Year 1 and AS Glossary

OCR Biology A

Glossary

A
abiotic factors non-living conditions in a habitat.

activation energy the energy required to initiate a reaction.

active site area of an enzyme with a shape complementary to a specific substrate, allowing the
enzyme to bind a substrate with specificity.

active transport movement of particles across a plasma membrane against a concentration

gradient. Energy is required.

adenosine diphosphate (ADP) a nucleotide composed of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a

pentose sugar and two phosphate groups. Formed by the hydrolysis of ATP, releasing a
phosphate ion and energy.

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) a nucleotide composed of a nitrogenous base (adenine), a

pentose sugar and three phosphate groups. The universal energy currency for cells.

agglutinins chemicals (antibodies) that cause pathogens to clump together so they are easier
for phagocytes to engulf and digest.

alleles different versions of the same gene.

amino acids monomer used to build polypeptides and thus proteins.

anabolism (anabolic) reactions of metabolism that construct molecules from smaller units.
These reactions require energy from the hydrolysis of ATP.

analogous structures structures that have adapted to perform the same function but have a
different origin.

anaphase third stage of mitosis when chromatids are separated to opposite poles of the cell.

antibiotic-resistant bacteria bacteria that undergo mutation to become resistant to an antibiotic

and then survive to increase in number.

antibiotics a chemical or compound that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria.

antibodies Y-shaped glycoproteins made by B cells of the immune system in response to the
presence of an antigen.

antigen identifying chemical on the surface of a cell that triggers an immune response.

antigen−antibody complex the complex formed when an antibody binds to an antigen.

antigen-presenting cell (APC) a cell that displays foreign antigens complexed with major
histocompatibility complexes on their surfaces.

antisense strand the strand of DNA that runs 3’ to 5’ and is complementary to the sense strand.
It acts as a template strand during transcription.

anti-toxins chemicals (antibodies) that bind to toxins produced by pathogens so they no longer
have an effect.

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apoplast the cell walls and intercellular spaces of plant cells.

apoplast route movement of substances through the cell walls and cell spaces by diffusion and
into cytoplasm by active transport.

arrhythmia an abnormal rhythm of the heart.

artefacts objects or structures seen through a microscope that have been created during th
processing of the specimen.

artificial active immunity immunity which results from exposure to a safe form of a pathogen,
for example, by vaccination.

artificial passive immunity immunity which results from the administration of antibodies from
another animal against a dangerous pathogen.

asexual reproduction the production of genetically identical offspring from a single parent.

assimilates the products of photosynthesis that are transported around a plant, e.g., sucrose.

atrial fibrillation an abnormal rhythm of the heart when the atria beat very fast and incompletely.

atrio-ventricular node (AVN) stimulates the ventricles to contract after imposing a slight delay
to ensure atrial contraction is complete.

autoimmune disease a condition or illness resulting from an autoimmune response.

autoimmune response response when the immune system acts against its own cells and
destroys healthy tissue in the body.

autotrophic organisms that acquire nutrients by photosynthesis.

B
B effector cells B lymphocytes that divide to form plasma cell clones.

B lymphocytes (B cells) lymphocytes which mature in the bone marrow and that are involved in
the production of antibodies.

B memory cells B lymphocytes that live a long time and provide immunological memory of the
antibody needed against a specific antigen.

belt transect two parallel lines are marked along the ground and samples are taken of the area
at specified points.

Benedict’s reagent an alkaline solution of copper(II)sulfate used in the chemical tests for
reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars. A brick-red precipitate indicates a positive result.

beta pleated sheet sheet-like secondary structure of proteins.

binomial nomenclature the scientific naming of a species with a Latin name made of two parts
− the first indicating the genus and the second the species.

biodiversity the variety of living organisms present in an area.

biuret test the chemical test for proteins; peptide bonds form violet coloured complexes with
copper ions in alkaline solutions.

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Bohr effect the effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the uptake and release of oxygen by
haemoglobin.

bradycardia a slow heart rhythm of below 60 beats per minute.

breathing rate the number of breaths (inhalation and exhalation) taken per minute.

bulk transport a form of active transport where large molecules or whole bacterial cells are
moved into or out of a cell by endocytosis or exocytosis.

bundle of his conducting tissue composed of purkyne fibres that passes through the septum of
the heart

C
callose a polysaccharide containing β 1-3 linkages and β 1-6 linkages between the glucose
monomers that is important in the plant response to infection.

carbaminohaemoglobin the compound formed when carbon dioxide combines with

haemoglobin.

carbohydrates organic polymers composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in
the ratio Cx(H2O)y. Also known as saccharides or sugars.

carbonic anhydrase enzyme which catalyses the reversible reaction between carbon dioxide
and water to form carbonic acid.

cardiac cycle the events of a single heartbeat, composed of diastole and systole.

carrier proteins membrane proteins that play a part in the transport of substances through a
membrane.

cartilage strong, flexible connective tissue found in many areas of the bodies of humans and
other animals.

catabolism (catabolic) reactions of metabolism that break molecules down into smaller units.
These reactions release energy.

catalase an enzyme that catalyses the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide.

cell cycle the highly ordered sequence of events that takes place in a cell, resulting in division of
the nucleus and the formation of two genetically identical daughter cells.

cell signalling a complex system of intercellular communication.

cellulose a polysacchardie formed from beta glucose molecules where alternate beta glucose
molecules are turned upside down. It is unable to coil or form branches but makes hydrogen
bonds with other cellulose molecules to produce strong and insoluble fibres. Major component of
plant cell walls.

cell wall a strong but flexible layer that surrounds some cell-types.

centrioles component of the cytoskeleton of most eukaryotic cells, composed of microtubules.

centromere region at which two chromatids are held together.

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channel proteins membrane proteins that provide a hydrophilic channel through a membrane.

checkpoints control mechanisms of the cell cycle.

chiasmata sections of DNA, which became entangled during crossing over, break and rejoin
during anaphase 1 of meiosis sometimes resulting in an exchange of DNA between bivalent
chromosomes, forming recombinant chromatids and providing genetic variation.

chloride shift the movement of chloride ions into the red blood cells as hydrogen ions move out
to maintain the electrochemical equilibrium.

chloroplasts organelles that are responsible for photosynthesis in plant cells. Contain
chlorophyll pigments, which are the site of the light reactions of photosynthesis.

chromatids two identical copies of DNA (a chromosome) held together at a centromere.

chromatin uncondensed DNA in a complex with histones.

chromosomes structures of condensed and coiled DNA in the form of chromatin. Chromosomes
become visible under the light microscope when cells are preparing to divide.

circulatory system the transport system of an animal.

clonal expansion the mass proliferation of antibody-producing cells by clonal selection.

clonal selection the theory that exposure to a specific antigen selectively stimulates the
proliferation of the cell with the appropriate antibody to form numerous clones of these specific
antibody-forming cells (clonal expansion).

closed circulatory system a circulatory system where the blood is enclosed in blood vessels
and does not come into direct contact with the cells of the body beyond the blood vessels.

Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) a species of Gram positive bacteria that is resistant to most
antibiotics.

codon a three-base sequence of DNA or RNA that codes for an amino acid.

cofactors non-protein components necessary for the effective functioning of an enzyme.

cohesion-tension theory the best current model explaining the movement of water through a
plant during transpiration.

communicable diseases diseases that can be passed from one organism to another, of the
same or different species.

community all the populations of living organisms in a particular habitat.

companion cells the active cells found next to sieve tube elements that supply the phloem
vessels with all of their metabolic needs.

competitive inhibitor an inhibitor that competes with substrate to bind to active site on an
enzyme.

complementary base pairing specific hydrogen bonding between nucleic acid bases. Adenine
(A) binds to thymine (T) or uracil (U) and cytosine (C) binds to guanine (G).

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compound light microscope a light microscope which uses two lenses to magnify an object;
the objective lens, which is placed near to the specimen and an eyepiece lens, through which the
specimen is viewed.

condensation reaction a reaction between two molecules resulting in the formation of a larger
molecule and the release of a water molecule. The opposite reaction to a hydrolysis reaction.

continuous variation a characteristic that can take any value within a range, e.g. height.

contrast staining or treating specific cell components so they are visible compared to untreated
components.

convergent evolution organisms evolve similarities because the organisms adapt to similar
environments or other selection pressures.

correlation coefficient statistical test used to consider the relationship between two sets of
data.

countercurrent exchange system a system for exchanging materials or heat when the two
different components flow in opposite directions past each other.

counterstain application of second stain with a contrasting colour to sample for microscopy.

crossing over see chiasmata.

cytokines cell-signalling molecules produced by mast cells in damaged tissues that attract
phagocytes to the site of infection or inflammation.

cytokinesis cell division stage in the mitotic phase of the cell cycle that results in the production
of two identical daughter cells.

cytolysis the bursting of an animal cell caused by increasing hydrostatic pressure as water
enters by osmosis.

cytoplasm internal fluid of cells, composed of cytosol (water, salts and organic molecules),
organelles and cytoskeleton.

cytoskeleton a network of fibres in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.

D
denatured (denaturation) change in tertiary structure of a protein or enzyme, resulting in loss of
normal function.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) the molecule responsible for the storage of genetic information.

diastole the stage of the cardiac cycle in which the heart relaxes and the atria and then the
ventricles fill with blood.

dicotyledonous plants (dicots) plants that produce seeds containing two cotyledons, which act
as food stores for the developing embryo and form the first leaves when the seed germinates.

differential staining using specific stains to distinguish different types of cell.

differentiation the process of a cell becoming differentiated. Involves the selective expression of
genes in a cell’s genome.

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diploid normal chromosome number; two chromosomes of each type − one inherited from each
parent.

disaccharide a molecule comprising two monosaccharides, joined together by a glycosidic

bond.

discontinuous variation a characteristic that can only result in certain discrete values, for
example, blood type.

divergent evolution species diverge over time into two different species, resulting in a new
species becoming less like the original one.

DNA helicase enzyme that catalyses the unwinding and separating of strands in DNA
replication.

DNA polymerase enzyme that catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between
adjacent nucleotides in DNA replication.

DNA replication the semi-conservative process of the production of identical copies of DNA
molecules.

double circulatory system a circulatory system where the blood travels twice through the heart
for each complete circulation of the body. In the first circulation blood is pumped by the heart to
the lungs. In the second circulation oxygenated blood is pumped by the heart to the brain and
body to supply cells with oxygen.

E
ectopic heartbeat extra heartbeats that are out of the normal rhythm.

elastic recoil the ability to return to original shape and size following stretching. Particularly of
the alveoli of the lungs and of the arteries.

electrocardiogram (ECG) a technique for measuring tiny changes in the electrical conductivity
of the skin that result from the electrical activity of the heart. This produces a trace which can be
used to analyse the health of the heart.

electron microscopy microscopy using a microscope that employs a beam of electrons to

illuminate the specimen. As electrons have a much smaller wavelength than light they produce
images with higher resolutions than light microscopes.

emulsion test laboratory test for lipids using ethanol; a white emulsion indicates the presence of
a lipid.

endocytosis the bulk transport of materials into cells via invagination of the cell-surface
membrane forming a vesicle.

endosymbiosis the widely-accepted theoretical process by which eukaryotic cells evolved from
prokaryotic cells.

end-product inhibition the product of a reaction inhibits the enzyme required for the reaction.

enzyme−product complex complex formed as a result of an enzyme-catalysed reaction, when

a substrate is converted to a product or products while bound to the active site of an enzyme.

enzymes biological catalysts that interact with substrate molecules to facilitate chemical
reactions. Usually globular proteins.

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enzyme-substrate complex complex formed when a substrate is bound to the active site of an
enzyme.

epidemic when a communicable disease spreads rapidly to a lot of people at a local or national
level.

eukaryotes multicellular eukaryotic organisms like animals, plants and fungi and single-celled
protoctista.

eukaryotic cells cells with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

ex situ conservation conservation methods out of the natural habitat.

exchange surfaces surfaces over which materials are exchanged from one area to another.

exocytosis the bulk transport of materials out of cells. Vesicles containing the material fuse with
the cell-surface membrane and the contents are released to the outside of the cell.

exoskeleton an external skeleton of some organisms, e.g. insects.

expiratory reserve volume the extra amount of air that can be forced out of the lungs over and
above the normal exhalation (tidal volume).

F
facilitated diffusion diffusion across a plasma membrane through protein channels.

fatty acids long chain carboxylic acids used in the formation of triglycerides.

fibrous proteins long, insoluble, structural proteins.

fluid-mosaic model model of the structure of a cell membrane in which phospholipids within the
phospholipid bilayer are free to move and proteins of various shapes and sizes are embedded in
various positions.

fossils the remains or impression of a prehistoric plant or animal preserved in rock.

founder effect when a few individuals of a species colonise a new area, their offspring initially
experience a loss in genetic variation, and rare alleles can become much more common in the
population.

Fungi biological kingdom containing yeasts, moulds and mushrooms.

G
gametes haploid sex cells produced by meiosis in organisms that reproduce sexually.

gaseous exchange system the complex systems in which the respiratory gases oxygen and
carbon dioxide are exchanged in an organism.

gene a section of DNA that contains the complete sequence of bases (codons) to code for a
protein.

gene flow when alleles are transferred from one population to another by interbreeding.

genetic bottleneck when large numbers of a population die prior to reproducing, leading to
reduced genetic biodiversity within the population.

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genetic code the sequences of bases in DNA are the ‘instructions’ for the sequences of amino
acids in the production of proteins.

genetic variation a variety of different combinations of alleles in a population.

gills the gaseous exchange organs of fish, comprised of gill plates, gill filaments and gill
lamellae.

globular proteins spherical, water-soluble proteins.

glucose a monosaccharide with the chemical formula C6H12O6. One of the main products of
photosynthesis in plants.

glycerol alcohol found in triglycerides.

glycogen a branched polysaccharide formed from alpha glucose molecules. A chemical energy
store in animal cells.

glycolipids cell-surface membrane lipids with attached carbohydrate molecules of varying

lengths and shapes.

glycoproteins extrinsic membrane proteins with attached carbohydrate molecules of varying

lengths and shapes.

glycosidic bond a covalent bond between two monosaccharides.

goblet cells differentiated cells specialised to secrete mucus.

Golgi apparatus organelle in most eukaryotic cells formed from an interconnected network of
flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs, or cisternae. Play a role in modifying and packaging
proteins into vesicles.

Gram negative bacteria bacteria with cell walls that stain red with Gram stain.

Gram positive bacteria bacteria with cell walls that stain purple-blue with Gram stain.

granum (plural grana) a structure inside chloroplasts composed of a stack of several thylakoids.
Contains chlorophyll pigments, where light reactions occur during photosynthesis.

guard cells cells that can open and close the stomatal pores, controlling gaseous exchange and
water loss in plants.

H
habitat biodiversity the number of different habitats found within an area.

haemoglobin the red, oxygen-carrying pigment of red blood cells.

haemoglobinic acid the compound formed when haemoglobin accepts free hydrogen ions in its
role as a buffer in the blood.

haemolymph the transport medium or ‘blood’ in insects

haploid half the normal chromosome number; one chromosome of each type.

heterotrophic organisms that acquire nutrients by the ingestion of other organisms.

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hexose monosaccharide a monosaccharide composed of six carbons.

histamines chemicals produced by mast cells in damaged tissues that make the blood vessels
dilate (causing redness and heat) and the blood vessel walls leaky (causing swelling and pain).

histones proteins that form a complex with DNA called chromatin.

homologous chromosomes matching pair of chromosomes, one inherited from each parent.

homologous structure a structure which appears superficially different but has the same
underlying structure.

hydrolysis reaction the breakdown of a molecule into two smaller molecules requiring the
addition of a water molecule. The opposite reaction to a condensation reaction.

hydrophilic the physical property of a molecule that is attracted to water.

hydrophobic the physical property of a molecule that is repelled by water.

hydrophytes plants with adaptations that enable them to survive in very wet habitats or
submerged or at the surface of water.

hydrostatic pressure the pressure created by water in an enclosed system.

I
immune response a biological response that protects the body by recognising and responding
to antigens and by destroying substances carrying non-self antigens.

immunoglobulins Y-shaped glycoproteins that form antibodies.

in situ conservation conservation methods within the natural habitat.

independent assortment the arrangement of each homologous chromosome pair (bivalent) in

metaphase 1 and metaphase 2 of meiosis is independent of each other and results in genetic
variation.

induced-fit hypothesis modified lock and key explanation for enzyme action; the active site of
the enzyme is modified in shape by binding to the substrate.

inflammation biological response of vascular tissues to pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants,

resulting in pain, heat, redness and swelling.

inhibitor a factor that prevents or reduces the rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction.

inspiratory reserve volume the maximum volume of air that can be breathed in over and above
a normal inhalation (tidal volume).

insulin a globular protein hormone involved in the regulation of blood glucose concentration.

intercostal muscles the muscles between the ribs that pull the ribs upwards during inhalation
(internal intercostal muscles) and downwards during forced exhalation (external intercostal
muscles)

interleukins a type of cytokine produced by T helper cells.

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interphase growth period of the cell cycle, between cell divisions (mitotic phase). Consists of
stages G1, S and G2.

interspecific variation the differences between organisms of different species.

intraspecific variation the differences between organisms of the same species.

iodine test a chemical test for the presence of starch using a potassium iodide solution. A colour
change to purple/black indicates a positive result.

ion an atom or molecule with an overall electric charge because the total number of electrons is
not equal to the total number of protons. See anion and cation.

ionic bond a chemical bond that involves the donating of an electron from one atom to another,
forming positive and negative ions held together by the attraction of the opposite charges.

K
keystone species species which are essential for maintaining biodiversity − they have a
disproportionately large effect on their environment relative to their abundance.

kingdom the second biggest and broadest taxonomic group.

L
lactose a disaccharide made up of a galactose and glucose monosaccharide.

laser scanning confocal microscope a microscope that employs a beam of fluorescence and a
pin-hole aperture to produce an image with a very high resolution.

light microscope an instrument that uses visible light and glass lenses to enable the user to see
objects magnified many times.

line transect a line is marked along the ground and samples are taken at specified points.

lipids non-polar macromolecules containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Commonly known as fats (solid at room temperature) and oils (liquid at room temperature).

lung surfactant chemical mixture containing phospholipids and both hydrophilic and
hydrophobic proteins, which coats the surfaces of the alveoli and prevents them collapsing after
every breath.

lymph modified tissue fluid that is collected in the lymph system.

lymphocytes white blood cells that make up the specific immune system.

lysosomes specialised vesicles containin hydrolytic enzymes for the breakdown of waste
materials within a cell.

M
macromolecules large complex molecules with a large molecular weight.

maltose two glucose molecules linked by a 1, 4 glycosidic bond.

mass transport system a transport system where substances are transported in a mass of fluid.

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meiosis form of cell division where the nucleus divides twice (meiosis I and meiosis II) resulting
in a halving of the chromosome number and producing four haploid cells from one diploid cell.

membrane a selectively-permeable barrier surrounding all cells and forming compartments

within eukaryotic cells.

membrane proteins protein components of cell-surface membranes.

meristematic tissue (meristems) tissue found at regions of growth in plants. Contains stem
cells.

messenger (m)RNA short strand of RNA produced by transcription from the DNA template
strand. It has a base sequence complementary to the DNA from which it is transcribed, except it
has uracil (U) in place of thymine (T).

metaphase second stage of mitosis when chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.

mitochondrial DNA DNA present within the matrix of mitochondria.

mitosis nuclear division stage in the mitotic phase of the cell cycle.

mitotic phase period of cell division of the cell cycle. Consists of the stages mitosis and
cytokinesis.

monoculture the cultivation of a single crop in a given area.

monomers individual molecules that make up a polymer.

monosaccharide a single sugar molecule. mRNA see messenger (m)RNA.

MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) a mutated strain of the bacterium

Staphylococcus aureus that is resistant to the antibiotic, methicillin.

mucous membranes membranous linings of body tracts that secrete a sticky mucus.

multipotent a stem cell that can only differentiate into a range of cell types within a certain type
of tissue.

mutation a change in the genetic material which may affect the phenotype of the organism.

myogenic muscle which has its own intrinsic rhythm.

N
natural active immunity immunity which results from the response of the body to the invasion of
a pathogen.

natural passive immunity the immunity given to an infant mammal by the mother through the
placenta and the colostrum.

natural selection the process by which organisms best suited to their environment survive and
reproduce, passing on their characteristics to their offspring through their genes.

non-competitive inhibitor an inhibitor that binds to an enzyme at an allosteric site.

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non-random sampling an alternative sampling method to random sampling, where the sample
is not chosen at random. It can be opportunistic, stratified or systematic.

normal distribution curve the bell-shaped curve that results from plotting continuous variation
data on a graph.

nucleic acids large polymers formed from nucleotides. Contain the elements carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen , phosphorus, and oxygen.

nucleotides the monomers used to form nucleic acids. Made up of a pentose monosaccharide,
a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.

O
oncotic pressure the tendency of water to move into the blood by osmosis as a result of the
plasma proteins.

open circulatory system a circulatory system with a heart but few vessels to contain the
transport medium.

operculum the bony flap covering the gills of bony fish. Part of the mechanism that maintains a
constant flow of water over the gas exchange surfaces.

opportunistic sampling sampling using the organisms that are conveniently available. The
weakest form of sampling as it may not be representative of the population.

opsonins chemicals that bind to pathogens and tag them so they are recognised more easily by
phagocytes, e.g. antibodies.

organelle membrane-bound compartments with varying functions inside eukaryotic cells.

osmosis diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane down a water potential
gradient. A passive process.

oxygen dissociation curve graph showing the relationship between oxygen and haemoglobin
at different partial pressures of oxygen.

oxygenated blood blood that has passed through the gas exchange organs (e.g. lungs) and is
high in oxygen.

P
pandemic when a communicable disease spreads rapidly to a lot of people across a number of
countries.

partially permeable membrane that allows some substances to cross but not others.

passive transport transport that is a passive process (does not require energy) and does not
use energy from cellular respiration.

pathogens microorganisms that cause disease.

penicillin the first widely used, safe antibiotic, derived from a mould, Penicillium notatum.

pentose monosaccharide a monosaccharide composed of five carbons.

peptide bond bond formed between two amino acids.

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peptides chains of two or more amino acid molecules.

phagocytosis process by which white blood cells called phagocytes recognise non-self cells,
engulf them digest them within a vesicle called a phagolysosome.

phagosome the vesicle in which a pathogen or damaged cell is engulfed by a phagocyte.

phloem plant transport tissue that carries the products of photosynthesis (assimilates) to all cells
of the plant.

phosphodiester bonds covalent bonds formed between the phosphate group of one nucleotide
and the hydroxyl (OH) group of another.

phospholipid bilayer arrangement of phospholipids found in cell membranes; the hydrophilic

phosphate heads form both the inner and outer surface of a membrane, sandwiching the fatty
acid tails to form a hydrophobic core.

phospholipids modified triglycerides, where one fatty acid has been replaced with a phosphate
group.

phylogeny the evolutionary relationships between organisms.

pinocytosis endocytosis of liquid materials.

plasma the main component of blood, a yellow fluid containing many dissolved substances and
carrying the blood cells.

plasma cells B lymphocytes that produce about 2000 antibodies to a particular antigen every
second and release them into the circulation.

plasma membrane all the membranes of cells, which have the same basic structure described
by the fluid-mosaic model.

pluripotent a stem cell that can differentiate into any type of cell, but not form a whole organism.

polymers long-chain molecules composed of linked (bonded) multiple individual molecules

(monomers) in a repeating pattern.

polypeptide chains of three or more amino acids.

polysaccharide a polymer made up of many sugar monomers (monosaccharides).

primary immune response the relatively slow production of a small number of the correct
antibodies the first time a pathogen is encountered.

prokaryotes single-celled prokaryotic organisms from the kingdom Prokaryotae.

prokaryotic cells cells with no membrane-bound nucleus or organelles.

prophase first stage of mitosis when chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes and the
nuclear envelope breaks down.

prosthetic group non-protein component of a conjugated protein.

proteases enzymes that catalyse the breakdown of proteins and peptides into amino acids.

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proteins one or more polypeptides arranged as a complex macromolecule.

Protista biological kingdom containing unicellular eukaryotes.

purines double-ringed, nitrogenous bases that form part of a nucleotide.

Purkyne fibres tissue that conducts the wave of excitation to the apex of the heart.

pyrimidines single-ringed, nitrogenous bases that form part of a nucleotide.

Q
quaternary structure the association of two or more protein subunits.

R
random sampling sampling where each individual in the population has an equal likelihood of
selection.

receptors extrinsic glycoproteins that bind chemical signals, triggering a response by the cell.

recombinant chromatids chromatids with a combination of DNA from both homologous

chromosomes, formed by crossing over and chiasmata in meiosis.

reducing sugars saccharides (sugars) that donate electrons resulting in the reduction (gain of
electrons) of another molecule.

reduction division cell division resulting in the production of haploid cells from a diploid cell;
meiosis.

residual volume the volume of air that is left in the lungs after forced exhalation. It cannot be
measured directly

resolution the shortest distance between two objects that are still seen as separate objects.

R-groups variable groups on amino acids.

ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules involved in the copying and transfer of genetic information
from DNA. Polynucleotides consisting of a ribose sugar and one of four bases; uracil (U),
cytosine (C), adenine (A), and guanine (G).

ribose the pentose monosaccharide present in RNA molecules.

ribosomal (r)RNA form of RNA that makes up the ribosome.

RNA polymerase enzyme that catalyses the formation of phosphodiester bonds between
adjacent RNA nucleotides.

root hair cells cells found just behind the growing tip of a plant root that have long hairlike
extensions that greatly increase the surface area available for the absorption of water and
minerals from the soil.

root pressure the active pumping of minerals into the xylem by root cells that produces a
movement of water into the xylem by osmosis.

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S
saprophytic organisms that acquire nutrients by absorption − mainly of decaying material.

scanning electron microscopy an electron microscope in which a beam of electrons is sent

across the surface of a specimen and the reflected electrons are focused to produce a three-
dimensional image of the specimen surface.

secondary immune response the relatively fast production of very large quantities of the
correct antibodies the second time a pathogen is encountered as a result of immunological
memory − the second stage of a specific immune response.

seed bank a store of genetic material from plants in the form of seeds.

selection pressure factors that affect an organism’s chance of survival or reproductive success.

selective toxicity the ability to interfere with the metabolism of a pathogen without affecting the
cells of the host.

selectively permeable plasma membrane with protein channels that allows specific substances
to cross only.

semi-conservative replication DNA replication results in one old strand and one new strand
present in each daughter DNA molecule.

sense strand the strand of DNA that runs 5’ to 3’ and contains the genetic code for a protein.

sieve plates areas between the cells of the phloem where the walls become perforated giving
many gaps and a sieve-like appearance that allows the phloem contents to flow through.

sieve tube elements the main cells of the phloem that have a greatly reduced living content and
sieve plates between the cells.

Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) a measure of biodiversity that takes into account both species
richness and species evenness.

single circulatory system a circulatory system where the blood flows through the heart and is
pumped out to travel all around the body before returning to the heart.

sinks (in plants) regions of a plant that require assimilates to supply their metabolic needs, e.g.
roots, fruits.

sino-atrial node (SAN) region of the heart that initiates a wave of excitation that triggers the
contraction of the heart.

smooth endoplasmic reticulum endoplasmic reticulum lacking ribosomes; the site of lipid and
carbohydrate synthesis, and storage.

sources (in plants) regions of a plant that produce assimilates (e.g. glucose) by photosynthesis
or from storage materials, e.g. leaves, storage organs.

specialised having particular structure to serve a specific function.

species the smallest and most specific taxonomic group.

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specific immunity also known as active immunity or acquired immunity − the immune system
‘remembers’ an antigen after an initial response leading to an enhanced response to subsequent
encounters.

spiracles small openings along the thorax and abdomen of an insect that open and close to
control the amount of air moving in and out of the gas exchange system and the level of water
loss from the exchange surfaces.

stage graticule a slide with a scale in micrometres (μm) etched into it. Used to measure the size
of a sample under a light microscope.

stains (staining) dyes used in microscopy sample preparation to increase contrast or identify
specific components.

starch a polysaccharide formed from alpha glucose molecules either joined to form amylose or
amylopectin.

stem cells undifferentiated cells with the potential to differentiate into any of the specialised cell
types of the organism.

stomata pores in the surface of a leaf or stem that may be opened and closed by guard cells.

stratified sampling sampling where populations are divided into sub-groups (strata) based on a
particular characteristic. A random sample is then taken from each of these strata proportional to
its size.

stroma fluid interior of chloroplasts.

Student’s t test statistical test used to compare the means of data values of two populations.

substrate a substance used, or acted on, by another process or substance. For example a
reactant in an enzyme-catalysed reaction.

succession the progressive replacement of one dominant type of species or community by

another in an ecosystem, until a stable climax community is established

sucrose a disaccharide made up of a fructose and glucose monosaccharides.

sustainable development economic development that meets the needs of people today, without
limiting the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

symplast the continuous cytoplasm of living plant cells connected through the plasmodesmata.

symplast route phloem loading through the cytoplasm of the cells via plasmodesmata by
diffusion (passive).

systematic sampling different areas of a habitat are identified and sampled separately. Often
carried out using a line or belt transect.

systole the stage of the cardiac cycle in which the atria contract, followed by the ventricles,
forcing blood out of the right side of the heart to the lungs and the left side of the heart to the
body.

T
T helper cells T lymphocytes with CD4 receptors on their cell-surface membranes, which bind to
antigens on antigen-presenting cells and produce interleukins, a type of cytokine.

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T killer cells T lymphocytes that destroy pathogens carrying a specific antigen with perforin.

T lymphocytes lymphocytes which mature in the thymus gland and that both stimulate the B
lymphocytes and directly kill pathogens.

T memory cells T lymphocytes that live a long time and are part of the immunological memory.

T regulator cells T lymphocytes that suppress and control the immune system, stopping the
response once a pathogen has been destroyed and preventing an autoimmune response.

tachycardia a fast heart rhythm of over 100 beats per minute at rest.

taxonomic group the hierarchical groups of classification – domain, kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus, species

telophase fourth stage of mitosis when chromosomes assemble at the poles and the nuclear
envelope reforms.

temperature coefficient (Q10) a measure of how much the rate of a reaction increases with a 10
°C temperature increase.

template strand the antisense strand of DNA that acts as template during transcription so that
the complementary RNA strand formed carries the same code for a protein as the DNA sense
strand.

tertiary structure further folding of the secondary structure of proteins involving interactions
between R-groups.

tidal volume the volume of air which moves into and out of the lungs with each resting breath.

tissue a collection of differentiated cells that have a specialised function or functions in an

organism.

tissue fluid the solution surrounding the cells of multicellular animals.

tonoplast membrane forming a vacuole in a plant cell.

total lung capacity the sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume.

totipotent a stem cell that can differentiate into any type of cell and form a whole organism.

trachea the main airway, supported by incomplete rings of cartilage, which carries warm moist
air down from the nasal cavity into the chest.

tracheal fluid fluid found at the ends of the tracheoles in insects that helps control the surface
area available for gas exchange and water loss.

transcription the process of copying sections of DNA base sequence to produce smaller
molecules of mRNA, which can be transported out of the nucleus via the nuclear pores to the site
of protein synthesis.

transfer (t)RNA form of RNA that carries an amino acid specific to its anticodon to the correct
position along mRNA during translation.

translation the process by which the complementary code carried by mRNA is decoded by tRNA
into a sequence of amino acids. This occurs at a ribosome.

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translocation the movement of organic solutes around a plant in the phloem.

transmission electron microscopy (TEM) an electron microscope in which a beam of electrons

is transmitted through a specimen and focused to produce an image.

transpiration the loss of water vapour from the stems and leaves of a plant as a result of
evaporation from cell surfaces inside the leaf and diffusion down a concentration gradient out
through the stomata.

transpiration stream the movement of water through a plant from the roots until it is lost by
evaporation from the leaves.

transport system the system that transports required substances around the body of an
organism.

triglyceride a lipid composed of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids.

triplet code the genetic code is a sequence of three nucleic acid bases, called a codon. Each
codon codes for one amino acid.

turgor the pressure exerted by the cell-surface membrane against the cell wall in a plant cell.

U
ultrastructure the ultrastructure of a cell is those features which can be seen by using an
electron microscope.

undifferentiated an unspecialised cell originating from mitosis or meiosis.

V
vaccine a safe form of an antigen, which is injected into the bloodstream to provide artificial
active immunity against a pathogen bearing the antigen.

vacuoles membranous sacs used to transport materials in the cell.

vascular bundle the vascular system of herbaceous dicots, made up of xylem and phloem
tissue.

vascular system a system of transport vessels in animals or plants.

vector a living or non-living factor that transmits a pathogen from one organism to another, e.g.
malaria mosquito.

Ventilation rate is the total volume of air inhaled in one minute. Ventilation rate = tidal volume ×
breathing rate (per minute).

vital capacity volume of air that can be breathed in when the strongest possible exhalation is
followed by the deepest possible intake of breath.

Vmax maximum initial velocity or rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction.

W
water potential (Ψ) measure of the quantity of water compared to solutes, measured as the
pressure created by the water molecules in kilopascals (kPa).

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X
xerophytes plants with adaptations that enable them to survive in dry habitats or habitats where
water is in short supply in the environment.

xylem plant transport tissue that carries water and minerals from the roots to the other parts of
the plant as a result of physical forces.

Z
zygote the initial diploid cell formed when two gametes are joined by means of sexual
reproduction. Earliest stage of embryonic development.

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