density or relative density of liquid. Its working is based
on law of floatation.
Plastic Behaviour ! Water is dipolar in nature, therefore it can dissolve
! If the wire is stretched beyond the elastic limit, the strain more substances than any other liquid.
increases much more rapidly. If the stretching force is
removed, the wire does not comes back to its natural length. Fluid Pressure
Some permanent increase in length takes place, this ! Thrust (the normal force) exerted by a liquid per unit
behaviour of the wire is called plastic behaviour.
area of the surface in contact at rest, is called fluid
Fracture Point pressure.
F
! If the deformation is increased further the plastic behaviour, Fluid pressure (p ) =
the wire breaks at a point known as fracture point. A
Its unit is Nm −2 or Pascal (Pa).
Ductile and Brittle Materials Pressure exerted by a liquid column is given by
! If large deformation takes place between the elastic limit and p =h ρ g
the fracture point, the material is called ductile.
where, h = height of liquid column
! If the wire breaks soon after the elastic limit is crossed, it is
ρ = density of liquid
called brittle.
g = acceleration due to gravity.
Magbook ~ Properties of Matter 15

– Ice and large icebergs float on water surface as its

Atmospheric Pressure density (0.92 g/cm 3 ) is lesser than the density of water.
11
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere, is called – When a piece of ice floats on water, its ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ th part
atmospheric pressure. The value of atmospheric pressure on ⎝ 12 ⎠
the earth at sea level is nearly 1. 013 × 105 Nm −2 or Pascal. submerged in water and (1 / 12) th part is outside the water.
– In sea water, (8/ 9) th part of icebergs is submerged
Aneroid barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure
and height of a place. and (1 / 9) th part is outside the water during floating.
– It is easier to swim in sea water than in a river as density of sea
Other units of atmospheric pressure are torr and bar.
water is greater than the density of river water. In sea water,
1 torr = 1 mm of mercury column buoyant force is greater than that in river water.
1 bar = 105 Pa – The density of human body is less than the density of water but
the density of human head is greater than the density of water.
Therefore, during swimming a person displaces the liquid with
Pascal’s Law hands and legs and total weight of displaced liquid becomes
! The pressure exerted anywhere at a point of confined equal to the weight of the body.
fluid is transmitted equally and undiminished, in all
directions throughout the liquid. Surface Tension
! Hydraulic lift, hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes works on ! The property of a liquid by virtue of which it tries to minimise
the basis of Pascal’s law. its free surface area is called surface tension.
! Surface tension of a liquid is defined as the force acting
Buoyancy perpendicularly per unit length on an imaginary line drawn
at the surface of the liquid its unit is newton/metre.
! When a body is partially or wholly immersed in a liquid,
an upward force acts on it, which is called buoyant force F
Surface tension (S) =
or upthrust and this property of fluids is called l
buoyancy. ! The minimum surface area of a given amount of liquid is
! Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the liquid for spherical shape. Therefore, rain drops are spherical.
displaced by the submerged part of the body. Factors Affecting Surface Tension
! The buoyant force acts at the centre of gravity of the ! Temperature The surface tension of a liquid decreases with
liquid displaced by the submerged part of the body, increase in temperature.
which is called ‘centre of buoyancy’.
! Soluble Impurities If the impurities are less soluble in
liquid, then its surface tension decreases. If impurities are
Archimedes’ Principle highly soluble in liquid, then its surface tension increases.
! When a body is partially or completely immersed in a
liquid, it loses some of its weight. The loss in weight is Applications of Surface Tension
equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the ! Surface tension of a liquid becomes zero at critical
submerged part of the body. temperature.
! If w1 is the weight and V is the volume of a body in air ! When soap, detergent, dettol, phenyl etc., are mixed in
and its weight becomes w 2 in a liquid of density ρ, water then its surface tension decreases.
then, Loss in weight = w1 − w 2 ! When salt is added in water, its surface tension increases.
! When oil spreads over the surface of water, its surface
Law of Floatation tension decreases.
! A body will float in a liquid if weight of the body is equal ! When kerosene oil is poured over water its surface tension
to weight of the liquid displaced by the immersed part of decreases and now weight of a mosquito sitting on water
the body. surface is not balanced by surface tension force and it is
! In floating condition, the centre of gravity (g) and the dipped in water.
centre of buoyancy (B) of the floating body must lie on ! Antiseptics like dettol have low surface tension and
the same straight line. therefore it reaches in the tiny cracks of the wound and
! The volume and density of a body are V1 and ρ1 cleans the germs and bacteria. The surface tension of soap
respectively and if it is immersed in a liquid of density ρ2 solution in water is less than the surface tension of pure
then its volume V2 submerged in the liquid is given by the water. Therefore, soap solution cleans greasy strains of
V ρ clothes better than pure water.
relation, 2 = 1 .
V1 ρ 2
16 Magbook ~ General Science

Surface Energy Viscosity

! The potential energy of the molecules in ! Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal frictional
the surface of liquid is called the surface force acts between its layers when it is in motion. This force is called
energy. viscous force.
Surface energy = T × ∆A ! Viscous force acting between two layers of a liquid is given by
where, T = surface tension of liquid, dv
F = –η A
∆A = increase in surface area. dx
where, η = coefficient of viscosity
Angle of Contact A = contact area of layers
The angle between the tangent to the liquid dv
= velocity gradient
!
surface and the tangent to the solid surface dx
at the point of contact is known as angle of If A = 1 m 2 and
dv
= 1 s−1, then η = F
contact. dx
! The angle of contact is always measured ! The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature while the
through the liquid. Angle of contact viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature. The viscosity of
increases with increase in temperature of liquids except water increases with increase in pressure. The viscosity of
liquid. water decreases with increases in pressure.
! The viscosity of gases is independent of pressure.
Capillarity
Coefficient of Viscosity
The phenomenon of rising or falling of liquid
column in a capillary tube (glass tube of very
! It is the viscous force acting between two layers of unit area of
fine bore) is called capillarity. cross-section having unit velocity gradient. Its unit is N sm −2 or
Pascal-second (Pa-s)
! Water rises in narrow capillary tubes in a ! Its other unit is poise.
tree due to capillarity. 1
1 poise = Nsm −2
! A blotting paper sucks the ink into their 10
narrow capillary tubes due to capillarity.
Rise of liquid in a capillary tube is given by Stoke’s Law
2S cosθ ! According to this law, the viscous force depends upon the coefficient of
h=
rρg viscosity, velocity of the moving object and its size (i.e. radius).

where, S = surface tension of the liquid Terminal Velocity

θ = angle of contact ! When a small spherical body falls through a long liquid column its
r = radius of the capillary tube velocity increases gradually but later on it becomes constant, called
ρ = density of the liquid terminal velocity.
The liquid column of water, milk, etc, rises 2 r 2 (ρ − σ )g
!
Terminal velocity, v =
in capillary tube while mercury column 9 η
falls. where, r = radius of spherical body
ρ = density of the body
Cohesive and Adhesive σ = density of the liquid
Forces η = coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
! The radius of spherical rain drops is very small therefore their terminal
The intermolecular force of attraction acting
velocity is also small, with which they strike the earth’s surface.
between the molecules of same substance is
called cohesive force. ! When a liquid flow through a pipe, its speed is maximum near axis and
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting minimum near the walls of the pipe.
between the molecules of water, mercury etc.
The intermolecular force of attraction acting
Equation of Continuity
between the molecules of different substance ! When a non-viscous liquid flows through a pipe of non-uniform
is called adhesive force. cross-sectional area in stream-lined flow, (i.e. velocity at every point in
e.g., Intermolecular force of attraction acting the fluid remains constant) then at each section of the tube, the product
between the molecules of paper and gum, of area of cross-section of the pipe and velocity of liquid remains
paper and ink, etc. constant, i.e. A × v = constant or A1 v 1 = A2 v 2 = constant
! Therefore speed (v ) of fluid flow becomes faster in narrower pipe.
Magbook ~ Properties of Matter 17

Flow of Fluid Magnus Effect : Motion of a Spinning Ball

! When liquid flows, there are two types of flow ! When swing bowlers deliver the ball, the ball
– Steady flow Rear molecules of fluid follows same path of flow as changes its plane of motion in air.
that of molecules ahead. The situation is shown in the figure
– Turbulent flow The path of flow at a point followed by rear
A
molecules are not same as that of molecules ahead. Water
flow in high fall or a fast flowing river is generally turbulent.

Bernoulli’s Theorem
F
! If a non-viscous and incompressible liquid is flowing in Vair
stream-lined flow then total energy, i.e., sum of pressure
energy, kinetic energy and potential energy, per unit volume of
the liquid remains constant.
1
p + ρV 2 + ρgh = constant B
2 Spinning Ball
1
For horizontal flow of fluid, p + ρV 2 = constant
2 – Figure represents horizontal plane. The air that goes
! Venturi tube and aspirator pump works on Bernoulli’s theorem. from the A side of the ball in the figure is dragged by
the spin of the ball and its speed increases.
! According to Bernoulli’s theorem, with increase in velocity of
– The air, goes from B side of the ball in the figure, suffers
liquid its pressure decreases and vice-versa. an opposite drag and its speed decreases.
! During storms or cyclones, the roofs of the huts or tinned roofs – The pressure of air is reduced on the A side and
blown off because wind blows with very high speed over the increased on the B side as required by the Bernoulli’s
top of the roof and therefore pressure of air decreases. Due to equation.
the pressure difference of air above and below the roof, a lifting – As a result, as net force F acts on the ball from the B
force acts on the roof. If it is sufficient to balance the weight of side to A side due to this pressure difference. This
the roof it start to fly off. causes the deviation of the plane of motion and this is
the spinning of the ball.
 Self Check
Build Your Confidence
1. Consider the following statements 6. Consider the following statements
If there were no phenomenon of capillarity Statement I An iron ball floats on mercury but gets
1. it would be difficult to use a kerosene lamp. immersed in water.
2. one would not be able to use a straw to consume a soft Statement II The specific gravity of iron is more than
drink. that of mercury.
3. the blotting paper would fail to function. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
4. the big trees that we see around would not have grown (a) Only I (b) Only II
on the Earth. (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
Which of the following statement(s) given above is/are correct? 7. An oil tanker is partially filled with oil and moves forward
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4 on a level road with uniform acceleration.
(c) 2 and 4 (d) All of the above The free surface of oil then
2. Four wires of same material and of dimensions as (a) remains horizontal
mentioned below are stretched by a load of same (b) is inclined to the horizontal with smaller depth at the rear end
magnitude separately. Which one of them will be (c) is inclined to the horizontal with larger depth at the rear end
elongated maximum? [IAS 2009] (d) assumes parabolic curve
(a) Wire of 1m length and 2 mm diameter 8. An ice cube is floating on the surface of water. How will
(b) Wire of 2m length and 2 mm diameter the water level be affected by melting of this ice cube?
(c) Wire of 3m length and 1.5 mm diameter (a) Water level will be raised
(d) Wire of 1m length and 1 mm diameter (b) Water level will go down
3. A liquid is flowing in a streamlined manner through a (c) Water level will remain the same
cylindrical pipe. Along a section containing the axis of (d) Water level will first rise up then it will go down
the pipe, the flow profile will be [IAS 2008] 9. Consider the following statements
Statement I With the increase of temperature, the
(a) (b) viscosity of glycerine increases.
Statement II Rise of temperature increases kinetic
energy of molecules.
(c) (d) Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) Only I (b) Only II
(c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
4. There identical vessels A, B and C are filled with water, 10. Consider the following statements
mercury and kerosene respectively up to an equal Statement I The ships of iron and the boats of wood
height. The three vessels are provided with identical float in water but the nails iron sink.
taps at the bottom of the vessels. Of the three taps are Statement II The special by designed shape of the ship
opened simultaneously, then which vessel is emptied and the boat provides more force of buoyancy. So, the
first? [IAS 2009]
ships or boats floats. But the weight of the water
(a) Vessel B displaced by the nails is less than the weight of nails
(b) All the vessels A, B and C will be emptied simultaneously that is why nails sink.
(c) Vessel A
Which of the following statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(d) Vessel C
(a) Only I (b) Only II
5. Consider the following statements (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II
Statement I The tendency of a liquid drop to contract
11. Consider the following statements
and occupy minimum area is due to surface tension.
1. Surface tension of liquid depends on length but not on
Statement II Blotting of ink is due to capillarity.
the area like the elastic property.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
2. SI unit of surface tension is N/m.
(a) Only I
(b) Only II 3. Surface tension is a scalar quantity because it has no
(c) Both I and II specific direction for a given liquid.
(d) Neither I nor II Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (d)
Chapter three
Oscillations and Waves
Characteristics of SHM
A wave motion is a
Periodic Motion ! The motion of the particle should take
! A motion which repeats itself identically place in a straight line to and fro about
process of transmission after a fixed interval of time, is called a the mean position.
of disturbances created periodic motion.
! The restoring force acting on the
somewhere in an elastic For example
particle should always be proportional to
medium in all directions – Motion of arms of a clock, orbital motion of
the displacement of the particle towards
the earth around the sun, motion of a
around it and along with simple pendulum etc. the mean position.
the directions around it Some Definitions Related
and along with the Oscillatory Motion to SHM
disturbances energy ! A periodic motion taking place to and fro
Time Period and Frequency
or back and forth about a fixed point, is
transmit. Although the ! Time taken by the particle to complete
called oscillatory motion or oscillation.
particles of the medium one oscillation, is known as time
For examples
only vibrate or oscillate period (T).
– Motion of a simple pendulum.
about their mean ! The number of oscillations completed
– Motion of a loaded spring etc.
by the particle in one second, is called
positions and do not ! If a particle oscillates with its own frequency ( ν ).
leave their original natural frequency without help of any 1
external periodic force. The oscillation is Frequency ( ν ) =
respective positions. Time period (T )
then called damped oscillation.
! When a body oscillates with the help of Its unit is second−1 or hertz.
an external periodic force with a ! The product of frequency with a factor
frequency different from natural 2π, is called angular frequency (ω).
frequency of the body, then oscillation is ! Angular frequency
called forced oscillation. 2π
(ω ) = 2πν =
T
Simple Harmonic Its unit is second−1 or hertz.
Motion (SHM)
Displacement and
! An oscillatory motion of constant
amplitude and of single frequency under
Amplitude
a restoring force whose magnitude is ! A physical quantity which changes
proportional to the displacement and uniformly with time and also mean
always acts towards mean position, is position in a periodic motion, is called
called Simple Harmonic Motion. displacement (y ).
For example ! The maximum displacement in any
– Equation of SHM is given by direction from the mean position, is
x = Asin (ωt + δ), where (ωt + δ) is known called amplitude (a).
as phase.
20 Magbook ~ General Science

Displacement in SHM at any instant is given by ! Acceleration due to gravity decreases with altitude (height) and
y = a sin ωt or y = a cos ωt therefore time period of a pendulum clock will increase and clock
becomes slow.
! If the bob of a simple pendulum is suspended from a metallic wire,
a then the length of the pendulum increases with increase in
3T/4 T
y O temperature and therefore its time period also increases. When a
T/4 T/2 t
a bob of simple pendulum of density (ρ) oscillates in a fluid of density
ρ 0 ( ρ 0 < ρ ), then its time period gets increased.
ρ
Increased time period, T ′ = T
! Velocity of a particle executing SHM at any ρ − ρ0
instant is given by v = dy / dt = aω cos ωt
! Time period of oscillations of a loaded spring is given by
or v = ω (a 2 − y 2 ) m
T = 2π
At mean position ( y = 0), velocity is maximum. k
v max = aω where, m = mass suspended with the spring
At extreme position ( y = a ), velocity is zero. k = force constant of the spring.

aω Energies in SHM
aω ! Potential energy of a particle of mass m executing SHM is given by
y T/2
O
T/4 3T/2 t
–aω 1 1
U = mω 2y 2 = ky 2 [k = mω 2]
2 2
where,
! Acceleration of a particle executing SHM at any m = mass of the particle,
instant is given by α = d 2y / dt 2 A
ω = angular velocity of oscillations,
or α = − ω 2y y = displacement.
! At mean position ( y = 0), the acceleration is zero ! Kinetic energy of a particle of mass m executing SHM is given by
and at extreme position ( y = a ), the acceleration 1
is maximum. α max = − aω 2 K = mω 2 (a 2 − y 2 )
2
Time period in SHM is given by ! Total energy (E) = U + K
Displacement 1
T = 2π = mω 2a 2 = 2π 2mn 2a 2
Acceleration 2
! A girl is swinging over a swing. If she stands up over the swing, then
Simple Pendulum the effective length of the swing decreases and therefore, the time
! A heavy point mass suspended from a rigid period of oscillations decreases.
support by means of an elastic inextensible ! A pendulum clock cannot be used in a space-ship.
string, is called a simple pendulum. Damped Harmonic Motion
! Time period of a simple pendulum is given by ! When there is friction or any other force acting within an oscillating
T = 2π
l system, the amplitudes of the oscillation decreases over time to this
g damping force. This is called damped harmonic motion.
where, l = effective length of the pendulum Resonant Oscillations
g = acceleration due to gravity. ! When a body oscillates with its own natural frequency (ν 0 ) with the
! The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite help of an external periodic force also called forced harmonic
length is 84.6 min. The time period of a motion. And if the frequency ( ν ) provided by the enternal agent is
second’s pendulum is 2 s. Its length on the equal to the natural frequency of the body, the oscillations of the
earth is nearly 100 cm. body are called resonant oscillations.
Magbook ~ Oscillations and Waves 21

Wave Definitions Related to Waves

! A wave is a vibratory disturbance in a medium which ! The distance between two nearest points in a wave which are
carries energy from one point to another point in the same phase of vibration, is called the wavelength ( λ ).
without any actual movement of the medium. ! Time taken to complete one vibration, is called time period (T).
! The number of vibrations completed in one second, is called
Types of Waves frequency of the wave.
Those waves which require a material medium for 1
Frequency ( ν ) =
!

their propagation, are called mechanical waves. Time period (T )

For examples Its SI unit is hertz.
– Sound waves, water waves etc.
! Those waves which do not require a material
Superposition and Interference of Waves
medium for their propagation, are called ! Two or more progressive waves can travel simultaneously in the
electromagnetic waves. medium without effecting the motion of one another. Therefore,
resultant displacement of each particle of the medium at any
For examples
instant is equal to vector sum of the displacements. This
– Light waves, radio waves, X-rays etc.
principle is called principle of superposition.
Nature of Waves ! On the other hand, when two waves of same frequency stand
in the medium in the same direction, then the resultant
! A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate intensity due to their superposition, at a point, is different from
at right angles to the direction of propagation of the sum of intensities of two waves. This phenomenon is called
wave, is called a transverse wave. interference.
! These waves travel in the form of crests and troughs.

Crest Sound
! Sound is a form of energy, which produces the sensation of
hearing. Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
! Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves and require
Trough medium for their propagation. Sound waves cannot propagate
through vacuum. If a sound wave propagates from one medium
! In a transverse wave, the position of maximum to another, then its speed and its wavelength changes but its
displacement in the upward direction, is called crest frequency remains constant.
and the position of maximum displacement in ! Sound waves are of three types
downward direction is called trough. – The sound waves of frequency lies between 0 to 20 Hz, are called
! A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate infrasonic waves.
in the same direction in which wave is propagating, – The sound waves of frequency lies between 20 Hz to 20000 Hz, are
is called a longitudinal wave. called audible waves.
– The sound waves of frequency greater than 20000 Hz, are called
! These waves travels in the form of compressions and
ultrasonic waves.
rarefactions as shown below
Compression Speed of Sound
! The speed of sound is different in different media.
γp
Rarefaction v= (In gaseous medium)
d
! When a longitudinal wave propagates in a medium, where, p is pressure, d is density, γ is ratio of specific heats.
the density and pressure becomes maximum at few Y
points and minimum at other few points, these v= (In solid)
d
points are called compressions and rarefactions.
where, Y = Young’s modulus.
! Longitudinal waves can be produced in solid, liquid
and gases. Transverse waves can be produced in β
v= (In liquid)
solids and on the surface of a liquid but cannot be d
produced in the interior of a liquid or in a gas. where, = Bulk modulus.